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v t e

The term men's rights refers to freedoms and rights of boys and men. This term is specifically related to focusing on rights which are protected for girls and women of all ages, yet inadequately protected for boys and men of all ages, and fall within the broader context of human rights. In essence, this term refers to human rights and dignity for men. Men's Rights relates to the role of men in contemporary society. Traditionally, this role has been largely influenced by the physical attributes of the man in his ability to provide protection and sustenance to his partner and offspring. This role, and the rights relating to it, has changed over time due to social, legal and religious influences. Various groups and movements have emerged in an effort to clearly define this role. The Men's Rights Movement (MRM) is concerned with the legal and societal rights of men, primarily in Western cultures. This includes disparity in conviction, sentencing, custody, matrimonial and alimony laws, as well as the alleged discrimination and degradation of males.

History

With the increased focus on the rights of women and children, some believe that some of the rights of men have been devalued and overturned. An example of this is the limitations that have been placed on the parental rights of men over their offspring as a result of the rights awarded to women.

In the 2000s men and concerned women began to share their concerns on the Internet. Its supporters are considered part of the Men's Movement, and often call themselves Men's Rights Activists, or MRAs. Father's rights and misuse of Domestic violence and Dowry laws are areas central to the men's rights movement. Its concerns include health, education, employment, civil rights, legal equality and representation and Constitutional rights. Many supporters are particularly concerned with the effect of sexual harassment, Divorce, Custody, Rape, and Violence Against Women Act-type laws, on men's rights and freedoms. It is argued that these laws cause violation of Constitutional rights such as the right to a fair trial and the right to due process.

Affirmative Action or quota programs, and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 are also areas of prime concern. One group, S.P.A.R.C., argues that these policies have a far more discriminatory effect than is widely reported or acknowledged.

Some activists in Men's Rights Advocacy and Masculism also promote the concept of "defending male identity". Typically this would be defined as strength, honor and honesty.

Structure

Like most social movements, those concerned with men's rights comprise a wide variety of individuals and organisations, both united and divided in various ways on specific issues including the mistreatment of men in the media, the abortion debate, family law, and false rape allegations. Some groups are formally organised or incorporated, while others are casual alliances or the work of a few individuals.

Although the vast majority of men's rights leaders and activists are men, there are many women, including those in significant positions within the movement. For example, Sue Price in the Australian Men's Rights Agency has been at the forefront of activism there. Naomi Penner was a women's rights activist in the 1960s who later helped to create the National Coalition of Free Men in America in 1981. B.N. Saraswati founded one of the earliest Men's rights groups in India. Significant books have highlighted a disparity in the feminist movement's active support for equality when seeking redress for women, but their lack of support for equality when men are disadvantaged.

With the increasing abuse of Dowry Laws against men, in India the movement took the structure of demand of gender-neutral laws The Save Indian Family Foundation (SIFF), is a registered, non-funded, non-profit, voluntary Non-Government Organization (NGO) headquartered at Bangalore, which engages itself in primarily creating awareness about what it calls "Legal Terrorism going on in the country under the garb and paradoxical veil of Women's Empowerment" through various methods like television shows on news channels, protests, road shows, press conferences, article publication, and online blogging. The organisation provides counselling support to the victims who undergo harassment or false imprisonment.

Men's rights in social context

All rights, including men's rights, can not be viewed outside the larger context of all human rights. As such there are certain issues that have a direct influence on the rights of men and the power men have to exercise their rights.

Marriage and divorce

The right to marry or not has historically been more the right of men than of women. The rights that each partner in marriage enjoy has mostly been determined by other rights such as the right to safety and health. However, due to legal and religious dogma, the right to make decisions and take actions that influence both partners particularly outside of the domestic realm have been with the male partner. Together with the right to marry comes the right to divorce. This is a right available to either of the sexes. With the right to divorce, parental rights come into play.

