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| {{Redirect|Alces}} | |||
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| {{Taxobox | |||
| | name = Moose | |||
| | status = LC | |||
| | status_system = IUCN3.1 | |||
| | status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN2008 |assessors=Henttonen, H., Stubbe, M., Maran, T. & Tikhonov A. |year=2008 |id=41782 |title=Alces alces |downloaded=11 February 2009}}</ref> | |||
| | image = Moose superior.jpg | |||
| | image_width = | |||
| | image_caption = Male (bull) | |||
| | image2 = Elch 3 db.jpg | |||
| | image2_width = | |||
| | image2_caption = Female (cow) | |||
| | regnum = ]ia | |||
| | phylum = ] | |||
| | classis = ]ia | |||
| | ordo = ] | |||
| | familia = ] | |||
| | subfamilia = ] | |||
| | genus = '''''Alces''''' | |||
| | genus_authority = ], 1821 | |||
| | species = '''''A. alces''''' | |||
| | binomial = ''Alces alces'' | |||
| | binomial_authority = (], ]) | |||
| | range_map = Moose distribution.png | |||
| | range_map_caption = Moose range map | |||
| }} | |||
| The '''moose''' (North America) or '''Eurasian elk''' (Europe) (''Alces alces'') is the largest ] ] in the ] ]. Moose are distinguished by the ] ]s of the males; other members of the family have antlers with a ] ("twig-like") configuration. Moose typically inhabit ] and ] of the ] in ] to ] climates. Moose used to have a much wider range but hunting and other human activities greatly reduced it over the years. Moose have been reintroduced to some of their former habitats. Currently, most moose are found in ], ], ] and ]. Their diet consists of both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. The most common moose predators are ], ]s, and ]s. Unlike most other deer species, moose are ] and do not form herds. Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become aggressive and move surprisingly quickly if angered or startled. Their mating season in the autumn can lead to spectacular fights between males competing for a female. | |||
| == Etymology and naming == <!---Note: the article ] links to this section heading. Please do not remove or change the name of this section without making the appropriate amendments to ]---> | |||
| ] | |||
| The animal bearing the scientific name ''Alces alces'' is known in Britain as the "elk"<ref name="OED">{{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/60507 |title=elk, n.1 |work=] |accessdate=15 December 2010}}</ref> and in ] as the "moose". | |||
| The ] word "elk" has ]s in other ] languages, for example ''elg'' in ]{{\}}]; ''älg'' in ]; ''Elch'' in ]; and ''łoś'' in ] (] ''alcē'' or ''alcēs'' and ] ἅλκη ''álkē'' are probably Germanic loanwords).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=elk&searchmode=none|title=Online Etymology Dictionary – elk|accessdate=24 January 2013}}</ref> Confusingly, the word "elk" is used in North America to refer to a different animal, the ] (or, less commonly, the "wapiti", '']''), which is a similar though slightly smaller species (the second-largest deer species) and behaviorally and ] from the smaller ] of central and western Europe. Presumably, early European explorers in North America called this species "elk" due to its size and, as people coming from the British Isles, they would have had no opportunity to see the difference between a member of the genus ''Cervus'' and an animal fitting the description of ''Alces'' back in Europe, absent there during the 17th and 18th centuries. | |||
| The word "moose" first entered English by 1606,<ref>{{OED|moose}}</ref> and is borrowed from ] (compare the ] ''moos'' and ] ''mos''; according to early sources, these were likely derived from ''moosu'', meaning "he strips off"),<ref>{{OED|moose|accessdate=2011-02-16}}</ref> and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another. The ] form was ''*mo·swa''.<ref>{{dictionary.com|moose|accessdate=2011-10-25}}</ref> | |||
| A mature male moose is referred to as a bull; a mature female moose is a cow; and an immature moose of either sex is a calf. | |||
| == Habitat, range, and distribution == | |||
| ===North America=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| In ], the moose range includes almost all of ] (excluding the ] and ]), most of ], northern ] and upstate New York, the upper ], northern ], ]'s ], and ] in ]. Within this massive range, the most diverse range of subspecies exist, containing habitat for four of the six subspecies. In western portions of the continent, moose populations extend well north into Canada (] and ]) and more isolated groups have been verified as far south as the mountains of ] and ] and as far west as the ] area of the Washington Cascades.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wildlife.utah.gov/news/06-04/permits.php |title=Utah Division of Wildlife Resources |publisher=Wildlife.utah.gov |date=2006-04-28 |accessdate=2009-11-27 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071005181422/http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/news/06-04/permits.php |archivedate = October 5, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003215177_webmoose21.html|work=The Seattle Times|title=Oregon moose population is booming|date=2006-08-21}}</ref> The range includes ], ], ], and smaller areas of ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dfw.state.or.us/conservationstrategy/news/2009/2009_october.asp |title=ODFW Oregon Conservation Strategy News |publisher=Dfw.state.or.us |date= |accessdate=2013-06-27}}</ref> In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state's moose population is now more than 1,000 with great potential to grow. | |||
