Misplaced Pages

Star formation: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 22:13, 4 November 2009 editWoabunk (talk | contribs)2 edits Interstellar clouds← Previous edit Revision as of 22:45, 4 November 2009 edit undoWoabunk (talk | contribs)2 editsNo edit summaryNext edit →
Line 2: Line 2:


'''Star formation''' is the process by which dense parts of ]s collapse into a ball of ] to form a ]. As a branch of ] star formation includes the study of the ] and ]s (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process and the study of ]s and ] as its immediate products. Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of ]s and the ]. '''Star formation''' is the process by which dense parts of ]s collapse into a ball of ] to form a ]. As a branch of ] star formation includes the study of the ] and ]s (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process and the study of ]s and ] as its immediate products. Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of ]s and the ].

== Naturalistic Theories of Star Formation ==
Two naturalistic theories of star formation have been proposed:
* Slow accretion of stellar material under its own gravity;
* Supernovae causing gravitational collapse in nearby stellar material and leading to star formation.

Both of these theories violate basic laws of physics and chemistry.
=== Slow gravitational collapse and the ideal gas law ===
The slow gravitational collapse model holds that a star's fuel collapses gradually under its own gravity. However, this model is physically impossible, because gas spreads indefinitely in a vacuum, because its expansion pressure outweighs its gravity.

The ] states:
:pV=nRT

where:
p is the pressure; V is the volume; n is the number of moles; R=0.0821 L atm mol-1 K-1 (that is, R is the gas constant); T is the temperature.

According to this law, which we all learned in high school chemistry: where nRT is finite (as it always is for any given amount of gas), and pressure approaches zero (as it is in the vacuum of space), V approaches infinity. That is, a gas will spread indefinitely in a vacuum.

Further, as T increases (as it must if a hydrogen cloud is to grow warmer on its way toward fusion), the expansion pressure of the gas cloud will increase. In other words, the warmer the hydrogen cloud gets, the more it will spread.

Stars do not and cannot arise spontaneously; this is a matter of basic 9th grade chemistry. Something or someone always gives birth to every star.

==Stellar nurseries== ==Stellar nurseries==
] image known as ''],'' where stars are forming in the ].]] ] image known as ''],'' where stars are forming in the ].]]

Revision as of 22:45, 4 November 2009

Star formation
Object classes
Theoretical concepts

Star formation is the process by which dense parts of molecular clouds collapse into a ball of plasma to form a star. As a branch of astronomy star formation includes the study of the interstellar medium and giant molecular clouds (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process and the study of young stellar objects and planet formation as its immediate products. Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of binary stars and the initial mass function.

Naturalistic Theories of Star Formation

Two naturalistic theories of star formation have been proposed:

  • Slow accretion of stellar material under its own gravity;
  • Supernovae causing gravitational collapse in nearby stellar material and leading to star formation.

Both of these theories violate basic laws of physics and chemistry.

Slow gravitational collapse and the ideal gas law

The slow gravitational collapse model holds that a star's fuel collapses gradually under its own gravity. However, this model is physically impossible, because gas spreads indefinitely in a vacuum, because its expansion pressure outweighs its gravity.

The Ideal gas law states:

pV=nRT

where: p is the pressure; V is the volume; n is the number of moles; R=0.0821 L atm mol-1 K-1 (that is, R is the gas constant); T is the temperature.

According to this law, which we all learned in high school chemistry: where nRT is finite (as it always is for any given amount of gas), and pressure approaches zero (as it is in the vacuum of space), V approaches infinity. That is, a gas will spread indefinitely in a vacuum.

Further, as T increases (as it must if a hydrogen cloud is to grow warmer on its way toward fusion), the expansion pressure of the gas cloud will increase. In other words, the warmer the hydrogen cloud gets, the more it will spread.

Stars do not and cannot arise spontaneously; this is a matter of basic 9th grade chemistry. Something or someone always gives birth to every star.

Stellar nurseries

Hubble telescope image known as Pillars of Creation, where stars are forming in the Eagle Nebula.

