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In their construction of ]s, ]s and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.<ref>''West Asia:1000-1500'', Sheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom, '''Atlas of World Art''', Ed. John Onians, (Laurence King Publishing, 2004), 130.</ref> Among these, the caravanserais (or hans), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuqs period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,<ref>''Architecture(Muhammadan)'', H. Saladin,'''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics''', Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753.</ref> Seljuk architecture was inspired by Christian and Muslim Armenians.<ref>''Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods'', Robert Bedrosian, '''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century''', Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250.</ref> As such, Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. In their construction of ]s, ]s and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.<ref>''West Asia:1000-1500'', Sheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom, '''Atlas of World Art''', Ed. John Onians, (Laurence King Publishing, 2004), 130.</ref> Among these, the caravanserais (or hans), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuqs period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,<ref>''Architecture(Muhammadan)'', H. Saladin,'''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics''', Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753.</ref> Seljuk architecture was inspired by Christian and Muslim Armenians.<ref>''Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods'', Robert Bedrosian, '''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century''', Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250.</ref> As such, Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture.
], a 13th century ] (''school'') located in ], Turkey.]] ], a 13th century ] (''school'') located in ], Turkey.]]
], minted at ] 1240-1241&nbsp;AD]] ], minted at ] 1240–1241&nbsp;AD]]
The largest caravanserai is the 1229-built Sultan Han on the road between the cities of ] and ], in the township of ] depending the latter city, enclosing 3,900 square meters. There are two caravanserais that carry the name "Sultan Han", the other one being between ] and ]. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in ], ], ] and ], as well as the township of ] within ] metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in ] with information relating to the edifice, two further inscriptions in ] and ], since it was constructed by the sultan ]'s doctor (''hekim'') who is thought to have been a ] by his origins, and to have ]ed to ]. There are other particular cases like the settlement in ] site (contiguous to an ancient ] site) near ], founded by the Seljuq commander ] who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the ], and had founded a township comprising a castle, a medrese, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the ] Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as a number of documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463-dated Ottoman ] which instructs the headmaster of the medrese to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai. The largest caravanserai is the 1229-built Sultan Han on the road between the cities of ] and ], in the township of ] depending the latter city, enclosing 3,900 square meters. There are two caravanserais that carry the name "Sultan Han", the other one being between ] and ]. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in ], ], ] and ], as well as the township of ] within ] metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in ] with information relating to the edifice, two further inscriptions in ] and ], since it was constructed by the sultan ]'s doctor (''hekim'') who is thought to have been a ] by his origins, and to have ]ed to ]. There are other particular cases like the settlement in ] site (contiguous to an ancient ] site) near ], founded by the Seljuq commander ] who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the ], and had founded a township comprising a castle, a medrese, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the ] Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as a number of documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463-dated Ottoman ] which instructs the headmaster of the medrese to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.



Revision as of 12:07, 17 February 2013

Sultanate of Seljuqسلجوقیان روم
Saljūqiyān-e Rūm
1077–1307
The Sultanate in 1240.The Sultanate in 1240.
StatusSultanate
CapitalNicaea (İznik)
Iconium (Konya)
Common languagesPersian (official) Turkish
Sultans 
• 1060–1077 Kutalmish
• 1303–1308 Mesud II
History 
• Division from the Great Seljuq Empire 1077
• Internal struggles 1307
Area
1243400,000 km (150,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by
Great Seljuq Empire
Ottoman Empire
Karamanids
Anatolian beyliks
Part of a series on the
History of Turkey
Turkey in Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, 1921
Prehistory
Palaeolithic Anatolia c. 500,000– 
10,000 BC
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9,000 BC
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5,500 BC
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The Sultanate of Rum or Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, (Modern Turkish: Rum Sultanlığı or Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti, Template:Lang-fa, Saljūqiyān-e Rūm), was a medieval Turko-Persian, Sunni Muslim state in Anatolia, originating from the Seljuk Turks. It existed from 1077 to 1307, with capitals first at İznik and then at Konya. Since the court of the sultanate was highly mobile, cities like Kayseri and Sivas also functioned at times as capitals. At its height, the sultanate stretched across central Anatolia, from the shoreline of Antalya and Alanya on the Mediterranean coast to the territory of Sinop on the Black Sea. In the east, the sultanate absorbed other Turkish states and reached Lake Van. Its westernmost limit was near Denizli and the gates of the Aegean basin.

The term "Rûm" comes from the Arabic word for the Roman Empire. The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate Rum because it had been established on territory long considered "Roman", i.e. Byzantine, by Muslim armies. The state is occasionally called the Sultanate of Konya (or Sultanate of Iconium) in older western sources and was known as Turkey by its contemporaries.

