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| <!-- Deleted image removed: ] was one of the ASI's three co-founders, and remains its Director.]] --> | <!-- Deleted image removed: ] was one of the ASI's three co-founders, and remains its Director.]] --> | ||
| ], President of the ASI, is widely seen as the architect of Thatcher's privatisation policy.<ref name="Is Margaret Thatcher leading" />]] | ], President of the ASI, is widely seen as the architect of Thatcher's privatisation policy.<ref name="Is Margaret Thatcher leading" />]] | ||
| ], and brothers ] & ] were students together at the ] in Scotland |
Dr], and brothers ] & ] were students together at the ] in Scotland.<ref>Denham, Andrew and Garnett, Mark (1998). ''British Thinktanks and the Climate of Opinion'', London: UCL Press, p. 155</ref>. Pirie left in 1974 to work for the Republican Study Committee in Washington DC, and was then took up a professorship in Philosophy at ]. He was joined there by Stuart Butler, while Eamonn Butler went to work with ], who became co-founder and director of the free-market think tank ]. | ||
| After their US experience, they returned to the UK in 1977 to found their own think tank, the Adam Smith Institute. After a year Stuart Butler returned to the US as Vice-President of the ] in charge of domestic policy, while his brother Eamonn remained with Madsen Pirie as co-directors of the Adam Smith Institute. | |||
| The ASI recruited ], another St Andrews alumnus and member of the university's Conservative Association,<ref>{{cite news |title=Douglas Mason: local councillor known as the 'father of the poll tax' |first=Eamonn |last=Butler |authorlink=Eamonn Butler |newspaper=] |date=14 December 2004 |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/people/obituaries/article24672.ece |accessdate=19 January 2010 }}</ref> who did his most influential work for the Institute. Mason became one of its regular authors,<ref>{{cite news |title=Douglas Mason: an engineer of the Thatcher revolution and 'father of the poll tax' |first=Alex |last=Singleton |authorlink=Alex Singleton |newspaper=] |date=16 December 2004 |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/dec/16/guardianobituaries |accessdate=19 January 2010 }}</ref> and, in 1982, led the ASI's ''Omega Project'' report, which argued in favour of the compulsory contracting-out of most local services such as refuse collection, the replacement of the welfare state by private insurance, and further privatisation of public sector services and industries, including aspects of the police force.<ref>Kavanagh, Dennis (1987). ''Thatcherism and British politics: the end of consensus?'', Oxford University Press, p. 88)</ref><ref>Denham and Garnett (1998), p. 157</ref><ref>South, Nigel (1988). ''Policing for profit: the private security sector'', London: Sage Publishing, p. 153)</ref> | |||
| One of their St Andrews friends, ]<ref>{{cite news |title=Douglas Mason: local councillor known as the 'father of the poll tax' |first=Eamonn |last=Butler |authorlink=Eamonn Butler |newspaper=] |date=14 December 2004 |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/people/obituaries/article24672.ece |accessdate=19 January 2010 }}</ref>, who had been active in the university's Conservative Association, did his most influential research and writing for the Institute. Mason became one of its regular authors. | |||
| The ASI's Omega Project project (1981-83), led by Peter Young, produced a series of 19 papers shadowing each Department of State, and advocated such things as the compulsory contracting-out of most local services such as refuse collection, the replacement of much of the welfare state by private insurance, and further privatisation of public sector services and industries, including aspects of police services <ref>Kavanagh, Dennis (1987). ''Thatcherism and British politics: the end of consensus?'', Oxford University Press, p. 88)</ref><ref>Denham and Garnett (1998), p. 157</ref><ref>South, Nigel (1988). ''Policing for profit: the private security sector'', London: Sage Publishing, p. 153)</ref>. The Omega Project was very influential, and many of its recommendations were adopted as policy and enacted into legislation. | |||
| Unlike some think tanks, the Adam Smith Institute chose not to retain charitable status, but maintained the small Adam Smith Research Trust to fund mainstream academic educational projects. | |||
| ===Thatcher's inner circle=== | ===Thatcher's inner circle=== | ||
| ⚫ | The Thatcher era |
||