Interstellar clouds

A star formation has never been observed, however a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way contains stars, stellar remnants and a diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) of gas and dust. The latter consists of about 0.1 to 1 particles per cm and is typically composed of roughly 70% hydrogen by mass, with most of the remaining gas consisting of helium. (Trace amounts of heavier elements, called metals, are present.) Higher density regions of the interstellar medium form clouds, or diffuse nebulae, where star formation takes place. In contrast, an elliptical galaxy loses the cold component of its interstellar medium within roughly a billion years, which prevents the galaxy from forming diffuse nebulae except through mergers with other galaxies.

In the dense nebulae where stars are produced, much of the hydrogen is in the molecular (H2) form, so these nebulae are called molecular clouds. The largest such formations, called giant molecular clouds, have typical densities of 100 particles per cm, diameters of 100 light-years (9.5×10 km), masses of up to 6 million solar masses, and an average interior temperature of 10 K. About half the total mass of the galactic ISM is found in molecular clouds and there are an estimated 6,000 molecular clouds, each with more than 100,000 solar masses. The nearest nebula to the Sun where massive stars are being formed is the Orion nebula, 1,300 ly (1.2×10 km) away. However, lower mass star formation is occurring about 400–450 light years distant in the ρ Ophiuchi cloud complex.

A more compact site of star formation is the opaque clouds of dense gas and dust known as Bok globules; so named after the astronomer Bart Bok. These can form in association with collapsing molecular clouds or possibly independently. The Bok globules are typically up to a light year across and contain a few solar masses. They can be observed as dark clouds silhouetted against bright emission nebulae or background stars. Over half the known Bok globules have been found to contain newly forming stars.

Cloud collapse

An interstellar cloud of gas will remain in hydrostatic equilibrium as long as the kinetic energy of the gas pressure is in balance with the potential energy of the internal gravitational force. Mathematically this is expressed using the virial theorem, which states that, to maintain equilibrium, the gravitational potential energy must equal twice the internal thermal energy. If a cloud is massive enough that the gas pressure is insufficient to support it, the cloud will undergo gravitational collapse. The mass above which a cloud will undergo such collapse is called the Jeans mass. The Jeans mass depends on the temperature and density of the cloud, but is typically thousands to tens of thousands of solar masses. This coincides with the typical mass of an open cluster of stars, which is the end product of a collapsing cloud.

In triggered star formation, one of several events might occur to compress a molecular cloud and initiate its gravitational collapse. Molecular clouds may collide with each other, or a nearby supernova explosion can be a trigger, sending shocked matter into the cloud at very high speeds. Alternatively, galactic collisions can trigger massive starbursts of star formation as the gas clouds in each galaxy are compressed and agitated by tidal forces. The latter mechanism may be responsible for the formation of globular clusters.

A supermassive black hole at the core of a galaxy may serve to regulate the rate of star formation in a galactic nucleus. A black hole that is accreting infalling matter can become active, emitting a strong wind through a collaminated relativistic jet. This can limit further star formation. However, the radio emissions around the jets may also trigger star formation. Likewise, a weaker jet may trigger star formation when it collides with a cloud.

As it collapses, a molecular cloud breaks into smaller and smaller pieces in a hierarchical manner, until the fragments reach stellar mass. In each of these fragments, the collapsing gas radiates away the energy gained by the release of gravitational potential energy. As the density increases, the fragments become opaque and are thus less efficient at radiating away their energy. This raises the temperature of the cloud and inhibits further fragmentation. The fragments now condense into rotating spheres of gas that serve as stellar embryos.

Complicating this picture of a collapsing cloud are the effects of turbulence, macroscopic flows, rotation, magnetic fields and the cloud geometry. Both rotation and magnetic fields can hinder the collapse of a cloud. Turbulence is instrumental in causing fragmentation of the cloud, and on the smallest scales it promotes collapse.

Protostar

LH 95 stellar nursery in Large Magellanic Cloud.
Composite image showing young stars in and around molecular cloud Cepheus B.

A protostellar cloud will continue to collapse as long as the gravitational binding energy can be eliminated. This excess energy is primarily lost through radiation. However, the collapsing cloud will eventually become opaque to its own radiation, and the energy must be removed through some other means. The dust within the cloud becomes heated to temperatures of 60–100 K, and these particles radiate at wavelengths in the far infrared where the cloud is transparent. Thus the dust mediates the further collapse of the cloud.