Marriage strike

Marriage strike is the name given to the phenomenon of men refusing to marry for fear of unfair legislations and financial ramifications of divorce for the male. Men's rights writer Matthew Weeks has described divorces as 'slavery for men'. The Rutgers report — though based on a small sample — found ten prevalent reasons for declining preference for marriage among males. The first three are that they can get sex without marriage; they can enjoy a pseudo-wife through cohabitation; and they want to avoid divorce and its financial risks. Marriage is now being seen by various Men's Rights Activists as economic and psychological slavery of men, and therefore many men are advocating boycott of marriage.

Alimony

The origins of alimony (a legal term that dates to the mid-17th century) can be traced back to the ecclesiastical courts in England. Alimony laws vary by country and may not be applied in every divorce case. In some countries alimony is also available to men.

One legal precedent for male alimony in the United States was made in Orr v. Orr, where the Supreme Court invalidated Alabama's statutes by which husbands, but not wives, were required to pay alimony upon divorce. This statute was considered a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

In the United States, the percentage of alimony recipients who were male rose from 2.4% in (1996–2001) to 3.6% in (2002–2006) and is expected to increase as more marriages feature a female primary earner. In 2005, wives earned more than their husbands in 25.5% of dual-income families, and 33% of all families where the woman worked. Members of the fathers' rights movement state that the outcome of divorce is overly one-sided, divorce is initiated by mothers in more than two-thirds of cases – especially when children are involved, and that divorce provides advantages for women, such as automatic custody of the children and financial benefits in the form of child support payments.

Education

In recent years, girls in the United States have performed much better than boys in the same age group, in most schools and colleges. In the United States, 57% of college students are women, and the number is growing. A significant majority of primary school teachers in the United Kingdom are female. Medical schools in the UK currently admit two females for each male. The trend is similar in other industrialized countries. Male rights authors (like the ones in Significant writers) argue that no meaningful action has yet been taken to address this in the U.S., and U.K.

Family

Family law is an area of deep concern among men's rights groups. Members of the fathers' rights movement state that the legal system discriminates against fathers regarding issues related to child custody. These issues vary from state to state and country to country.

Health

Health disparity concerns of men's rights movements include:

• Male circumcision, considered by the National Center for Men and other critics a euphemism for male genital mutilation, is the removal of the foreskin of the penis. The people who concentrate on men's rights and men's identity believe that most of the medical reasons are insufficient or inappropriate for modifying men's identity without their consent. In the United States and Israel, circumcision has been traditionally performed at or shortly after birth; in the case of Israel, it is most often performed when the boy is eight days old in accordance with Jewish religious law. Some advocates believe that men have a right to make their own decisions regarding such procedures. The National Center for Men believes that circumcision, like conscription, is an example of the way in which many cultures accept violence against males.

• Official statistics shows men have an average of 5 years reduced lifespan than women in average lifetime estimations. The organizations, which are speaking about gender equality do not have any specific concerns about this issue. Also some researchers may be believed that they are trying to interpret it as a natural difference. But mostly it is believed there is a strong chance in lifetime difference caused by gender gap which is created by the culture and society. The National Organization for Women take a position that the higher life expectancy for women is to their disadvantage.

Suicide

The incidence of successful suicide is vastly higher among males than females among all age groups in most of the world. In the United States, the ratio varies between 3:1 to 10:1. Excess male mortality from suicide is also evident from data from non-Western countries. In 1979–81, out of 74 countries with a non-zero suicide rate, two reported equal rates for the sexes (Seychelles and Kenya), three reported female rates exceeding male rates (Papua-New Guinea, Macau, and French Guiana), while the remaining 69 countries had male suicide rates greater than female suicide rates.

Male-only military conscription

The Equal Rights Amendment in the USA was not universally supported by either men or women, and was eventually defeated after Phyllis Schafly secured bi-partisan support for a campaign against the change on the basis that women would not be drafted into the army

In 1981 in the United States, the case Rostker v. Goldberg alleged that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the SSS. The Supreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than equity.

A male-only draft is considered by many to be unequal.

Current attitudes toward a draft show a change in women's ability to participate in the military. The most recent attempt to have the draft reinstated inside the United States, the Universal National Service Act, states that "young men and women ages 18–26 could be called to service."