| ⚫ | The Thatcher era saw the think tank movement come of age and achieve influence, and with the ] (IEA) and the ] (CPS), the ASI was one of three relied upon by the Thatcher government for policy.<ref name="Influence without responsibility" /> Unlike the CPS, which had been established by Thatcher and ], and the IEA, which focused on more theoretical matters, the ASI was well-placed to produce bold and direct policies.<ref name="Influence without responsibility" /> Despite this role, the Adam Smith Institute developed an iconoclastic reputation, cynical about politicians, but enthusiastic to engage with them.<ref name="Influence without responsibility" /> The Institute's relationship with Thatcher was not without troubles. Although Madsen Pirie was the architect of much of the privatisation policy,<ref name="Is Margaret Thatcher leading">{{cite news |title=Is Margaret Thatcher leading the way in education reform? |first=Warren T. |last=Brookes |newspaper=] |date=4 May 1988 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> he had no emotional ties to Thatcher, nor did the ASI propose policies on a range of social issues, despite its Thatcherite reputation.<ref name="The prophet of private profit">{{cite news |title=The prophet of private profit – Dr Madsen Pirie |first=Ed |last=Pearce |newspaper=] |date=19 April 1993 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> The ASI tended to be libertarian. | ||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | The ASI took the view that the market was "more genuinely democratic than the public sector, involving the decisions of far more individuals and at much more frequent intervals".<ref>Denham and Garnett (1998), p. 158</ref>. The Institute published Douglas Mason's recommendation that local government rates (the local government tax) should be replaced by a per-capita charge. A version of this was later implemented by the Conservative government, introducing the ] in Scotland in 1989, and in England and Wales in 1990. It brought unpopularity for the Thatcher government and was seen by some as having weakened her political hand ahead of her departure from office, though her attitude to Europe was a more significant factor. | ||
| ⚫ | Other policy recommendations |
||
| ⚫ | Other policy recommendations fowhich Douglas Mason published with the ASI included the privatisation of the ] (''The Last Post'' −1991); the introduction of charges in British public libraries (''Ex Libris'' – 1986); the privatisation of the Forestry Commission;<ref>Butler (2004)</ref> the complete removal of arts subsidies (''Expounding The Arts'' – 1987); and the abolition of restrictions on drinking (''Time To Call Time'' – 1986). | ||
| ===ASI after Thatcher=== | ===ASI after Thatcher=== | ||
| ⚫ | In 1992, the Institute founded a consulting company, Adam Smith International Ltd, |
||
| In November 1994, the Institute began a review of welfare reform, called 'Operation Underclass',<ref name="Replacing the welfare state">{{cite news |title=Replacing the welfare state |first= |last= |newspaper=] |date=16 February 1995 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> aimed at methods of creating jobs for the long-term unemployed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Help for long-term unemployed urged |first= |last= |newspaper=] |date=7 November 1994 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> Some elements of the programme were adopted by the government within months.<ref name="Replacing the welfare state" /> | In November 1994, the Institute began a review of welfare reform, called 'Operation Underclass',<ref name="Replacing the welfare state">{{cite news |title=Replacing the welfare state |first= |last= |newspaper=] |date=16 February 1995 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> aimed at methods of creating jobs for the long-term unemployed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Help for long-term unemployed urged |first= |last= |newspaper=] |date=7 November 1994 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> Some elements of the programme were adopted by the government within months.<ref name="Replacing the welfare state" /> | ||
| The ASI, with its author Kenneth Irvine, pioneered the privatization of British Rail with private companies competing for franchises on a separately owned national network (The Right Lines - 1987). This policy was enacted by John Major's government. | |||
| ⚫ | The ejection of the Conservative government in 1997 did not have as dramatic an effect on the ASI as some had anticipated. The Institute praised the government's ] programmes, describing it as 'the most successful policy initiative of this century',<ref>{{cite news |title=Rightwing think-tank applauds Blair on welfare-to-work |first=Mark |last=Atkinson |newspaper=] |date=16 February 1998 |page=3 }}</ref> |
||