The sultanate prospered, particularly during the late 12th and early 13th centuries when it took from the Byzantines key ports on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. Within Anatolia the Seljuqs fostered trade through a program of caravanserai-building, which facilitated the flow of goods from Iran and Central Asia to the ports. Especially strong trade ties with the Genoese formed during this period. The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established in eastern Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert: the Danishmends, the Mengücek, the Saltukids, and the Artuqids. Seljuq sultans successfully bore the brunt of the Crusades but in 1243 succumbed to the advancing Mongols. The Seljuqs became vassals of the Mongols, following the battle of Kose Dag, and despite the efforts of shrewd administrators to preserve the state's integrity, the power of the sultanate disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century and had disappeared completely by the first decade of the 14th.

In its final decades, the territory of the Sultanate of Rûm saw the emergence of a number of small principalities or beyliks, among which that of the Osmanoğlu, known later as the Ottomans, rose to dominance.

Establishment

In the 1070s, after the battle of Manzikert, the Seljuq commander Suleyman bin Kutalmish, a distant cousin of Malik Shah and a former contender for the throne of the Great Seljuq Empire, came to power in western Anatolia. In 1075, he captured the Byzantine cities of Nicaea (İznik) and Nicomedia (İzmit). Two years later he declared himself sultan of an independent Seljuq state and established his capital at İznik.

Seljuk Sultanate of Rum in 1190

Suleyman was killed in Antioch in 1086 by Tutush I, the Seljuq ruler of Syria, and Suleyman's son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned. When Malik Shah died in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and immediately established himself in his father's territories. He was eventually defeated by soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with capital in Konya. In 1107, he ventured east and captured Mosul but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son Mehmed Tapar.

Meanwhile, another Rûm Seljuq, Melikshah (not to be confused with the Great Seljuq sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, Mesud I took the city with the help of the Danishmends. Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia. Mesud's son, Kilij Arslan II, captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from the last of the Danishmends. At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, Kilij Arslan also defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Comnenus, dealing a major blow to Byzantine power in the region. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by German forces of the Third Crusade, the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.

The Sultanate of Rûm and surrounding states, c. 1200.

After the death of the last sultan of Great Seljuq, Tuğrul III, in 1194, the Seljuqs of Rum became the sole ruling representatives of the dynasty. Kaykhusraw I seized Konya from the Crusaders in 1205. Under his rule and those of his two successors, Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I, Seljuq power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured Sinop and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214. He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo acquired from al-Kamil. Kayqubad continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225. In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea. In the east he defeated the Mengüceks and began to pressure on the Artuqids.

Downfall

Hanabad caravanserai in Çardak (1230)

Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbekir, but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding Mongols. Mongol forces took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by Bayju in the Battle of Köse Dag (a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan) and the Seljuq Turks were forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals. The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the 1243 battle, where he died in 1246, his death starting a period of tripartite, and then dual rule that lasted until 1260.

The Seljuq realm was divided among Kaykhusraw's three sons. The eldest, Kaykaus II (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kızılırmak. His younger brothers, Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265) and Kayqubad II (1249–1257) were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Möngke Khan. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265 and Kaykhusraw III (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.

The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the Mongols, and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300.

The Seljuq state had started to split into small emirates (beyliks) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuq control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the Mameluk sultan Baybars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols, temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuq realm. But since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, he had to return to his homebase in Egypt, and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely.

Towards the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the Beyliks (including the Ottomans in their very beginnings) and Seljuq governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the khutba in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, the Pride of Islam. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuq dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, Mesud II, established himself as sultan in Kayseri. He was murdered in 1307 as well as his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuq dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the Karamanids in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuq mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.

Culture and society

The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuqs, based their political, religious and cultural heritage off the Perso-Islamic tradition. Though of Turkic origin, Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art, architecture, literature, while they used Persian as a language of administration. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the local Greek population was numerous in the region.

Kızıl Kule (Red Tower) built between 1221–1226 by Kayqubad I in Alanya

In their construction of caravanserais, medreses and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone. Among these, the caravanserais (or hans), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuqs period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect, Seljuk architecture was inspired by Christian and Muslim Armenians. As such, Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture.

Ince Minaret, a 13th century medrese (school) located in Konya, Turkey.
Dirham of Kaykhusraw II, minted at Sivas 1240–1241 AD

The largest caravanserai is the 1229-built Sultan Han on the road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray, in the township of Sultanhanı depending the latter city, enclosing 3,900 square meters. There are two caravanserais that carry the name "Sultan Han", the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in Kangal, Durağan, Hekimhan and Kadınhanı, as well as the township of Akhan within Denizli metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the edifice, two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac, since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I's doctor (hekim) who is thought to have been a Christian by his origins, and to have converted to Islam. There are other particular cases like the settlement in Kalehisar site (contiguous to an ancient Hittite site) near Alaca, founded by the Seljuq commander Hüsameddin Temurlu who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ, and had founded a township comprising a castle, a medrese, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as a number of documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463-dated Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the medrese to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.