While it might be considered by some a positive that women are kept from the front lines by not being required to register for the draft nor being allowed in front line combat, it can be argued as to whether or not that is a privilege.

Media portrayal

Another issue of concern to men's rights advocates is an alleged anti-male bias in the media. Men's rights activists argue that men are portrayed unfairly on television, radio, and in newspapers and magazines. Drs Katherine K. Young and Paul Nathanson have published an extensive volume of literature on the issue including Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture (McGill-Queen's Native and Northern press); the first in what has become a four book publication on discrimination against males. They argue that not only does the media not pay serious attention to men's rights issues but that men are portrayed in a negative light, particularly in advertising. The lack of concern over men's issues such as higher rates of suicide by men, decline in academic achievement among boys, and a willingness of the press to print feminist statistics distorting the size of the "wage gap" has led to the term "Lace Curtain" to describe feminist control over publishing and media representation of gender issues.

According to Arran Stibbe (2004), men's health problems and behaviors can be linked to the socialized gender role of men in our culture. He believes that magazines promote traditional masculinity and claims that, among other things, men's magazines tend to celebrate "male" activities and behavior such as admiring guns, fast cars, sexually libertine women, and reading or viewing pornography regularly. In men's magazines, several "ideal" images of men are promoted, and that these images may even entail certain health risks.

Refugees

In Australian immigration policy a distinction is regularly made between women and children (often treated erroneously as equivalent to "family groups") and single men. The details are subject to current debate and recently failed legislation (August 2006) in the Australian Parliament. But for example in one recent case, former Minister for Immigration, Senator Amanda Vanstone, determined as follows concerning Papuan asylum seekers: "The single men on the boat would be sent to an immigration detention centre, but families would not be split up and would be housed in facilities in the community".

Reproductive rights

The term "male abortion" was coined by Melanie McCulley, a South Carolina attorney, in her 1998 article, "The Male Abortion: The Putative Father's Right to Terminate His Interests in and Obligations to the Unborn Child", which was published in The Journal of Law and Policy. The theory is that when a woman becomes pregnant she has the option of abortion, adoption, or parenthood; and therefore, in the interests of gender equality as it is recognized in law, in the earliest stages of pregnancy the father should have the right to relinquish all future parental rights and financial responsibility – leaving the informed mother with the same three options. This concept has been supported by a former president of the feminist organization National Organization for Women, attorney Karen DeCrow

In 2006, the National Center for Men brought a case in the US, Dubay v. Wells that argued that in the event of an unplanned pregnancy, when an unmarried woman informs a man that she is pregnant by him, he should have an opportunity to give up all paternity rights and responsibilities. Supporters argue that this would allow the woman time to make an informed decision and give men the same reproductive rights as women. In its dismissal of the case, the U.S. Court of Appeals (Sixth Circuit) stated that "the Fourteenth Amendment does not deny to State the power to treat different classes of persons in different ways."

There are also those on the pro-life side of the abortion debate, who consider it a father's reproductive right to veto the woman's option of abortion. They argue that fathers should be given equal power over an abortion decision in order to protect their offspring.

Critics argue that the concept of a "financial abortion" presents a problem in and of itself. Some men and women argue that the availability of abortion should not relieve men of equal financial responsibility to a child they helped conceive. Additionally, opponents say, in a country such as the U.S. where government assistance is often railed against ( see welfare state) the question remains: how does a society take care to ensure children do not descend into poverty? And who should be on the line for the financial support of these children?

However, "after a woman has a baby, in Michigan and elsewhere, she has the right to give up that baby for adoption" (with the consent of the father, if she acknowledges him on the birth certificate, or he is otherwise rebuttably presumed to be the father of a child, generally as the result of marriage). If she exercises that right, she cuts off her own financial responsibility to the child, along with other parental rights and responsibilities. In Oregon an adoption may be granted without the consent of the parent if the mother of a child was married at the time of the conception or birth of the child, and it has been determined that her husband at such time was not the father of the child; in this case, consent of the husband (or father) is not required(When Parental Consent is not Needed,Citation: Ann. Stat. §§ 109.322; 109.324; 109.326). A man may not relinquish his financial responsibility for an unwanted child unless the other biological parent (the mother) shares his wish to give up the child for adoption."