| ⚫ | The ejection of the Conservative government in 1997 did not have as dramatic an effect on the ASI as some had anticipated. The Institute praised the government's ] programmes, describing it as 'the most successful policy initiative of this century',<ref>{{cite news |title=Rightwing think-tank applauds Blair on welfare-to-work |first=Mark |last=Atkinson |newspaper=] |date=16 February 1998 |page=3 }}</ref>. The ASI publicly welcomed the news that Labour had implemented the long-held ASI aim of an independent Bank of England,<ref>{{cite news |title=Why Britain's best-known right-wing think tank is enjoying working with Tony Blair |first=Madsen |last=Pirie |newspaper=] |date=15 June 1997 |page=19 }}</ref> Madsen Pirie gave it a nine out of ten for performance.<ref>{{cite news |title=Thatcherite guru gives Blair 9 out of 10 for performance |first=Denis |last=Campbell |newspaper=] |date=15 June 1997 |page=1 }}</ref> Eamonn Butler has ascribed this flexibility to who is in power to their role not being 'to be political or shout slogans', but to be 'policy engineers'.<ref>{{cite news |title=Think tanks – who's hot (and who's not) |first=David |last=Smith |newspaper=] |date=1 May 1998 |page= }}</ref> | ||
| The ASI then collaborated with the MORI organization on a series of opinion polls to measure such things as the goals of young people and students, and public attitudes to state services. | |||
| ===International Work=== | |||
| ⚫ | In 1992, former employees of the Institute, led by Peter Young, founded a consulting company, Adam Smith International Ltd, to promote the growing international trend towards economic liberalization and marketization". Eamonn Butler and Madsen Pirie were originally on the management board of the company as well as of the Institute, but Adam Smith International and the Adam Smith Institute are now totally separate. | ||
| ==Activities== | ==Activities== | ||
Revision as of 19:39, 23 October 2012
 | |
| Abbreviation | ASI |
|---|---|
| Formation | 1977 |
| Type | Free market public policy think tank |
| Headquarters | 23 Great Smith Street, London, United Kingdom |
| President Director | Madsen Pirie Eamonn Butler |
| Website | www.adamsmith.org |
The Adam Smith Institute, abbreviated to ASI, is a think tank based in the United Kingdom, named after one of the founders of modern economics, Adam Smith. It espouses free market and classical liberal views, in particular by creating radical policy options in the light of public choice theory, which politicians can then develop. Its president, Madsen Pirie, has said "We propose things which people regard as being on the edge of lunacy. The next thing you know, they're on the edge of policy".
It was the primary intellectual force behind privatisation in the Thatcher era, and, with the Centre for Policy Studies and Institute of Economic Affairs, helped drive Thatcherite policy on privatisation, taxation, education, and health. Several of the Institute's policies have been adopted by the Major and Blair governments, and the ASI has also advised governments overseas.
The Institute currently advocates the free market by publishing books and policy proposals, advising foreign governments, calculating the British Tax Freedom Day, hosting speaker events for young people, and publishing a popular blog.
History
Foundation
DrDr Madsen Pirie, and brothers Eamonn & Stuart Butler were students together at the University of St Andrews in Scotland.. Pirie left in 1974 to work for the Republican Study Committee in Washington DC, and was then took up a professorship in Philosophy at Hillsdale College. He was joined there by Stuart Butler, while Eamonn Butler went to work with Edwin Feulner, who became co-founder and director of the free-market think tank The Heritage Foundation.
After their US experience, they returned to the UK in 1977 to found their own think tank, the Adam Smith Institute. After a year Stuart Butler returned to the US as Vice-President of the Heritage Foundation in charge of domestic policy, while his brother Eamonn remained with Madsen Pirie as co-directors of the Adam Smith Institute.
One of their St Andrews friends, Douglas Mason, who had been active in the university's Conservative Association, did his most influential research and writing for the Institute. Mason became one of its regular authors.
The ASI's Omega Project project (1981-83), led by Peter Young, produced a series of 19 papers shadowing each Department of State, and advocated such things as the compulsory contracting-out of most local services such as refuse collection, the replacement of much of the welfare state by private insurance, and further privatisation of public sector services and industries, including aspects of police services . The Omega Project was very influential, and many of its recommendations were adopted as policy and enacted into legislation.
Unlike some think tanks, the Adam Smith Institute chose not to retain charitable status, but maintained the small Adam Smith Research Trust to fund mainstream academic educational projects.