The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with ghulams, youths taken from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories, although such a practice violated the Muslim law. The Ghulam practice may had offered a model for the latter Devshirme during the times of the Ottoman Empire.

The Dynasty

As regards the names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian-influenced variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as Alaeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as "Alaiye". Similarly, the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri, within the complex (külliye) dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe, was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by Izzeddin Keykavus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese.

Sultan Reign Notes
1. Kutalmish 1060–1064 Contended with Alp Arslan for succession to Great Seljuq throne.
2. Suleiman ibn Qutulmish 1075-1077 de facto rules Turkmen around İznik and İzmit; 1077–1086 recognised Rum Sultan by Malik I Founder of Anatolian Seljuq Sultanate with capital in İznik
3. Kilij Arslan I 1092–1107 First sultan in Konya
4. Malik Shah 1107–1116
5. Masud I 1116–1156
6. 'Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan II 1156–1192
7. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I 1192–1196 First reign
8. Rukn al-Din Suleiman II 1196–1204
9. Kilij Arslan III 1204–1205
Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I 1205–1211 Second reign
10. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us I 1211–1220
11. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I 1220–1237
12. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II 1237–1246 After his death, sultanate split until 1260 when Kilij Arslan IV remained the sole ruler
13. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us II 1246–1260
14. Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV 1248–1265
15. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad II 1249–1257
16. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III 1265–1284
17. Giyath al-Din Masud II 1284–1296 First reign
18. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad III 1298–1302
Giyath al-Din Masud II 1303–1308 Second reign

See also

References

  1. Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, (Rutgers University Press, 2002), 157; "...the Seljuk court at Konya adopted Persian as its official language.".
  2. Encyclopedia Britannica: "Modern Turkish is the descendant of Ottoman Turkish and its predecessor, so-called Old Anatolian Turkish, which was introduced into Anatolia by the Seljuq Turks in the late 11th century ad."
  3. Alexander Kazhdan, “Rūm” The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 3, p. 1816.
  4. Encyclopedia Brittanica: ...of Anatolia by crusaders in 1097; hemmed in between the Byzantine Greeks on the west and by the crusader states in Syria on the east, the Seljuq Turks organized their Anatolian domain as the sultanate of Rūm. Though its population included Christians, Armenians, Greeks, Syrians, and Iranian Muslims, Rūm was considered to be “Turkey” by its contemporaries....
  5. John Joseph Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.
  6. Sicker, Martin, The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna , (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 63-64.
  7. A.C.S. Peacock, "The Saljūq Campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the Early Reign of 'Alā' al-Dīn Kayqubād" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 16 (2006), pp. 133-149.
  8. John Joseph Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.
  9. Saljuqs: Saljuqs of Anatolia, Robert Hillenbrand, The Dictionary of Art, Vol.27, Ed. Jane Turner, (Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1996), 632.
  10. A Rome of One's Own: Reflections on Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum, Cemal Kafadar,Muqarnas, Volume 24 History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the "Lands of Rum", Ed. Gülru Necipoğlu, (Brill, 2007), 21.
  11. Masters, Gábor Ágoston, Bruce (2009). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York, NY: Facts On File. p. 40. ISBN 9781438110257. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. Saint-Guillain, edited by Judith Herrin, Guillaume (2010). Identities and allegiances in the eastern Mediterranean after 1204. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate. pp. 181–191. ISBN 9781409410980. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. A sultan in Constantinople:the feasts of Ghiyath al-Din Kay-Khusraw I, Dimitri Korobeinikov, Eat, drink, and be merry (Luke 12:19) - food and wine in Byzantium, ed. Leslie Brubaker and Kallirroe Linardou,(Ashgate Publishing, 2007), 96:
  14. West Asia:1000-1500, Sheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom, Atlas of World Art, Ed. John Onians, (Laurence King Publishing, 2004), 130.
  15. Architecture(Muhammadan), H. Saladin,Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753.
  16. Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods, Robert Bedrosian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250.
  17. ed, Junius P. Rodriguez, general (1997). The historical encyclopedia of world slavery ( ed.). Santa Barbara, Calif. : ABC-CLIO. p. 306. ISBN 9780874368857.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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Governors of Damascus (1076–1105)
Governors of Aleppo (1086–1117)
Sultans of Rum (1092–1307)
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Ancestor
Qutalmish
Founder
Suleyman I
Capital
İznik, then Konya
Important centers and extension
Dynasty
Chronology
Wars and major battles
Culture
Arts
Writers and scholars
Other notable people
Anatolian beyliks
Tzachas (1081 - 1092)
Founder
Tzachas
Capital
İzmir
Important centers and extension:
Shah-Armens (1100–1207)
Founder
Sökmen el Kutbi
Capital
Ahlat
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Important works:
Artuqids (1102 - )
Ancestors
Eksük and his son Artuk, from Döğer Oghuz Türkmen clan
Founder
Muinüddin Sökmen Bey
Capitals
Three branches in Hasankeyf, Mardin and Harput
Important centers and extension:
Hasankeyf Dynasty or Sökmenli Dynasty:
Mardin Dynasty or Ilgazi Dynasty:
Harput Dynasty:
Danishmends (1071–1178)
Founder
Danishmend Gazi
Capitals
Sivas
Niksar
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Mengujekids (1071–1277)
Founder
Mengücek Bey
Capitals
Erzincan, later also Divriği
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Mengücek Bey (1071–1118)
Mengücekli Ishak Bey (1118–1120)
1120–1142
Temporarily incorporated into the Beylik of Danishmends
Erzincan and Kemah Branch
Mengücekli Davud Shah (1142- ?)
1228
Incorporation into the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Divriği Branch
Mengücekli Süleyman Shah (1142- ?)
1277
Beylik destroyed by Abaka
Saltukids (1072–1202)
Founder
Saltuk Bey
Capital
Erzurum
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Aydinids (1307–1425)
Founder
Aydınoğlu Mehmed Bey
Capitals
Birgi, later Ayasluğ
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Events
1390
First period of incorporation (by marriage) into the Ottoman Empire under Bayezid I the Thunderbolt
1402–1414
Second period of Beylik reconstituted by Tamerlane to Aydınoğlu Musa Bey (1402–1403)
Aydınoğlu Umur Bey (1403–1405)
İzmiroğlu Cüneyd Bey (1405–1425 with intervals)
1425
Second and last incorporation (by conquest) into the Ottoman realm under Murad II
Candaroğulları (~1300–1461)
Founder
Şemseddin Yaman Candar, commander descended from Kayı branch of Oghuz Turks in the imperial army of Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Kastamonu
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Sinop Dynasty or Isfendiyarid Dynasty :
Chobanids (1227–1309)
Founder
Hüsamettin Çoban Bey, commander from Kayı Oghuz clan of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Kastamonu
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Dulkadirids (1348- ~1525)
Ancestor
Hasan Dulkadir
Founder
Zeyneddin Karaca Bey
Capital
Elbistan
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Eretnids (1328–1381)
Founder
Eretna Bey, brother-in-law of the Ilkhanid governor for Anatolia, Timurtash
Capital
Sivas, later Kayseri
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Eshrefids (1288–1326)
Founder
Seyfeddin Süleyman Bey, regent to the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Beyşehir
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Germiyanids (1300–1429)
Ancestor
Kerimüddin Alişir
Founder
Germiyanlı Yakub Bey the First
Capital
Kütahya
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Hamidids (~1280–1374)
Ancestors
Hamid and his son Ilyas Bey, frontier rulers under Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Founder
Hamidoğlu Feleküddin Dündar Bey
Capital
Isparta
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Karamanids (~1250–1487)
Ancestor
Nure Sûfi from Afshar Oghuz clan
Founder
Kerimeddin Karaman Bey
Capitals
successively Ereğli
Ermenek
Larende (Karaman)
Konya
Mut
Dynasty:
Karasids (1303–1360)
Ancestor
Melik Danişmend Gazi
Founder
Karesi Bey
Capital
Balıkesir
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Ladik (~1300–1368)
Ancestor
Germiyanlı Ali Bey
Founder
Inanç Bey
Capital
Denizli
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Menteshe (~1261–1424)
Founder
Menteshe Bey
Capitals
Beçin castle and nearby Milas, later also Balat
Important centers and extension
Dynasty:
Pervâneoğlu (1261–1322)
Ancestor
Mühezzibeddin Ali Kâşî (vizier of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum)
Founder
Süleyman Pervâne
Capital
Sinop
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Ramadanids (1352–1516)
Founder
Ramazan Bey from Yüreğir Oghuz clan
Capitals
Adana
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
Sahib Ataids (1275–1341)
Founder
Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali, vizier of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Capital
Afyonkarahisar
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty
Sarukhanids (1302–1410)
Founder
Saruhan Bey
Capital
Manisa
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty
Teke (1301–1423)
Ancestors
Hamidoğlu dynasty
Founder
Tekeoğlu Yunus Bey
Capitals
Antalya
Korkuteli
Important centers and extension:
Dynasty:
States in late medieval Anatolia (after 1071)
Muslim states
Christian states

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