Political representation

In the United Kingdom, where there is a Minister for Women, there have been calls for an analogous "Minister for Men." Lord Northbourne, who made the first Parliamentary call for such in 2004, told the BBC that "f the government feels they need a minister to address women's issues, it should be the same for men." Northbourne's proposal was put to the Prime Minister during PMQs the same year. his proposal was rejected by the Government. Northbourne and others argue that such a minister is needed, pointing to a relatively poor standard of health for men, Fathers' rights, male suicide rates, and males underperforming in education compared to females. In 2009, Reece Wilkes a 16 year old student from Northallerton, North Yorkshire called on the Minister for Women and Equality, Harriet Harman to support the idea of a Minister for Men. Later Reece was to criticise the response from the Government Equalities Office, stating that the response was a "cop-out" and that they did not address the issues that he had raised. Also in 2009, Mark Brooks, Chairman of the Mankind Initiative showed his support for the appointment of a Minister for Men and put suggestions forward for which areas a Minister for Men is most needed.

Social security and retirement

In some societies there is legislated discrimination against men in provision of social security. In Australia, for example, a woman over fifty years of age may obtain a Widow Allowance approximately equal to a pension if, after turning forty, she becomes widowed, divorced, or merely separated from a spouse (who may be a de facto spouse). She must have "no recent workforce experience" but she can easily qualify for this well after the loss of her partner by going through a period of underemployment. There is no similar allowance for men. In Australia and the UK, some of these arrangements (including also women's earlier qualification for Age Pension, etc.) are being legally phased out. In Israel, Social Security is available for low income earners at the age of 64 for women, and 67 for men.

Violence

Some members of the fathers' rights movement state that all of all feminist organizations invoke the spectre of domestic violence as propaganda directed against fathers and fathers' rights groups.

They point to domestic violence studies based on the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS), which show that men and women act violently toward their partners in about equal percentages. They argue that men comprise a "significant portion" of the victims of domestic violence, and they call for more services to be provided for male victims of domestic violence.

Advocates cite government statistics that show that in 15% to 31.5% of the cases of intimate partner violence the victim is male. Furthermore, according to a 2000 CDC/Justice study, "Approximately 23% of the men who had lived with a man as a couple reported being raped, physically assaulted, and/or stalked by a male cohabitant, while 7.4% of the men who had married or lived with a woman as a couple reported such violence by a wife or female cohabitant." Researchers from Charles Sturt University argue that the real numbers for violence against men are likely to be higher, since male victims may be less likely to report abuse than female victims due to social stigmatization. They also assert that the percentage of shelters for battered men should make up a respective percentage of all shelters. The National Coalition of Free Men has sued several women's shelters with the goal of allowing battered men and their children to be admitted and to receive assistance from shelters (see Violence against men). Many women's shelters will assist male victims of domestic abuse but do not house men, instead offering hotel vouchers, counseling, case management, legal services and other support services.

Critics such as Michael Flood accuse men's right enthusiasts of misrepresenting male violence or statistics about domestic violence. Michael Flood and Michael Kimmel criticize the methodology of the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS) arguing it excludes information about "intensity, context, consequences or meaning" noting that women are more likely to sustain injuries, fear for their lives, and experience sexual abuse and that the study omits data on intimate homicide, sexual abuse, and violence as self-defense. He concludes " relies on only one partner's reports despite poor interspousal reliability" and agrees that while studies do show men are likely to under-report subjection to domestic violence, there is no evidence men are "more likely to under-report than female victims". He further notes that men under report their own violence committed against women and women do the reverse (Kimmel 2001, 10–11). He states "crime victimization studies based on large-scale aggregate data, household and crime surveys, police statistics, and hospital data all show that men assault their partners and ex-partners at rates several times the rate at which women assault theirs and that female victims greatly outnumber male victims (Tjaden & Thoennes 2000, pp. 25–26)".