Thatcher's inner circle
The Thatcher era saw the think tank movement come of age and achieve influence, and with the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) and the Centre for Policy Studies (CPS), the ASI was one of three relied upon by the Thatcher government for policy. Unlike the CPS, which had been established by Thatcher and Keith Joseph, and the IEA, which focused on more theoretical matters, the ASI was well-placed to produce bold and direct policies. Despite this role, the Adam Smith Institute developed an iconoclastic reputation, cynical about politicians, but enthusiastic to engage with them. The Institute's relationship with Thatcher was not without troubles. Although Madsen Pirie was the architect of much of the privatisation policy, he had no emotional ties to Thatcher, nor did the ASI propose policies on a range of social issues, despite its Thatcherite reputation. The ASI tended to be libertarian.
The ASI took the view that the market was "more genuinely democratic than the public sector, involving the decisions of far more individuals and at much more frequent intervals".. The Institute published Douglas Mason's recommendation that local government rates (the local government tax) should be replaced by a per-capita charge. A version of this was later implemented by the Conservative government, introducing the Community Charge in Scotland in 1989, and in England and Wales in 1990. It brought unpopularity for the Thatcher government and was seen by some as having weakened her political hand ahead of her departure from office, though her attitude to Europe was a more significant factor.
Other policy recommendations fowhich Douglas Mason published with the ASI included the privatisation of the Royal Mail (The Last Post −1991); the introduction of charges in British public libraries (Ex Libris – 1986); the privatisation of the Forestry Commission; the complete removal of arts subsidies (Expounding The Arts – 1987); and the abolition of restrictions on drinking (Time To Call Time – 1986).
ASI after Thatcher
In November 1994, the Institute began a review of welfare reform, called 'Operation Underclass', aimed at methods of creating jobs for the long-term unemployed. Some elements of the programme were adopted by the government within months.
The ASI, with its author Kenneth Irvine, pioneered the privatization of British Rail with private companies competing for franchises on a separately owned national network (The Right Lines - 1987). This policy was enacted by John Major's government.
The ejection of the Conservative government in 1997 did not have as dramatic an effect on the ASI as some had anticipated. The Institute praised the government's welfare-to-work programmes, describing it as 'the most successful policy initiative of this century',. The ASI publicly welcomed the news that Labour had implemented the long-held ASI aim of an independent Bank of England, Madsen Pirie gave it a nine out of ten for performance. Eamonn Butler has ascribed this flexibility to who is in power to their role not being 'to be political or shout slogans', but to be 'policy engineers'.
The ASI then collaborated with the MORI organization on a series of opinion polls to measure such things as the goals of young people and students, and public attitudes to state services.
International Work
In 1992, former employees of the Institute, led by Peter Young, founded a consulting company, Adam Smith International Ltd, to promote the growing international trend towards economic liberalization and marketization". Eamonn Butler and Madsen Pirie were originally on the management board of the company as well as of the Institute, but Adam Smith International and the Adam Smith Institute are now totally separate.
Activities
Tax Freedom Day
The Adam Smith Institute publishes the British version of Tax Freedom Day, the day in the year when the average person has earned enough to pay his or her annual tax bill. The Institute calculates the figure using a range of statistics, including the macroeconomic health of the economy, foreign and domestic investment, and tax policy. The ASI uses Tax Freedom Day to call attention to UK tax rates and fiscal policy.
The Next Generation
The Adam Smith Institute facilitates regular meetings of young people who have interests in free markets. These 16- to 30-year olds form a group called The Next Generation (TNG). MPs and prominent media figures are typical guest speakers at monthly meetings of The Next Generation. The Liberty League, an affiliated network for freedom-loving groups across the UK, was founded by members of the TNG Committee.
Influence
In January 2009 Foreign Policy and the University of Pennsylvania named the Adam Smith Institute among the top 10 think-tanks in the world outside of the US. The Institute is highly influential in UK public policy, and was "a pioneer of privatisation" in the UK and elsewhere. Early Institute papers proposed the outsourcing of local government services (1980), the fundamentals of the poll tax (1981–1985), and the deregulation and privatisation of transportation (1980). The privatisation of British Rail in 1997 was also based on a plan suggested by the Institute. Other influences include the UK's cutting of the highest rate of income tax from 83% to 40% in the late 1980s, and its liberalisation of alcohol licensing laws.