During the collapse, the density of the cloud increases toward the center and thus the middle region becomes optically opaque first. This occurs when the density of about 10 g cm. A core region, called the First Hydrostatic Core, forms where the collapse is essentially halted. It continues to increase in temperature as determined by the virial theorem. The gas falling toward this opaque region creates shock waves that further heat the core.

When the core temperature reaches about 2000 K, the thermal energy dissociates the H2 molecules. This is followed by the ionization of the hydrogen and helium atoms. These processes absorb the energy of the contraction, allowing it to continue on timescales comparable to the period of collapse at free fall velocities. After the density of infalling material has dropped below about 10 g cm, the material becomes sufficiently transparent to allow radiated energy to escape. The combination of convection within the protostar and radiation from the exterior allow the star to contract in radius. This continues until the gas is hot enough for the internal pressure to support the protostar against further gravitational collapse—a state called hydrostatic equilibrium. When this accretion phase is nearly complete, the resulting object is known as a protostar.

Accretion of material onto the protostar continues partially through a circumstellar disc. When the density and temperature are high enough, deuterium fusion begins, and the outward pressure of the resultant radiation slows (but does not stop) the collapse. Material comprising the cloud continues to "rain" onto the protostar. In this stage bipolar flows are produced, probably an effect of the angular momentum of the infalling material.

When the surrounding gas and dust envelope disperses and accretion process stops, the star is considered a pre-main sequence star (PMS star). The energy source of these objects is gravitational contraction, as opposed to hydrogen burning in main sequence stars. The PMS star follows a Hayashi track on the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram. The contraction will proceed until the Hayashi limit is reached, and thereafter contraction will continue on a Kelvin-Helmholtz timescale with the temperature remaining stable. Stars with less than 0.5 solar masses thereafter join the main sequence. For more massive PMS stars, at the end of the Hayashi track they will slowly collapse in near hydrostatic equilibrium, following the Henyey track.

Finally, hydrogen begins to fuse in the core of the star, and the rest of the enveloping material is cleared away. This ends the protostellar phase and begins the star's main sequence phase on the H-R diagram.

The stages of the process are well defined in stars with masses around one solar mass or less. In high mass stars, the length of the star formation process is comparable to the other timescales of their evolution, much shorter, and the process is not so well defined. The later evolution of stars are studied in stellar evolution.

Observations

The Orion Nebula is an archetypical example of star formation, from the massive, young stars that are shaping the nebula to the pillars of dense gas that may be the homes of budding stars.

Key elements of star formation are only available by observing in wavelengths other than the optical. The protostellar stage of stellar existence is almost invariably hidden away deep inside dense clouds of gas and dust left over from the GMC. Often, these star-forming cocoons can be seen in silhouette against bright emission from surrounding gas; they are then known as Bok globules. Early stages of a stars life can be seen in infrared light, which penetrates the dust more easily than visible light.

The structure of the molecular cloud and the effects of the protostar can be observed in near-IR extinction maps (where the number of stars are counted per unit area and compared to a nearby zero extinction area of sky), continuum dust emission and rotational transitions of CO and other molecules; these last two are observed in the millimeter and submillimeter range. The radiation from the protostar and early star has to be observed in infrared astronomy wavelengths, as the extinction caused by the rest of the cloud in which the star is forming is usually too big to allow us to observe it in the visual part of the spectrum. This presents considerable difficulties as the atmosphere is almost entirely opaque from 20μm to 850μm, with narrow windows at 200μm and 450μm. Even outside this range atmospheric subtraction techniques must be used.

The formation of individual stars can only be directly observed in our Galaxy, but in distant galaxies star formation has been detected through its unique spectral signature.

Notable Pathfinder Objects

  • MWC 349 was first discovered in 1978, and is estimated to be only 1,000 years old.
  • VLA 1623 -- The first exemplar Class 0 protostar, a type of embedded protostar that has yet to accrete the majority of its mass. Found in 1993, is possibly younger than 10,000 years .
  • L1014 -- An incredibly faint embedded object representative of a new class of sources that are only now being detected with the newest telescopes. Their status is still undetermined, they could be the youngest low-mass Class 0 protostars yet seen or even very low-mass evolved objects (like a brown dwarf or even an interstellar planet). .
  • IRS 8* -- The youngest known main sequence star, discovered in August 2006. It is estimated to be 3.5 million years old .