In response to criticism about the influence of former (rather than current) partners – further studies based on the CTS 2 scale continue to show that women initiate violence at least as often as men, and perpetrate serious violence as often as men. In a study specifically examining the behaviour of former partners, Dutton & Winstead (2006) found that women initiate revenge behaviours more frequently than men.

The Violence Against Women Act in America is being vehemently opposed by rights groups for discriminating against men. Similarly, laws such as 498a in India, outlawing cruelty to women by their husband or his relatives, are being fought by groups such as Save Indian Family Foundation.

Wages

Critics of the discrimination theory, including men's rights activists, argue that these "free choice" elements are the source of virtually all of the gender earnings gap. According to these critics, women often choose to prioritize social and family life before their careers, and will therefore avoid jobs that require long or inflexible hours.

Warren Farrell found that U.S. Census data from 2001 shows that childless women who have never married earn 117 percent of their childless male counterparts, when the comparison controls for education, hours worked, and age are accounted for. Furthermore, 2004 Census Bureau data shows that "a part-time working woman makes $1.10 for every dollar made by her male counterpart." In contrast, economists' research conducted in the 1990s found that, even after accounting for parenthood status, education, job title, and other factors, there was still a significant income disparity in men's favor (Blau and Kahn 1997, Wood et al. 1993).

Most recently, the Wall Street Journal reported in an article dated September 1, 2010 entitled "Young Single Women's Pay Surpasses Male Peers" that the earning power of young single women has surpassed that of their male peers in metropolitan areas around the US, a shift driven by the growing ranks of women who attend colleges and move on to high-earning jobs. According to an analysis of Census Bureau data released by Reach Advisors in 2008, single childless women between ages 22 and 30 were earning more than their male counterparts in most United States cities, with incomes that were 8% greater than males on average.

In a report titled Women's Earnings in 2008, published by the US Labor Department in July 2009, found that in aggregate (without controlling for preferences for higher or lower earning fields), women who have never married earn 94.2 percent of their unmarried male counterparts' earnings a figure that is within less than 6% of parity despite the fact that "women, still..are more likely to choose jobs in education and healthcare, where earnings will tend to be lower."

Wages are not the only factor in determining spending power. 1984 U.S. Census Bureau data indicates "women who are heads of households have a net worth that is 141 percent of the net worth of men who are heads of households.

Furthermore, a 2009 study prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor Employment Standards Administration by CONSAD Research Corporation performed extensive statistical analysis of characteristics that affect the gender earnings gap and a synopsis of the economic literature on the issue. The forward by the U.S. Department of Labor states "There are observable differences in the attributes of men and women that account for most of the wage gap. Statistical analysis that includes those variables has produced results that collectively account for between 65.1 and 76.4 percent of a raw gender wage gap of 20.4 percent, and thereby leave an adjusted gender wage gap that is between 4.8 and 7.1 percent... Research also suggests that differences not incorporated into the model due to data limitations may account for part of the remaining gap. Specifically, CONSAD’s model and much of the literature, including the Bureau of Labor Statistics Highlights of Women’s Earnings, focus on wages rather than total compensation. Research indicates that women may value non-wage benefits more than men do, and as a result prefer to take a greater portion of their compensation in the form of health insurance and other fringe benefits... Although additional research in this area is clearly needed, this study leads to the unambiguous conclusion that the differences in the compensation of men and women are the result of a multitude of factors and that the raw wage gap should not be used as the basis to justify corrective action. Indeed, there may be nothing to correct. The differences in raw wages may be almost entirely the result of the individual choices being made by both male and female workers."

See also

• Alimony
• California Child Support Guideline Review
• Fathers 4 Justice
• Fathers' rights movement
• Human rights
• International Men's Day (19 November: Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Australia, India, United States, Singapore, United Kingdom, Malta, South Africa, Hungary, Ireland, Ghana, and Canada)
• Male abortion
• Masculinity
• Masculism
• Misogyny
• Misandry
• Paternal rights and abortion
• Parental leave
• Paternity fraud
• Pro-feminism
• Feminism
• Radical Feminism
• Gender feminism
• Antifeminism
• Save Indian Family
• Shared parenting
• Sexism