The Institute has released a series of Roadmap to Reform papers, calling for shifts in public policy in Health, Deregulation and Europe. In 2006, the Institute released a paper calling for a rethink of Britain's countryside policy.
Public Sector Reform
Internal Markets – ASI proposed that the National Health Service establish an internal market with hospitals buying the use of facilities from other districts and from the private sector. Internal markets are now NHS policy.
ASI also recommended an internal market system for UK schools that would have state funds to follow students to independently run academic institutions. This approach to school funding is now Conservative policy.
National Government – ASI proposed that QUANGOs be reduced in number and subject to increased scrutiny. QUANGOs were subsequently cut by 20 percent and put under parliamentary review.
Local Government – Following the Institute's call for the use of private businesses by local governments, many local services, such as waste collection and cleaning, were contracted out. Additionally, local governments are now required to solicit competitive bids for local services
Welfare – ASI called for a radical shake-up of welfare policy, which would make work requirements absolutely central to the benefits system. Many of ASI's proposals subsequently became Tory policy, and some even found favour among Labour MPs.
Health – ASI lobbied for a change in VAT regulations to facilitate the outsourcing of ancillary hospital services. The government now requires a solicitation of bids from private contractors for cleaning and catering services. VAT regulations have been modified to put in-house work and outside tenders on an equal basis. It is estimated that these actions saves £100 million per annum.
Education – The Education Reform Act 1988 reflected many policy changes proposed by ASI including increasing representation of parents on state school governing boards, shifting control of state schools from the local authority to the board and head teachers, abolishing fixed school catchment areas.
Transport – Urban and local bus services have been deregulated and the National Bus Company has been privatized into more than 60 companies following ASI's suggestion that the National Bus Company be broken up and urban and local bus services be opened to competition and choice.
Justice – In accordance with ASI's proposals, the government resolved to experiment with privately contracted prisons and electronic tracking tags for low-security prisoners.
Tax Reform
Tax Rates – As recommended by the Adam Smith Institute, the top tax rate was reduced from 60% to 40% in Margaret Thatcher's 1988 budget.
Personal Allowance – Prior to the Exchequer's 2008 pre-budget report, ASI made a case for the personal income tax allowance to be raised to £12,000 (from the current £6,035 allowance) for all UK taxpayers. Such a policy would take 7 million people out of the tax system, and low-income earners would not pay at all. The ASI calculated that this reform would be equivalent to giving the average worker an extra £1,730 per year in gross pay, making them £100 per month better off. The cost to the Exchequer would be £18.9 billion.
Flat Tax – A 2005 paper by the Institute proposed a flat-rate income tax of 22% for UK taxpayers, with the above-referenced tax-free personal allowance of £12,000. City AM editor Allister Heath said of this report, "rarely has a think-tank publication been this influential so quickly. Its arguments have been dissected by the UK Treasury, are well known among the Shadow Treasury Team, have had an influence on some parts of the Liberal Democrats and were even adopted by several minor political parties". The ASI continues to campaign for a flat tax.