Low mass and high mass star formation

Stars of different masses are thought to form by slightly different mechanisms. The theory of low-mass star formation, which is well-supported by a plethora of observations, suggests that low-mass stars form by the gravitational collapse of rotating density enhancements within molecular clouds. As described above, the collapse of a rotating cloud of gas and dust leads to the formation of an accretion disk through which matter is channeled onto a central protostar. For stars with masses higher than about 8 solar masses, however, the mechanism of star formation is not well understood.

Massive stars emit copious quantities of radiation which pushes against infalling material. In the past, it was thought that this radiation pressure might be substantial enough to halt accretion onto the massive protostar and prevent the formation of stars with masses more than a few tens of solar masses. Recent theoretical work has shown that the production of a jet and outflow clears a cavity through which much of the radiation from a massive protostar can escape without hindering accretion through the disk and onto the protostar. Present thinking is that massive stars may therefore be able to form by a mechanism similar to that by which low mass stars form.

There is mounting evidence that at least some massive protostars are indeed surrounded by accretion disks. Several other theories of massive star formation remain to be tested observationally. Of these, perhaps the most prominent is the theory of competitive accretion, which suggests that massive protostars are "seeded" by low-mass protostars which compete with other protostars to draw in matter from the entire parent molecular cloud, instead of simply from a small local region.

Another theory of massive star formation suggests that massive stars may form by the coalescence of two or more stars of lower mass.