| In the 1940s, an effort was made to introduce moose to the ], but this effort failed due to the hunting activities of the local Native American population.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} | |||
| In Northeastern North America, the ] history is very well documented: moose meat was often a staple in the diet of Native Americans going back centuries and it is a tribe that occupied present day coastal ] that gave this deer its distinctive name in ]. The Native Americans often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in ], a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nancy Cappelloni |title=Cranberry Cooking for All Seasons |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=u-uomE8l8g8C&pg=PA14 |accessdate=25 June 2011 |date=November 2002 |publisher=Spinner Publications |isbn=978-0-932027-71-9 |pages=14–}}</ref> Eastern tribes also valued moose leather as a source to make moccasins and other decorations. | |||
| The historical range of the subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of ] in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the ] in the east. The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U.S. for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in the mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within a hundred miles of present day Manhattan. However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20% of suitable habitat remained.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} | |||
| Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources,{{clarify|date=February 2013}} abandonment of farmland, better land management, cleanup of pollution, and natural dispersal from the ] and ]. South of the Canadian border ] has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pressherald.com/news/Survey-shows-Maine-has-about-76000-moose.html |title=Survey estimates Maine has 76,000 moose | The Portland Press Herald / Maine Sunday Telegram |publisher=Pressherald.com |date= |accessdate=2012-11-09}}</ref> Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in ] and ], notably near bodies of water and as high up as 3,000 feet above sea level in the mountains. In turn dispersals from northern New England have resulted in a growing population of roughly 1,000 moose in ] (where it has been absent since the early 18th century) plus reports of new dispersals to eastern ] and ].<ref>. Mass.gov (2007-09-20). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>. Maine.gov. Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>. (PDF). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>. Cpbn.org. Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>. CSMonitor.com (2007-02-14). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.defenders.org/newsroom/defenders_magazine/winter_2007 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.defenders.org/newsroom/defenders_magazine/winter_2007/moose_in_a_mess.php |archivedate=2012-03-06 | title=Moose in a Mess? | publisher=Defenders of Wildlife | accessdate=2011-01-09 }}</ref><ref>. Dec.ny.gov (1999-07-06). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref> | |||
| Moose were successfully introduced on ] in 1878 and 1904<ref>, Newfoundland Costal Safari</ref> where they are now the dominant ], and somewhat less successfully on ] in the ]. | |||
| ===Europe and Asia=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| In ], moose are currently found in large numbers throughout ], ], ], ], and the ], with more modest numbers in the southern ], ] and northern ]. They are also widespread through ] on up through the borders with Finland south towards the border with Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine and stretching far away eastwards to the ] in ]. The European moose was native to most temperate areas that it could physically inhabit on the continent and even ] from the end of the last Ice Age as Europe's traditional habitat had a natural mix of temperate boreal and deciduous forest. It was certainly thriving in both Gaul and Magna Germania as it appears in military and hunting accounts of the age. However, as the Roman era faded into medieval times, the beast slowly disappeared: it survived in ] and the ] until the 9th century as the marshlands in the latter were drained and the forests were being cleared away for feudal lands in the former. It was gone from Switzerland by 1000 AD, gone from the western Czech Republic by 1300, gone from ] in Germany by c. 1600, and has been gone from Hungary and the Caucasus since the 18th and 19th century, respectively. | |||
| By the early 20th century, the very last strongholds of the European moose appeared to be in Scandinavian countries and patchy tracts of Russia. The USSR and Poland managed to restore portions of the range within its borders (such as the 1951 reintroduction into ] and the later 1958 reintroduction in Belarus) but political complications obviously limited its ability to be reintroduced to other portions of its range. Attempts in 1930 and again in 1967 in marshland north of Berlin were unsuccessful. At present in Poland, populations are recorded in the ] river valley, Kampinos, and in ]. It has migrated into other parts of Eastern Europe and has been spotted in eastern and southern Germany.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schnfeld |first1=Fiona |title=Presence of moose (Alces alces) in Southeastern Germany |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=55 |page=449 |year=2009 |doi=10.1007/s10344-009-0272-5}}</ref><ref name=spieg120903/> Unsuccessful thus far in recolonizing these areas via natural dispersal from source populations in ], ], ], ] and ], it appears to be having more success migrating south into the ]. It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.<ref>. Iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>. Thelocal.de. Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref> | |||