Publications
Books
- The Alternative Manifesto, Eamonn Butler, 2010
- Hayek: His Contribution to the Political and Economic Thought of Our Time, Eamonn Butler & Jeff Riggenbach, 2010 (Audiobook)
- Ludwig Von Mises: Fountainhead of the Modern Microeconomics Revolution, Eamonn Butler & Jeff Riggenbach, 2010 (Audiobook)
- The Rotten State of Britain, Eamonn Butler, 2009
- Freedom 101, Madsen Pirie, 2008
- The Best Book on the Market, Eamonn Butler, 2008
- Adam Smith – A Primer, Eamonn Butler, 2007
- The Future of the NHS, Eamonn Butler (ed. Dr. Michelle Tempest), 2006
- Simply No Mistake: How the Stakeholder Pension Must Work, Eamonn Butler, 1998
- City in the Mist, Douglas Mason, 1998
- Hayek: A Commemorative Album (ed. John Raybould), 1998
- Readings in Liberalism (ed. Detmar Doering), 1995
- The End of the Welfare State, Eamonn Butler & Madsen Pirie, 1994
- Shephard's Warning: Setting Schools Back on Course, Antony Flew, 1994
- 20-20 Vision: Targets for Britain, Madsen Pirie, 1994
- Blueprint for a Revolution, Madsen Pirie, 1993
- Taming the Trade Unions, Eamonn Butler, 1991
- A country at ease with itself, Michael Forsyth, 1991
- Adam Smith's Legacy, Norman Barry et al., 1990
- Wayward Elite: A Critique of British Teacher-Education, Dennis O'Keeffe, 1990
- Micropolitics: Creation of a Successful Policy, Madsen Pirie, 1988
- Milton Friedman: A Guide to His Economic Thought, Eamonn Butler, 1985
- Hayek, Eamonn Butler, 1985
- Aid by Enterprise, Eamonn Butler & Madsen Pirie, 1984
- Economy and Local Government, Eamonn Butler & Madsen Pirie, 1981
Reports & Briefings
Topics:
- Economy
- Education
- Health
- Justice and Civil Liberties
- Welfare
- Regulation and Industry
- Transport
- Government
- Environment
- Media and Culture
See also
Footnotes
- Rusbridger, Alan (22 December 1987). "Adam Smith Institute's sense and nonsense". The Guardian. p. 30. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
- "Private Ayes". The Dallas Morning News. 5 January 1986. p. 38.
- "Britain weighs pleas to cut capital-gains and inheritance taxes". The Wall Street Journal. 6 February 1989.
- "Menem asks Adam Smith Institute for privatisation advice". The Guardian. 13 November 1989.
- ^ Denham, Andrew; Garnett, Mark (January 1999). "Influence without responsibility? Think-tanks in Britain". Parliamentary Affairs. 51 (1): 46–57. doi:10.1093/pa/52.1.46.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Brookes, Warren T. (4 May 1988). "Is Margaret Thatcher leading the way in education reform?". San Francisco Chronicle.
- Denham, Andrew and Garnett, Mark (1998). British Thinktanks and the Climate of Opinion, London: UCL Press, p. 155
- Butler, Eamonn (14 December 2004). "Douglas Mason: local councillor known as the 'father of the poll tax'". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
- Kavanagh, Dennis (1987). Thatcherism and British politics: the end of consensus?, Oxford University Press, p. 88)
- Denham and Garnett (1998), p. 157
- South, Nigel (1988). Policing for profit: the private security sector, London: Sage Publishing, p. 153)
- Pearce, Ed (19 April 1993). "The prophet of private profit – Dr Madsen Pirie". The Guardian.
- Denham and Garnett (1998), p. 158
- Butler (2004)
- ^ "Replacing the welfare state". The Wall Street Journal. 16 February 1995.
- "Help for long-term unemployed urged". Financial Times. 7 November 1994.
- Atkinson, Mark (16 February 1998). "Rightwing think-tank applauds Blair on welfare-to-work". The Guardian. p. 3.
- Pirie, Madsen (15 June 1997). "Why Britain's best-known right-wing think tank is enjoying working with Tony Blair". Scotland on Sunday. p. 19.
- Campbell, Denis (15 June 1997). "Thatcherite guru gives Blair 9 out of 10 for performance". Scotland on Sunday. p. 1.
- Smith, David (1 May 1998). "Think tanks – who's hot (and who's not)". Management Today.
- ^ Hill, Debbie (17 May 1998). "147 days at work foots the tax bill". The Sunday Times.
- foreignpolicy.com
- The Influence of the Adam Smith Institute, Philip Morris, c 1994
- BBC News: 'Woods and homes' green belt call, BBC News, 17 April 2006
- Open Access for UK Schools: What Britain Can Learn from Swedish Education Reform
- A Flat Tax for the UK – a Practical Reality
- Flat Tax – Towards a British Model Alistair Heath, 2006 p.104
References
- Denham, Andrew (1998). British Think-tanks and the Climate of Opinion. London: UCL Press. ISBN 978-1-85728-497-3.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)
External links
- Adam Smith Institute
- Adam Smith Institute Blog
- Liberty League, an affiliated network for freedom-loving groups across the UK.