References

  1. O'Dell, C. R. "Nebula". World Book at NASA. World Book, Inc. Retrieved 2009-05-18.
  2. ^ Prialnik, Dina (2000). An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution. Cambridge University Press. 195–212. ISBN 0521650658. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
  3. Dupraz, C.; Casoli, F. (June 4–9, 1990). "The Fate of the Molecular Gas from Mergers to Ellipticals". Dynamics of Galaxies and Their Molecular Cloud Distributions: Proceedings of the 146th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union. Paris, France: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Bibcode:1991IAUS..146..373D. Retrieved 2009-05-21. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date format (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. Williams, J. P.; Blitz, L.; McKee, C. F. (2000). "The Structure and Evolution of Molecular Clouds: from Clumps to Cores to the IMF". Protostars and Planets IV. p. 97. Bibcode:2000prpl.conf...97W. arXiv:astro-ph/9902246. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. Alves, J.; Lada, C.; Lada, E. (2001). Tracing H2 Via Infrared Dust Extinction. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0521782244. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. Sanders, D. B.; Scoville, N. Z.; Solomon, P. M. (1985-02-01). "Giant molecular clouds in the Galaxy. II - Characteristics of discrete features". Astrophysical Journal, Part 1. 289: 373–387. doi:10.1086/162897.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. Sandstrom, Karin M. (2007). "A Parallactic Distance of 389 21 + 24 {\displaystyle 389_{-21}^{+24}} Parsecs to the Orion Nebula Cluster from Very Long Baseline Array Observations". The Astrophysical Journal. 667: 1161. doi:10.1086/520922.
  8. Wilking, B. A.; Gagné, M.; Allen, L. E. "Star Formation in the ρ Ophiuchi Molecular Cloud". In Bo Reipurth (ed.). Handbook of Star Forming Regions, Volume II: The Southern Sky ASP Monograph Publications. Bibcode:2008hsf2.book..351W. Retrieved 2009-08-07.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. Khanzadyan, T.; Smith, M. D.; Gredel, R.; Stanke, T.; Davis, C. J. (2002). "Active star formation in the large Bok globule CB 34". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 383: 502–518. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011531. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. Hartmann, Lee (2000). Accretion Processes in Star Formation. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0521785200.
  11. Smith, Michael David (2004). The Origin of Stars. Imperial College Press. p. 43–44. ISBN 1860945015.
  12. Kwok, Sun (2006). Physics and chemistry of the interstellar medium. University Science Books. pp. 435–437. ISBN 1891389467.
  13. Battaner, E. (1996). Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–167. ISBN 0521437474.
  14. Jog, C. J. (August 26–30, 1997). "Starbursts Triggered by Cloud Compression in Interacting Galaxies". In Barnes, J. E.; Sanders, D. B. (ed.). Proceedings of IAU Symposium #186, Galaxy Interactions at Low and High Redshift. Kyoto, Japan. Bibcode:1999IAUS..186..235J. Retrieved 2009-05-23. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date format (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  15. Keto, Eric; Ho, Luis C.; Lo, K.-Y. (2005). "M82, Starbursts, Star Clusters, and the Formation of Globular Clusters". The Astrophysical Journal. 635 (2): 1062–1076. Bibcode:2005ApJ...635.1062K. doi:10.1086/497575. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. van Breugel, Wil (2004). "The Interplay among Black Holes, Stars and ISM in Galactic Nuclei". Proceedings of IAU Symposium, No. 222. Cambridge University Press. pp. 485–488. doi:10.1017/S1743921304002996. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. Prialnik, Dina (2000). An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution. Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–199. ISBN 052165937X.
  18. Hartmann, Lee (2000). Accretion Processes in Star Formation. Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN 0521785200.
  19. Li, Hua-bai; Dowell, C. Darren; Goodman, Alyssa; Hildebrand, Roger; Novak, Giles (2009-08-11). "Anchoring Magnetic Field in Turbulent Molecular Clouds". arXiv. Retrieved 2009-09-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. Ballesteros-Paredes, J.; Klessen, R. S.; Mac Low, M.-M.; Vazquez-Semadeni, E. "Molecular Cloud Turbulence and Star Formation". In Reipurth, B.; Jewitt, D.; Keil, K. (ed.). Protostars and Planets V. pp. 63–80. ISBN 0816526540.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. Longair, M. S. (2008). Galaxy Formation (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 478. ISBN 3540734775.
  22. ^ Larson, Richard B. (1969). "Numerical calculations of the dynamics of collapsing proto-star". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 145: 271. Bibcode:1969MNRAS.145..271L. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  23. Salaris, Maurizio (2005). Cassisi, Santi (ed.). Evolution of stars and stellar populations. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0470092203.
  24. C. Hayashi (1961). "Stellar evolution in early phases of gravitational contraction". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan. 13: 450–452.
  25. L. G. Henyey, R. Lelevier, R. D. Levée (1955). "The Early Phases of Stellar Evolution". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 67 (396): 154. doi:10.1086/126791.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. B. J. Bok & E. F. Reilly (1947). "Small Dark Nebulae" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. 105: 255. Bibcode:1947ApJ...105..255B. doi:10.1086/144901.
    Yun, Joao Lin (1990). "Star formation in small globules - Bart BOK was correct". The Astrophysical Journal. 365: L73. doi:10.1086/185891.
  27. Benjamin, Robert A. (2003). "GLIMPSE. I. An SIRTF Legacy Project to Map the Inner Galaxy". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 115: 953. doi:10.1086/376696. arXiv:astro-ph/0306274.
  28. M. G. Wolfire, J. P. Cassinelli (1987). "Conditions for the formation of massive stars". Astrophysical Journal. 319 (1): 850–867. doi:10.1086/165503.
  29. C. F. McKee, J. C. Tan (2002). "Massive star formation in 100,000 years from turbulent and pressurized molecular clouds". Nature. 416 (6876): 59–61. doi:10.1038/416059a.
  30. R. Banerjee, R. E. Pudritz (2007). "Massive star formation via high accretion rates and early disk-driven outflows". Astrophysical Journal. 660 (1): 479–488. doi:10.1086/512010.
  31. I. A. Bonnell, M. R. Bate, C. J. Clarke, J. E. Pringle (1997). "Accretion and the stellar mass spectrum in small clusters". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 285 (1): 201–208.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. I. A. Bonnell, M. R. Bate (2006). "Star formation through gravitational collapse and competitive accretion". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 370 (1): 488–494. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10495.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  33. I. A. Bonnell, M. R. Bate, H. Zinnecker (1998). "On the formation of massive stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 298 (1): 93–102. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1998.01590.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
Stars
Formation
Evolution
Classification
Remnants
Hypothetical
Nucleosynthesis
Structure
Properties
Star systems
Earth-centric
observations
Lists
Related
Categories: