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Veganism is a lifestyle characterized by abstaining from the use or ingestion of animal products and by avoiding the use of products that have been tested on animals. Individuals become vegans for a number of reasons; to support animal rights, for health benefits, for moral, ethical, religious and/or spiritual reasons, and for political reasons such as environmental concerns.

A Time/CNN poll published in Time Magazine on July 7, 2002 found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans. This suggests that 0.2% of American adults are vegans. A 2000 poll suggested closer to 0.9% of the adult American population may be vegan. In the UK, research showed that 0.4%, approximately 250,000 people, were vegan in 2001.

Definition

Veganism is defined by the British Vegan Society as "the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals."

The word vegan pronounced /ˈviːgən/ , was originally derived from vegetarian in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society. " Vegan " starting and ending with the first three and last two letters of vegetarian. Since 1944 the term veganism has been expanded to mean people who seek to eliminate all animal products in all areas of their lives from those who simply avoid eating animal products. Although veganism as a secular movement is a 20th century idea, the principles date back to the 2nd millennium BC in Hinduism (ahimsa).

Animal products

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to material derived from non-human animals for human use or consumption. Human breast milk, for example, is acceptable when consentually used for human babies, but by comparison, when a human being drinks a milk from a cow who has been forced into a life of slavery, it is regarded as the consumption of an "animal product."

Animal products include meat (including poultry and edible marine fish and shellfish), eggs, dairy products, fur, leather, wool, pearls, mother of pearl, and byproducts such as gelatin, lanolin, rennet, and whey as well as insect products such as silk, honey, and beeswax.

Strict vegans avoid cane sugar that has been filtered with bone char and will not drink beers and wines clarified with albumen (egg white), animal blood, or isinglass, even though these are not present in the final product. They may also avoid food cooked in pans if they have been used to cook non-vegan foods.

As well as avoiding animal products, most vegans refrain from supporting industries that use animals directly or indirectly, such as circuses and zoos and from products that are tested on animals, whilst agreeing that it is very difficult to take part in society without indirectly and involuntarily supporting non-vegan activities to some degree.

Ideals commonly held by vegans (as well as some non-vegans) include sustainable agricultural systems that exclude, or make use of animal by-products such as blood, fish emulsion, bone, and manures. Some vegans view the adoption of vegan organic horticultural and agricultural ("veganic") methodologies as integral to their ethical stance.

Motivation

Ethics

The ethics of veganism is defined by the British Vegan Society as " philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose."

Vegans generally oppose what they see as violence and cruelty involved in the meat, , dairy, non-vegan cosmetics, clothing, and other industries. (See Draize test, LD50, Animal testing, Vivisection, and Factory farming.)

Utilitarian philosophers, such as Jeremy Bentham and Peter Singer, argue that the suffering of sentient animals is relevant to ethical decisions. Though Singer's ethical theory recognizes the suffering of sentient animals, it does not rely on the concept of rights. However, philosophers such as Tom Regan and Gary L. Francione argue that some animals are sentient, and therefore are the subjects of a life which they can value. Because they can do this, they argue, these animals have the inherent right to possess their own flesh, and they claim that it is therefore unethical to treat them as property, or as a commodity (see animal rights). People become vegans for a number of reasons, primarily because they see it as supporting animal rights, or to try to allay their concerns for their health and the environment.

While much of the literature and media used to promote veganism cites the conditions of modern factory farms, some critics of the diet note that organic and more humanely animal-derived foods are available in some areas. However, many vegans question whether it is ethical for humans to make use of products which result in the death of animals at all.

Organizations, such as the Foundation for Animal Use Education, dispute that following a non-vegan diet entails exploitation of or cruelty to animals, and instead support the concept of animal welfare. The Foundation for Animal Use Education strongly supports the responsible use of animals in food and fiber agriculture. These organizations also dispute arguments by Francione and others that animals are sentient and therefore have the inherent animal rights. Foundation for Animal Use Education states that rights are a function of being "moral agents", making moral judgments and comprehending moral duty, and that animals do not exercise responsibility as moral agents. The Foundation for Animal Use Education states "we recognize our own obligation to treat animals humanely--not because it is their right, but because it is our responsibility."

There are several common criticisms to vegan ethics. Some critics argue that many animals are killed in the production of vegan foods. For example, enormous numbers of insects, rodents, and snakes are killed in the production of grain, and yet it is a vegan food. Many vegans counter that a truly harmless lifestyle is impossible in their situation, and note that raising livestock requires more field animals to die than plant-based subsistence.

Health

Dietary vegans believe eating only fresh fruit, vegetables, nuts and legumes has health benefits . Additional health benefits may also be gained from avoiding various artificial substances such as growth hormones and antibiotics which are routinely given to factory-farmed animals.

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada publicly state that "well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Vegetarian diets offer some nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have been anecdotally reported to have lower body mass indices than non-vegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease. This could also be explained by the fact that vegans in general tend to be more conscientious about diet than non-vegans. Some may argue that these statistics are due to the lifestyle of the vegetarians being more healthy in general, as opposed to the sole effects of a different diet.

Environmental considerations

See main article: Environmental vegetarianism

As with vegetarians, vegans may be motivated by the alleged high environmental costs of producing animal products. Often cited are the pollution of local environments by animal waste, as well as the resources used to care for livestock . A commonly cited (and contested) statistic is that it takes 14 times more land area to support a meat eater than a vegetarian. This is due in part to the fact that caring for livestock requires resources to produce many inedible products (e.g., bone) and to serve as fuel for warmth and mobility, although a conscientious non-vegan can sometimes find uses for most animal by-products. In fact, it is claimed that only about 10% of the energy used in livestock is available for human consumption:

nly a fraction of the energy at one trophic level can be passed on to the next. This fraction varies from a high of about 35 percent for the most efficient ... to below 0.1 percent...Given the inefficiency of the energy transfer from one trophic level to the next, it might seem that the earth could support more humans if we all stopped being omnivorous, and lived on a wholly vegetable diet instead of the combined animal and vegetable diet ... (Keeton)

The result is that producing food through livestock is said to be much less efficient than typical harvesting of fruits and vegetables. Where there are products of livestock farming that are useable, e.g. manure or by-products from slaughtered animals, e.g. wool and leather, vegans often argue that these have become as commercially important as the meat and dairy products and that the trade in these by-products has helped to drive the increase in consumption of animal products.

Sexual and feminist motives

In the 19th century a vegan movement was started by Sylvester Graham, the father of Graham crackers, which focused on the sexual urges caused by meat and milk. He claimed animal products caused lustful urges; Grahamism thus rejected meat, animal products, as well as alcohol, to create a purer mind and body. Very popular in the 1860s-1880s, this movement rapidly lost momentum and is now remembered for its Graham crackers.

Contemporarily, some third-wave feminists reject the consumption of meat and analogize the use and objectification of animals to the use and objectification of women within society. This criticism focuses on societal construction of ties between women and the environment. See especially Carol Adams .

Vegan cuisine

Many dishes containing animal products can be adapted by substituting vegan ingredients. Soy milk can be used to replace traditional milk in most recipes, as can a variety of nut and grain "milks"; eggs can usually be replaced by substitutes such as products made from potato starch. Artificial "meat" products made from soya or gluten-based ingredient such as imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are widely available, many being vegan. The cuisines of all nations contain many dishes that are naturally vegan e.g. tofu, tempeh and the wheat product seitan in Asian diets. Also, according to Sturtivants Edible Plants of the World , there are 2,897 plants that may be used for food. Therefore, the variety of vegan food available can be extremely diverse, nutritious and satisfying.

Similar diets and lifestyles

There are several diets similar to veganism, though there are significant differences, including fruitarianism, the raw food diet, the macrobiotic diet and Natural Hygiene. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including some sects of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism as well as some Christian sects such as the Eastern Orthodox church and the Seventh-day Adventist Church.

More recently, many young people who subscribe to the anarcho-punk or straight edge punk movements have embraced veganism, and the corresponding beliefs of the animal rights movement. Straight Edge is a philosophy in which one does not partake in alcohol, casual sex or recreational drugs and was born out of anger at the cultural excesses of the 1980s. Straight Veg, a term equivalent to vegan, arose as a response to the increasingly popular Straight Edge.

A sub-set of veganism, raw veganism, advocates the consumption only of raw foods and the elimination of processed foods from the diet. A study of raw vegans found them to be slender and healthy, but noted that they had reduced essential bone mass and lower bone mineral density. The researchers said these results are "strongly associated with increased fracture risk" but noted that the raw vegans they studied had no other biological markers to indicate higher levels of osteoporosis, and that their bone turnover rates were normal.

Vegan nutrition

See main article: Vegan nutrition

For many people, a properly planned vegan diet presents no significant nutritional problems. Supplementation is highly recommended; this, though, applies to non-vegans, too. Drs. Fletcher and Fairfield concluded, in JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) in June 2002, that "It appears prudent for all adults to take vitamin supplements." The British government's annual survey of nutritional content of food, McCance and Widdowson's 'The Composition of Foods,' notes that the 2002 nutritional profile of foods is seriously lacking in trace elements compared with their 1931 profiles; indeed, a steady decline over the past 60 years has been noted. There are several nutrients vegans should pay attention to. These include Vitamin B12, iron and iodine: deficiencies in these are more likely following a vegan diet, and deficiencies of these potentially have serious consequences, including anemia, pernicious anemia, cretinism and hyperthyroidism. Interestingly, B12 deficiency can be a problem for others, too; aging, for example, can lead to an inability to absorb B12 from food, and supplementation is recommended for those over fifty-five years of age.

Dr. Per-Olof Åstrand of the Swedish Karolinska Institute conducted an informal study of diet and endurance using nine highly trained athletes, changing their diet every three days. At the end of every diet change, each athlete would pedal a bicycle until exhaustion. Those with a high protein and high fat meat (carnivore) diet averaged 57 minutes. Those that consumed a mixed (omnivore) diet, lower in meat, fat and protein averaged 1 hour and 54 minutes: twice the endurance of the meat and fat eaters. The vegetarian, high carbohydrate diet athletes lasted 2 hours and 47 minutes, triple the endurance of the high-protein group. (Source: Åstrand, Per-Olof, Nutrition Today 3:no2, 9-11, 1968)

Protein

The role of protein in the vegan diet has been the source of some dissent and misunderstanding. While all vegetable foods contain protein, few vegetable proteins contain a complete set of the essential amino acids needed by the human body, and are deficient in one or more amino acids. It has been claimed that, since vegans do not consume "complete" animal-derived proteins such as egg, milk, meat and fish, they must perform a kind of protein combining on a daily basis to avoid suffering from protein deficiency. The most current measuring system for the "completeness" of a protein's amino acid content is called PDCAAS. A value of 1.0 is deemed complete, with 0 being completely deficient. To illustrate how certain vegetable foods complement one another, consider grain protein and bean protein.

Grain protein has a PDCAAS of about 0.4 to 0.5, limited by lysine. On the other hand, it contains more than enough methionine. White bean protein (and that of many other pulses) has a PDCAAS of 0.6 to 0.7, limited by methionine, and contains more than enough lysine. When both are eaten in roughly equal quantities in a diet, the PDCAAS of the combined constituent is 1.0, because each constituent's protein is complemented by the other. Of course, this "value" is not an objective measure, but is simply in comparison with a hen's egg, which was assigned as the "base" marker for protein, with a "value" of 1.0 decades ago. However, the body is perfectly able to assemble all the amino acids necessary to good health by maintenance of a sufficient variety of foods in one's diet.

Vegans also note the following with regard to protein intake:

• When a variety of plant foods is consumed, the PDCAAS of the total diet approaches 1, even if no conscious protein combining is performed.
• Research has shown that the body maintains amino acid pools that only need to be repleted once every few days. This means that the relevant PDCAAS is not that of any single meal, but that of two or three days' worth of food. Considering the law of large numbers, this PDCAAS will be much closer to 1, if a variety of plant proteins is consumed.
• Human protein requirements are much lower than once assumed. A suboptimal PDCAAS is thus easily overcome if more than minimum protein is consumed. Peanuts, soy and other legumes, the alga spirulina and certain grains are some of the richest sources of plant protein.
• Popular meat and milk-replacement products contain soy, which is a "complete" protein as well. Soy is also very rich in protein. Soy milk without added sugar contains almost twice as much protein per calorie as cow's milk, and about five times as much as human milk.

Iodine

Residents of the UK may find themselves iodine-deficient if they rely on local produce, since in the UK iodine is usually obtained via dairy products rather than iodized salt that is more common elsewhere. The Vegan Society says, "Iodine is typically undesirably low (about 50 micrograms/day compared to a recommended level of about 150 micrograms per day) in UK vegan diets unless supplements, iodine rich seaweeds or foods containing such seaweeds are consumed. The low iodine levels in many plant foods reflects the low iodine levels in the UK soil, due in part to the recent ice-age." This demonstrates that location may also be a factor in what deficiencies may be present in any given diet.

Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12, a bacterial product, cannot be reliably found in plant foods, and so vegans are recommended to make sure they eat foods with B12 added (such as fortified soy milk, yeast extract, margarines, or many commercial breakfast cereals, such as Cheerios), certain brands of nutritional yeast, or take dietary supplements (a good multivitamin will likely include B12 in sufficient quantities). Tempeh, miso, and a few other fermented foods can sometimes contain B12 as well, though they can not always be considered reliable sources. Older people, vegan and non-vegan alike, may find they experience difficulties in absorbing B12 from their food, and pernicious anaemia, caused by a B12 deficiency, is not unknown amongst omnivores.

Iron

Iron is said by the Vegan Society to be present in many typically vegan foodstuffs, including grains, nuts and green leaves. However, the iron in these sources is in a less easily absorbed, non-heme form. Nevertheless, the Society quotes research to show that iron deficiency is no more prevalent in vegans than in the general population. This research did not account for the fact that many vegans take nutritional supplements that are not found in food alone, whereas other research that excludes this subset of people does indeed show a marked iron deficiency among a majority of those studied. It is important to note that iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies in the general population, and many nutritionists and dieticians recommend a daily multivitamin because of this. Vitamin C is necessary to the absorption of iron, and, indeed, can double or triple the amount of iron absorbed when taken with food (i.e. a glass of orange juice with a spinach salad). Vegans typically have high levels of vitamin C in their diets, which probably accounts for the rarity of anaemia amongst them.

Calcium

Calcium may also be a concern if the vegan is not eating a variety of foods, especially leafy green vegetables (such as spinach, kale, collard greens, cabbage, etc.), almonds, oats, soy products (soy milk, tofu, etc.), sesame seeds, most beans, and dried fruits, most of which should be included in any diet. The USDA's study on calcium andosteoporosis in women began with the premise that animal proteins create sulphur in the body, which leaches out calcium from the bones. The results, though, were more complex: the vegan subjects lost bone density at the same rate as their vegetarian and non-vegetarian peers; when put on a weight-bearing exercise regimen, the vegan subjects built bone density at a significantly higher rate than the other subjects. The researchers remark, "If you have less bone formation, the result is the same as if you had an increase in bone resorption. So, even though bone resorption was the same in both groups of volunteers, the lower amount of bone formation in the omnivore women could lead to a decrease in their bone density."

DHA

One nutrient that is sometimes overlooked when analyzing the vegan diet is docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). DHA can be synthesized from alpha linolenic fatty acids; for non-vegetarians, good sources for this omega-3 fatty acid include edible marine fish and shellfish and eggs. This healthy fat can also be found in soybeans, walnuts, flaxseed, pumpkin seeds, and canola oil, and many vegans include these specific foods in their diets. This fatty acid is very important for brain function, eye function, and for the cellular transport of valuable nutrients. "ALA", a form of algae, can also be used as a supplementary source of DHA.

Omega-3 fatty acids must be taken into consideration for any diet, and special consideration taken for younger children and the elderly because growing and ageing brains need more of these nutritious fats. There are multiple sources of omega-3 fatty acids available to vegans: flaxseed oil (sometimes called edible linseed in the UK) and hemp oil, nuts (especially walnuts), and certain green, leafy vegetables all provide omega-3s as well. However, it must be understood that these foods contain only short-chain omega-3s, while oil-rich fish contains long-chain omega-3s; about ten times as much short-chain omega-3s must be eaten to have the same effect as long-chain omega-3s.

Cultural aspects

Veganism has been slowly gaining greater popularity amongst African Americans since the 1960s because of the involvement of politically-oriented African-American activists, actors and musicians; a whole foods, mostly unprocessed diet is positioned as a return to ancestral African diets, an inexpensive and healthy alternative to current dietary habits, and a tool for African-American empowerment in the face of socio-economic disadvantage, especially health.

Criticism and controversy

Veganism requires a level of attention to the details of pre-manufactured packaged goods which many non-vegans view as impractical. Many dishes prepared in western culture involve at least one non-vegan element — dairy, in particular, is pervasive and some non-vegans may resent the extra effort of accommodating the vegan diet. Certain vegan substitutions for non-vegan ingredients (such as egg replacers) only superficially resemble their animal-based originals; thus, they

Many health supplements (vitamins, minerals, herbal alternatives, etc.) are placed inside capsules made of animal-based gelatin. . Online retailers have emerged, selling vegan alternatives to such products, and vegan-friendly multivitamins and supplements can now be found in most health food stores.

Some medication and dietary supplements contain a number of ingredients that are derived from animal sources such as magnesium stearate or lactose and when the medicine itself is derived from an animal source there may not be acceptable substitute. Almost all drugs sold in the United States are the result of animal testing, as it is a requirement of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and in hosptials, Catgut in sutures and non-vegan latex gloves are used.

Many cosmetics, toiletries, household cleaners, pesticides, and other products used around the home also contain ingredients that have been tested on animals and coloring agents like Cochineal (obtained from an insect) are used in many items.

Although the American Dietetic Association (the U.S. certifier for C.N.s) supports a well planned vegan diet in all stages of life, some nutritionists have expressed concerns about the potential dangers in an unplanned vegan diet. This is especially true for young children where the failure to achieve adequate nutrition can lead to permanent developmental deficits. In widely reported comments, Professor Lindsey Allen of the U.S. Agricultural Research Service declared: "There's absolutely no question that it's unethical for parents to bring up their children as strict vegans." She later added, "Unless those who practiced vegan diets were well-informed about how to add back missing nutrients through supplements or fortified foods," which she claims the original reporter inappropriately dropped. Prof. Allen's comments were based on research funded by the American Cattlemen's Association in which she compared two groups of severely malnourished children in rural Africa who subsisted on only three foods, though how their extremely impoverished diets can be related to western dietary models is unclear.

In very severe cases, parents practising what were sometimes described as forms of veganism have been charged with child abuse for not providing adequate nutrition. Vegan mothers who do not obtain adequate vitamin B12 in their diet while breastfeeding can cause severe and permanent neurological damage to their infants (Kuhne et al., European Journal of Pediatrics, 1991;150(3):205-8).

Criticisms have also focused on the prevalence of eating disorders within the vegan and vegetarian communities. However, though there appears to be correlation, there does not appear to be causation; eating disorders often predate the adoption of a vegan/vegetarian diet (O'Connor et al., Medical Journal of Australia, 1987;147(11-12):540-2). Anorexics, for example, often find the excuse of "veganism" an attractive cover for their pre-existing eating disorder. Studies of college women show that a significantly higher proportion of women who do not consume animal protein than those who do are likely to display distorted eating attitudes and beliefs (Klopp et al., Journal of the Am. Dietitic Assoc., 2003;103(6):745-7). Also, self-reported teenage vegans and vegetarians are more likely to be dissatisfied with their bodies and to be involved in both healthy and unhealthy weight control practices (Perry et al., Journal of Adolescent Health, 2001;29(6):406-16). This can, by and large, be attributed to a lack of valid information, and even misinformation on Vegan and Vegetarian diets. In gaining this information, many Vegans and Vegetarians end up with a far better-than-average understanding of nutrition.

Feed for animals in an agrarian economy (in stark contrast to the U.S. Service Economy, and industrial economies)is seldom cultivated for purposes of animal feed and is often the by product of crops primarily grown for human consumption, thus creating a meat output from hay and other plant produce. Factory farming, thus is often limited only to poultry in many parts of Africa, Asia and South America. In these regions animals are often seen as a sustainable way of life providing protein and milk.

In most Asian countries, where rice is the staple food, plant cultivation is the most prevalent cause of environmental damage. The cultivation of paddy requires far greater quantity of water than most crops grown in Europe/America. Cultivating a single kilogram of rice requires 5,000 litres of water and thus places a huge stress on the water supply far higher than would be needed for raising animals for slaughter. In fact rice cultivation is seen as the main culprit behind methane emissions, with Cattle Production right behind. Furthermore the increase in soybean consumption - in US cattle feed and pre-manufactured packaged Soy products - has led to concerns over its environmental impact. Greenpeace have complained that soybean cultivation in Brazil is encouraging Amazon rainforest deforestation, though far less than cattle production. The increase in soyabean cultivation and extensive farming has led to losing large tracts of forest land leading to ecological damage as per WWF and other sources. In most of the tropical countries, farming is cited as the primary cause for forest loss . According to the FAO, 90% of deforestation is directly attributed to unsustainble agriculture. Many people, inculding many Vegans, know this, and thus decide to refrain as well from consuming many pre-manufactured packaged goods, and are conscious of how their produce is grown.

See also

• Vegetarianism
• Environmentalism
• Living foods diet
• Nonviolence
• Peter Singer, author of Animal Liberation
• List of vegans
• List of vegetarians
• Animal rights

References

• Davis, B et al. Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet. Tennessee: Book Publishing Company, 2000.
• C. de Haan et al. Livestock and the Environment: Finding a Balance FAO, USAID, World Bank, 1998. Provides evidence of environmental damage caused by animal farming, mainly factory farming.
• Keeton, W.T. et al. Biological Science, 5th Ed., Publishers: W. W. Norton & Company, New York and London., ISBN 0-393-96223-7 (hardback)
• Langley, G. Vegan Nutrition: a survey of research, The Vegan Society 1988, ISBN 0-907337-15-5
• Moore Lappe, F. Diet for a Small Planet. Ballantine Books, 1985.
• Moore Lappe, F. & Lappe, A. Hope's Edge: The Next Diet for a Small Planet. Jeremy P. Tarcher Publishing, 2003.
• Smil, V. Rationalizing Animal Food Production, in Feeding the World: A Challenge for the 21st Century, MIT Press, London, 2000. This provides evidence for the amount of grain required to raise livestock.
• Torres, B. and Torres, J. Vegan Freak: Being Vegan in a Non-Vegan World. Tofu Hound Press. 2005. ISBN: 0977080412 (paperback).
• Walsh, S. Plant Based Nutrition and Health, The Vegan Society 2003, ISBN 0-907337-26-0 (paperback), ISBN 0-907337-27-9 (hardback).
• Meet Your Meat a PETA-produced slaughterhouse tour narrated by Alec Baldwin
• "Non-vegan prescriptions?" by Jo Stepianak, Grassroots Veganism, retrieved October 26, 2005
• "Anger over 'pig' secret of prescribed drug by Martin Shipman, The Western Mail, December 27, 2002, retrieved October 26, 2005
• FAQ, Vegan Resource Group, retrieved October 26, 2005

External links

General

• American Vegan Society
• Vegan Society (UK)
• HappyCow's Veg*n Guide
• Vegan Website with recipes, a forum, flash animations and lots of information
• An Animal-Friendly Life Offers a wide variety of vegan links
• Essays by Joanne Stepaniak

Health/Nutrition

• The Vegan Society (UK) webpages on nutrition
• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
• NotMilkMan

Environmental

• Mad Cowboy, Howard Lyman
• Ecological footprint calculator
• Another Ecological footprint calculator

Ethical

• Movement for Compassionate Living (The Vegan Way)
• People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals

• Nutrition
• Diets
• Vegetarianism
• Veganism
• Animal liberation movement