Significant writers

• Michael Green
• Warren Farrell
• Christina Hoff Sommers
• Glenn Sacks
• Herb Goldberg
• Asa Baber

References

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4. Worrall, B. (2004) Without Authority, Bracknell: Cyberman Books, ISBN 0-9754300-0-9
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7. ^ Farrell, W. (2001) Father and Child Reunion, New York: Finch.
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57. ^ "October's Domestic Violence Awareness Month Ignores Many Victims". American Coalition of Fathers and Children also Omaha World Herald, Daytona Beach News-Journal and the Louisville Courier-Journal. October 2006. Retrieved 2007-03-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
58. "Equal Rights Amendment Yes, 'Women's Equality Amendment' No". GlennSacks.Com, also the Louisville Courier. October 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-15. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
59. "Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence" (PDF).
61. http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/13076/20021019-0000/www.nuancejournal.com.au/documents/three/saran.pdf
62. Father's Rights and Violence Against Women
63. Farrell, W. (2000) Women Can't Here What Men Don't Say, New York: Tarcher/Putnam
64. Fiebert, M. (2005) References examining assaults by women on their spouses or male partners: An annotated bibliography, California State University, accessed 08 May 2006. Previously published in Sexuality and Culture, 1997, 1, 273–286 and also Sexuality and Culture, 2004, 8(3–4), 140–177.
65. Dutton, L. B., Winstead, B. A (2006) "Predicting unwanted pursuit: attachment, relationship satisfaction, relationship alternatives, and break-up distress", Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 23(4): 565–586.
67. Young Women's Pay Exceeds Male Peers'
68. Highlights of Women’s Earnings in 2008, US Labor Department (PDF)
69. Young Women Closing in on Gender Wage Parity by Liz Wolgemuth
70. The Myth of Male Power, Warren Farrell, 1993
71. http://www.consad.com/content/reports/Gender%20Wage%20Gap%20Final%20Report.pdf

Bibliography

• Save the Males by Richard Doyle, 2006, ISBN 978-1411696334
• The Myth of Male Power by Warren Farrell, 1993.
• Women Can’t Hear what Men Don’t Say: The myths that divide couples and poison love by Warren Farrell, 1999.
• The War against Boys: How misguided feminism is harming our young men by Christina Hoff-Sommers, 2000.
• Who Stole Feminism: How women have betrayed women by Christina Hoff-Sommers, 1994.
• Spreading Misandry: The teaching of contempt for men in popular culture by Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young, 2001.
• The Hazards of Being Male: Surviving the Myth of Masculine Privilege by Herb Goldberg, 1987.
• Refusing to be a Man: Essays on Sex and Justice by John Stoltenberg, 1989.
• Iron John: A Book About Men by Robert Bly, 1990.
• Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man by Susan Faludi, 1999.
• Men Freeing Men: Exploding the myth of the traditional male by Francis Baumli, 1985.
• Flood, Michael: Backlash: Angry men's movements in: Rossi, Staceay E.: The Battle and Backlash rage on. 2004, XLibris Corp., ISBN 1-4134-5934-X, S. 261–287
• Flood, Michael: Men's movements in: XY magazine, vol. 6. 1996
• Stibbe, Arran. (2004). Health and the Social Construction of Masculinity in Men's Health Magazine. Men and Masculinities; 7 (1) July, pp. 31–51.
• Emotion, Seduction and Intimacy: Alternative Perspectives on Human Behaviour (Third Edition) by Rory Ridley-Duff, Seattle, OR: Libertary Editions, ISBN 978-1-935961-00-0, http://www.libertary.com/book/emotion-seduction-intimacy

External links

Bibliographic

• The Men's Bibliography, a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works. (mainly from a constructionist perspective)
• Boyhood Studies, features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.

Other

• NIMH Web Pages on Men and Depression, talks about men and their depression and how to get help.
• The Men's Tribune: Explores and advocates men's rights through modern and classical works.

• Misplaced Pages neutral point of view disputes from March 2011
• Articles with links needing disambiguation from June 2011
• Anthropology
• Gender
• Sociology
• Men
• Men's rights