| In 2008, two moose were reintroduced into the ]<ref>{{cite web |author=24 April 2009 |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Euq1KEgysKg |title=Re-Introducing Moose to the Glen – Moose – BBC |publisher=YouTube |date=2009-04-24 |accessdate=2009-11-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Moose to roam free again in Scotland |author=Auslan Cramb |author2=Paul Eccleston |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3339404/Moose-to-roam-free-again-in-Scotland.html |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=14 April 2008 |accessdate=7 August 2011}}</ref> in ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alladale.com/wilderness-reserve/highland-flora--fauna/european-elk---alces-alces.html |title=European Elk - Alces alces |work=alladale.com |publisher=Alladale Wilderness Reserve |accessdate=7 August 2011}}</ref> | |||
| The east-Asian moose population confines itself mostly on the territory of the ], but also in northern ] and north eastern ]. Moose populations are relatively stable in ] and increasing on the ]. In Mongolia and China, where poaching took a great toll on moose, forcing them to near extinction, they are protected.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bearcreekjournal.com/tag/ussurian-moose/ |title=ussurian moose |publisher=Bear Creek Journal |date=2010-09-02 |accessdate=2013-06-27}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=June 2013}} In 1978, as part of a breeding project of the Regional Hunting Department transported 45 young moose to the center of Kamchatka. These moose were brought from ], home to the largest moose on the planet. Kamchatka now regularly is responsible for the largest trophy moose shot around the world each season. Being a fertile environment for moose, with a milder climate, less snow, and an abundance of food, moose quickly bred and settled along the valley of the ] and many surrounding regions. The population in the past 20 years has risen to over 2900 animals. | |||
| The size of the moose varies. Following ], population in the south (''A. a. cameloides''), usually grow smaller, while moose in the north and north-east (''A. a. burulini'') can match the imposing sizes of the Alaskan moose(''A. a. gigas'') and are prized by trophy hunters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gothunts.com/this-aint-no-bullwinkle/ |title=This Ain't No Bullwinkle... Check Out This Chukotka Kamchatka Moose |publisher=Gothunts.com |date=1999-02-22 |accessdate=2013-06-27}}</ref>{{verify credibility|date=June 2013}} | |||
| ===New Zealand=== | |||
| In 1900, an attempt to introduce moose into the ] area failed; then in 1910 ten moose, four bulls and six cows, were introduced into ]. This area is considered a less-than suitable habitat; and subsequent low numbers of sightings and kills has led to some presumption of this population's failure.<ref name="king">{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press in association with the Mammal Society, New Zealand Branch | isbn = 0-19-558320-5 (pbk.) | editor = Caroline King | title = The handbook of New Zealand mammals| location = Auckland, N.Z.| accessdate = 2011-12-04| year = 1995}}</ref> The last proven sighting of a moose in New Zealand was in 1952.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/deer-and-deer-farming/1|title=Deer and deer farming – Introduction and impact of deer|date=1 March 2009|publisher=Te Ara – Encyclopedia of New Zealand|accessdate=27 March 2011}}</ref> A moose antler was found in 1972 and DNA tests showed that hair collected in 2002 was from a moose. Extensive searching has been carried out and while automated cameras failed to capture photographs, evidence was seen of bedding spots, browsing and antler marks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/location/story.cfm?l_id=141&ObjectID=10348890 |title=Hairs move NZ moose out of realm of Nessie – 06 October 2005 – Dunedin and Otago News, Sport and Weather from NZ Herald |publisher=NZ Herald |date=2005-10-06 |accessdate=2009-11-27}}</ref> | |||
| == Populations == | |||
| '''North America:''' | |||
| * ''In Canada'' : There are an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 moose <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hww.ca/en/species/mammals/moose.html#sid14 |title=Hinterland Who's Who |publisher=Hww.ca |accessdate=2013-05-25}}</ref> with 150,000 in Newfoundland in 2007 descended from just four that were introduced in the 1900s.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.canadacool.com/COOLFACTS/NEWFOUNDLAND/NFLDMoose.html | title = Newfoundland's 120,000 moose are descended from just four that were introduced a century ago | work = Canadacool.com | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110724203530/http://www.canadacool.com/COOLFACTS/NEWFOUNDLAND/NFLDMoose.html | archivedate = 2011-07-24 | deadurl = yes }}</ref> | |||
| * ''In United States'' : probably around 300,000, as follows: | |||
| **Northeast: A wildlife ecologist estimated 50,000 in New York State and New England in 2007.<ref></ref> | |||
| **Upper Midwest: Michigan estimated 433 (in its ]) in 2011,<ref></ref> Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources 20-40 (close to its UP border with Michigan) in 2003, Minnesota 5600 in its northeast in 2010,<ref></ref> and under 100 in its northwest in 2009;<ref></ref> North Dakota closed, due to low moose population, one of its moose-hunting (geographic) units in 2011, and issued 162 single-kill licenses to hunters, each restricted to one of the remaining nine units.<ref>, North Dakota Game and Fish Department</ref> | |||
| **Rocky Mountain states: Wyoming is said to have the largest share in its 6-state region, and its Fish and Game Commission estimated 7,692 in 2009.<ref>, ''Billings Gazette'', May 28, 2009</ref> | |||
| **Alaska: The state's Department of Fish and Game estimated 200,000 in 2011.<ref>, p. 6, "How Do Scandinavia and Alaska Compare?"</ref> | |||
| '''Europe and Asia''': | |||
| *''Finland'' : In 2009, there was a summer population of 115,000 moose.<ref>. Riistaweb.riista.fi. Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref> | |||
| *''Norway'' : In 2007, there were some 120,000 moose.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} | |||
| *''Estonia'' : 13,260 individuals<ref> '']'' 06.26.2013. Retrieved on 6-27-2013. {{et icon}}</ref> | |||
| *''Poland'' : 2,800 individuals<ref name="lhnet">{{cite web|url=http://www.lhnet.org/eurasian-elk/ |title=Factsheet: Eurasian Elk (Elk, reindeer, roe deer (Cetartiodactyla Cervidae Capreolinae) > Alces alces) |publisher=Lhnet.org |date= |accessdate=2013-06-27}}</ref> | |||
| *''Czech Republic'' : maximum of 50 animals<ref name="lhnet" /> | |||
| *''Russia'' : In 2008, there were approximately 730,000 moose.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} | |||
| *''Sweden'' : Summer population is estimated to be 300,000–400,000 moose. Around 100,000 are shot each fall.<ref>{{sv icon}} {{cite web|url=http://www.jagareforbundet.se/Viltet/ViltVetande/Artpresentationer/Alg/ |title=jagareforbundet.se |publisher=jagareforbundet.se |accessdate=2011-02-16}}</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| ===Subspecies=== | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |- | |||
| | Eurasian Elk | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. alces'' | |||
| | ], ], ], ], and ]. No longer present in central and western Europe except for ], ] and ], with a certain population in the ], ] and northern ], but can be observed in ] since the 1970s and a tiny reintroduced population in ], ], recently sighted in eastern ]. (Range formerly included ], ], and Benelux nations.). Population increasing and regaining territory. | |||
| |- | |||
| | Yakutia Moose, or the Mid-Siberian/Lena Moose<ref name="bearcreekjournal">{{cite web|url=http://bearcreekjournal.com/mooseworld/asian-moose/ |title=Asian Moose |publisher=Bear Creek Journal |date= |accessdate=2013-06-27}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. pfizenmayeri'' | |||
| | Eastern ], ], and ]. Mostly found in forests of eastern Russia. The most common moose in ]. Its ranging goes from the ] in the west and most of ]. Range excludes the ranges of the ] and Amur Moose to the east and Northern ]. Similar in size to the Western Moose of Canada. | |||
| |- | |||
| | Ussurian or Amur Moose<ref name="bearcreekjournal" /> | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. cameloides'' | |||
| | Ranges from ]-] region of far eastern Russia, as well as the North Eastern part of ]. Amur moose are different from other moose in that their antler size is much smaller, or lack any at all. Even adult bulls antlers are small and cervine with little palmation. It is the smallest moose sub-specie in Asia and the world, with the biggest males standing only 5 and half to 6 feet at the shoulder and weigh between 450-700 pounds. | |||
| |- | |||
| | Chukotka Moose or East Siberian moose<ref name="bearcreekjournal" /> | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. burulini'' | |||
| | Ranges from Northeastern Siberia from the ] basin east to the ] and ] basins and south through the ] range and ]. Largest moose in Europe and Asia. Matches, and maybe even surpasses, the Alaskan moose(A. a. gigas), as the largest of the deer species. Bulls can grow up to 7 feet tall and weigh between 1100-1600 pounds, females are smaller. | |||
| |- | |||
| | Eastern Moose | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. americana'' | |||
| | Eastern Canada, including eastern ], all of ], and the ]. Northeastern United States including ], ], ], ], ], ], and northern ] near the Adirondack Mountains. Population increasing. | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. andersoni'' | |||
| | ] to western ], eastern ], ], southwestern ], ] (Upper Peninsula), northern ], northern ], and northeastern ]. | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. gigas'' | |||
| | ] and western ]. The largest subspecies in ]. | |||
| |- | |||
| | Shiras Moose | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. shirasi'' | |||
| | ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|title = Moose Status and Hunting in Washington By Dana L. Base, Associate Wildlife Biologist August 2004|accessdate = 2009-12-07|url = http://wdfw.wa.gov/wlm/game/hunter/gametrails/2004/moose_status.htm |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070621205514/http://wdfw.wa.gov/wlm/game/hunter/gametrails/2004/moose_status.htm |archivedate = June 21, 2007}}</ref> Smallest subspecies in North America. | |||
| |- | |||
| | † ] | |||
| ] | |||
| | ''A. a. caucasicus'' | |||
| | ]. Extinct due to loss of habitat and overhunting. Range would have included ], ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| |} | |||
| == Biology and behavior == | |||
| ===Diet=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] plant.]] | |||
| ].]] | |||
| The moose is a ] and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit. The average adult moose needs to consume 9770 ]<!--NB must be capitalized (see article)--> per day to maintain its body weight.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/marssim/simhtml/organisms/moose.html |title=Info on moose diet from Norwestern University |publisher=Qrg.northwestern.edu |accessdate=2011-02-16}}</ref> Much of a moose's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of ] and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as ] and ]. These plants are rather low in sodium, and moose generally need to consume a good quantity of aquatic plants. While much lower in energy, these plants provide the moose with its sodium requirements, and as much as half of their diet usually consists of aquatic plant life.<ref name="Richard F Page 84-85">''Biology by numbers: an encouragement to quantitative thinking'' By Richard F. Burton – Cambridge University Press 1998 Page 84-85</ref> In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that is used as a snow and ice melter.<ref>''Journey to New England'' By Patricia Harris, David Lyon – Patricia Harris-David Lyon 1999 Page 398</ref> A typical moose, weighing {{convert|360|kg|abbr=on}}, can eat up to {{convert|32|kg|abbr=on}} of food per day.<ref name="Richard F Page 84-85"/> | |||
| Moose lack upper front ], but have eight sharp incisors on the lower jaw. They also have a tough tongue, lips and gums, which aid in the eating of woody vegetation. Moose have six pairs of large, flat molars and, ahead of those, six pairs of premolars, to grind up their food. A moose's upper lip is very sensitive, to help distinguish between fresh shoots and harder twigs, and the lip is ], for grasping their food. In the summer, moose may use this prehensile lip for grabbing branches and pulling, stripping the entire branch of leaves in a single mouthful, or for pulling forbs, like ]s, or aquatic plants up by the base, roots and all.<ref>''Moose'' By Art Rodgers -- Voyager Press 2001 Page 34</ref><ref>''Seasons of the Moose'' By Jennie Promack, Thomas J. Sanker -- Gibbs Smith 1992 Page 21</ref> | |||
| A moose's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer the new growths from ]s such as white birch, ] and ], among many others. Many aquatic plants include ] and ].<ref>. Mooseworld. Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref> Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants. In non polar regions this trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of black flies. Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in. Moose have been known to dive underwater to reach plants on lake bottoms, and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding. Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater.<ref name="World Page 237">''Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecology'' By Valerius Geist -- Stackpole Books 1998 Page 237</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Antlers=== | |||
| The male's antlers grow as cylindrical beams projecting on each side of the head at right angles to the midline of the skull, and then fork. The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening. | |||
| In the North Siberian elk (''A. a. bedfordiae''), the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening. In the common elk (''A. a. alces'') this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base, and a number of smaller snags on the free border. There is, however, a ]n breed of the common elk in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the East Siberian animals. | |||
| The palmation appears to be more marked in North American moose (''A. a. americanus'') than in the typical Scandinavian elk. | |||
| ], early June.]] | |||
| The male will drop its antlers after the mating season and conserve energy for the winter. A new set of antlers will then regrow in the spring. Antlers take three to five months to fully develop, making them one of the fastest growing animal organs. They initially have a layer of skin, called "velvet," which is shed once the antlers become fully grown. Immature bulls may not shed their antlers for the winter, but retain them until the following spring. | |||
| If a bull moose is ], either by accidental or ], he will quickly shed his current set of antlers and then immediately begin to grow a new set of misshapen and deformed antlers that he will wear the rest of his life without ever shedding again. The distinctive looking appendages (often referred to as "devil's antlers") are the source of several myths and legends among many groups of ] as well as several other tribes of indigenous peoples of North America.<ref>Geist, Valerius (1998)'' Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecology'' Stackpole Books.</ref> | |||
| In extremely rare circumstances, a cow moose may grow antlers. This is usually attributed to a hormone imbalance.<ref> ''Joe Viechnicki, KFSK – Petersburg 10-19-09</ref> | |||
| ===Size and weight=== | |||
| ] | |||
| On average, an adult moose stands {{convert|1.4|–|2.1|m|ft|abbr=on}} high at the shoulder, which is more than a foot higher than the next largest deer on average, the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jackmanmaine.org/maine-moose.php |title=Moose Facts from Maine |publisher=Jackmanmaine.org |accessdate=2009-11-27}}</ref> Males (or "bulls") weigh {{convert|380|–|700|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and females (or "cows") typically weigh {{convert|200|–|360|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.env.gov.nl.ca/snp/Animals/moose.htm |title=Moose |publisher=Env.gov.nl.ca |accessdate=2009-11-27 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080102234625/http://www.env.gov.nl.ca/snp/Animals/moose.htm |archivedate = January 2, 2008}}</ref> The head-and-body length is {{convert|2.4|-|3.2|m|ft|abbr=on}}, with the vestigial tail adding only a further {{convert|5|-|12|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>Nowak, Ronald W., ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. The Johns Hopkins University Press (1999), ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8</ref> The largest of all the races is the Alaskan subspecies (''A. a. gigas''), which can stand over 2.1 m (7 ft) at the shoulder, has a span across the antlers of 1.8 m (6 ft) and averages 634.5 kg (1,396 lbs) in males and 478 kg (1,052 lbs) in females.<ref name="Nancy Long / Kurt Savikko">{{cite web|author=Nancy Long / Kurt Savikko |url=http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/biggame/moose.php |title=Moose: Wildlife Notebook Series – Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=Adfg.state.ak.us |date=2009-08-07 |accessdate=2009-11-27}}</ref> Typically, however, the antlers of a mature bull are between 1.2 m (3.9 ft) and 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The largest confirmed size for this species was a bull shot at the ] in September 1897 that weighed 820 kg (1,800 lb) and measured {{convert|2.33|m|ft|abbr=on}} high at the shoulder.<ref name="Wood">Wood, ''The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats''. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9</ref> There have been reported cases of even larger moose, including a bull that reportedly scaled {{convert|1180|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, but none are authenticated and may not be considered reliable.<ref name="Wood"/> Behind only the ], the moose is the second largest land animal in both ] and ]. | |||
| ===Social structure and reproduction=== | |||
| Moose are mostly ]. They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf. Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during the mating season. | |||
| Mating occurs in September and October. The males are ] and will seek several females to breed with. During this times both sexes will call to each other. Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to 500 meters away, while females produce wail-like sounds.<ref>{{cite web|author=DW Hartt, Data/Web Coordinator |url=http://www.nwtwildlife.com/NWTwildlife/moose/reproduction.htm |title=Moose Reproduction |publisher=Web.archive.org |accessdate=2011-02-16 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080424001305/http://www.nwtwildlife.com/NWTwildlife/moose/reproduction.htm |archivedate=2008-04-24}}</ref> Males will fight for access to females. They either assess which is larger, with the smaller bull retreating, or they may engage in battles, usually only involving the antlers. | |||
| Female moose have an eight-month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful,<ref>{{Cite book|publisher = Smithsonian Institution Press|isbn = 1-56098-845-2|last = Ruff|first = Sue|title = The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals|location = Washington|year = 1999}}</ref> in May or June.<ref>{{cite web|title = Moose: Minnesota DNR|accessdate = 2009-11-11|url = http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mammals/moose/index.html}}</ref> Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult. The young will stay with the mother until just before the next young are born. The life span of an average moose is about 15–25 years. | |||
| <gallery widths=160px heights=120px> | |||
| File:Moose calves nursing.jpg|(newborn)<br/>Calves nursing in spring. | |||
| File:Cowcalflyingdown.JPG|(3 months)<br/>Calves stay near their mothers at all times. | |||
| File:Ninemomoose.JPG|(9 months)<br/>This calf almost ready to leave its mother. | |||
| File:Mainstmoose.JPG|(10–11 months)<br/>This yearling probably recently chased away by its mother. | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ===Aggression=== | |||
| Moose are not usually aggressive towards humans, but can be provoked or frightened to behave with aggression. In terms of raw numbers, they attack more people than ]s and ] combined, but usually with only minor consequences. In the Americas, moose injure more people than any other wild mammal and, worldwide, only hippopotamuses injure more.<ref>Adventure Guide Inside Passage & Coastal Alaska By Ed Readicker-Henderson, Lynn Readicker-Henderson -- Hunter Publishing 2006 Page 49</ref> When harassed or startled by people or in the presence of a ], moose may charge. Also, as with bears or any wild animal, moose that have become habituated to being fed by people may act aggressively when denied food. During the fall mating season, bull moose may be aggressive toward humans due to the high hormone levels they experience. Cows with young calves are very protective and will attack humans who come too close, especially if they come between mother and calf. Unlike other dangerous animals, moose are not territorial, and do not view humans as food, and will therefore usually not pursue humans if they simply run away.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wildlife.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=aawildlife.agmoose |title=What To Do About Aggressive Moose, Division of Wildlife Conservation, Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=wildlife.alaska.gov |accessdate=2009-11-06}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Like any wild animal, moose are unpredictable and should be given a respectful amount of space. They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if their "personal space" has been encroached upon. Moose that have been harassed may vent their anger on unwary victims, and often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passers-by.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kaplan |first=Karen |url=http://articles.latimes.com/keyword/university-of-alaska |title=Articles about University Of Alaska - Los Angeles Times |publisher=Articles.latimes.com |date=1952-11-22 |accessdate=2012-11-09}}</ref> Moose are very limber animals with highly flexible joints and sharp, pointed hooves, and are capable of kicking with both front and back legs. Unlike other large, hooved mammals, such as horses, moose can kick in all directions including sideways. Therefore, there is no safe side from which to approach. However, moose often give warning signs prior to attacking, displaying their aggression by means of body language. The maintaining of eye contact is usually the first sign of aggression, while laid-back ears or a lowered head is a definite sign of agitation. If the hairs on the back of the moose's neck and shoulders (hackles) stand up, a charge is usually imminent. The ] Visitor Centers warn tourists that "...a moose with its hackles raised is a thing to fear."<ref>''Adventure Guide Alaska Highway'' By Ed Readicker-Henderson, Lynn Readicker-Henderson -- Hunter Publishing 2006 Page 416</ref><ref>''Explorer's Guide 50 Hikes Around Anchorage'' By Lisa Maloney -- The Countryman Press 2010 Page 16</ref><ref>''Field & Stream'' Aug 2002 -- Page 75--77</ref><ref>''Wilderness Camping & Hiking'' By Paul Tawrell -- Exxa Nature 2007 Page 161</ref> | |||
| Studies suggest that the calls made by female moose during the rut not only call the males but can actually induce a bull to invade another bull's harem and fight for control of it. This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with.<ref>US Fed News Service, 8/3/2011</ref> | |||
| Moose often show aggression to other animals as well; especially predators. Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults. Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from black bears, brown bears and grizzlies. Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to the wolves. Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves. A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal. European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of a predator. However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color.<ref name="World Page 237"/> | |||
| == Natural predators == | |||
| ] saddle from ], depicting a moose being hunted by a ].]] | |||
| ], 1834.]] | |||
| A full-grown moose has few enemies, but a pack of ] can still pose a threat, especially to females with calves.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nancy Long / Kurt Savikko |url=http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/furbear/wolf.php |title=Wolf: Wildlife Notebook Series – Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=Adfg.state.ak.us |date=2007-12-17 |accessdate=2009-11-27}}</ref> ]s<ref>. Tigrisfoundation.nl (1999-11-13). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref> and ]<ref name="Nancy Long / Kurt Savikko"/> are also known to prey on moose, although bears are more likely to take over a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nancy Long / Kurt Savikko |url=http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/biggame/brnbear.php |title=Brown Bear: Wildlife Notebook Series – Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=Adfg.state.ak.us |date=2009-08-07 |accessdate=2009-11-27}}</ref> ]s and ]s can be significant predators of moose calves in May and June and can, in rare instances, predate adults (mainly cows).<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_5/Schwartz_Franzmann_Vol_5.pdf |jstor=3872518 |title=Effects of Tree Crushing on Black Bear Predation on Moose Calves |author=Charles C. Schwartz and Albert W. Franzmann |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=5 |publisher=A Selection of Papers from the Fifth International Conference on Bear Research and Management, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, February 1980 |year=1983 |page=40}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=87 |title=Hinterland Who's Who – Cougar |publisher=Hww.ca |accessdate=2009-11-27}}</ref> ] are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the large ungulates are weakened by harsh winter conditions.<ref name= Smith>{{cite web|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-499-01-0001.pdf|title=Gulo gulo – The American Society of Mammalogists|publisher=smith.edu |accessdate=2012-06-22}}</ref> ]s are the moose's only known marine predator as they have been known to prey on them when swimming between islands out of North America's Northwest Coast.<ref name="BairdBaird2006">{{cite book|author1=Robert W. Baird|author2=Robin W. Baird|title=Killer Whales of the World: Natural History and Conservation|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Rjksm-5-ap4C&pg=PA23|accessdate=2011-02-02|date=31 August 2006|publisher=Voyageur Press|isbn=978-0-7603-2654-1|pages=23–}}</ref> | |||
| In some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves. Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves. Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of {{convert|100|to|400|m}}, occasionally at a distance of {{convert|2|to|3|km}}. Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults. Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility is greatly impeded. Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves. Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and ], causing massive ]. Occasionally, a wolf may immobilise a moose by biting its sensitive nose, the pain of which can ] a moose.<ref name="Graves">{{cite book|author = Graves, Will |url = http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/|title = Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages|year = 2007|page = 222|isbn = 1-55059-332-3|publisher = Detselig Enterprises|location = Calgary|oclc = 80431846}}</ref> Wolf packs primarily target calves and elderly animals, but can and will take healthy, adult moose. Moose between the ages of two and eight are seldom killed by wolves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nwf.org:80/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?issueID=35&articleID=589 |title=Watching Wolves On a Wild Ride By Les Line, National Wildlife Federation, December/January 2001, vol. 39 no. 1 |publisher=Nwf.org:80 |accessdate=2011-02-16}}</ref> Though moose are usually hunted by packs, there are cases in which single wolves have successfully killed healthy, fully-grown moose.<ref name="raven">{{cite web|url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF17/1702.html |title=Alaska Science Forum, June 10, 2004 ''Are ravens responsible for wolf packs?'' Article #1702 by Ned Rozell |publisher=Gi.alaska.edu |date=2004-06-10 |accessdate=2011-02-16}}</ref><ref>''Carnivores of the World'' by Dr. Luke Hunter. Princeton University Press (2011), IBSN 9780691152288</ref> | |||
| Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual. In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in the past but are now rebounding. These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens.<ref>Berger, Joel; Swenson, Jon E.; Persson,Inga-Lill ''Science'' 2/9/2001</ref> | |||
| == Relationship with humans == | |||
| ===History=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| European ] and ]s reveal that moose have been hunted since the ]. Excavations in ], adjacent to the ] have yielded elk antlers in wooden hut remains from 6000 BCE, indicating some of the earliest elk hunting in northern Europe. In northern Scandinavia one can still find remains of ]s used for hunting elk. These pits, which can be up to 4 × 7 m wide and 2 m deep, would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves. They would have had steep sides lined with planks, making it impossible for the elk to escape once it fell in. The pits are normally found in large groups, crossing the elk's regular paths and stretching over several kilometres. Remains of wooden fences designed to guide the animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peat. In Norway, an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around 3,700 BC. Trapping elk in pits is an extremely effective hunting method, and as early as the 16th century the Norwegian government tried to restrict their use. Nevertheless, the method was in use until the 19th century. | |||
| The earliest recorded description of the elk is in ]'s '']'', where it is described thus: | |||
| <blockquote>There are also , which are called elks. The shape of these, and the varied colour of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up. Trees serve as beds to them ; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them.<ref>{{Cite book|publisher = Harper & brothers|last = Caesar|first = Julius|coauthors = Aulus Hirtius|title = Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars|chapter = XXVII|page = 154|year = 1879|isbn = 0-217-45287-6}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ] | |||
| In book 8, chapter 16 of ]'s '']'' from 77 AD the elk and an animal called achlis, which is presumably the same animal, are described thus: | |||
| <blockquote>...there is, also, the elk, which strongly resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the length of the ears and of the neck. There is also the achlis, which is produced in the land of Scandinavia; it has never been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of it from many persons; it is not unlike the elk, but has no joints in the hind leg. Hence, it never lies down, but reclines against a tree while it sleeps; it can only be taken by previously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness. Its upper lip is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go backwards when grazing; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip would get doubled up.<ref>{{cite web|title = Pliny the Elder, The Natural History |others= eds. ], ]|accessdate = 2009-11-08|url = http://old.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+8.16}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| ===As food=== | |||
| ] is commonly found on trails. Some souvenir shops sell bags of it, sealed with ] and labeled with humorous names.]] | |||
| Moose are hunted as a ] species in many of the countries where they are found. Moose meat tastes, wrote ] in “The Maine Woods”, “like tender beef, with perhaps more flavour; sometimes like ]”. While the flesh has ] levels similar to other comparable ]s (e.g. ], ] and ]) it has a low ] content and the fat that is found is made up of a higher proportion of ]s (rather than ]s).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c22al.html |title=www.nutritiondata.com |publisher=www.nutritiondata.com |accessdate=2011-02-16}}</ref> | |||
| ] levels are high in Finnish elk ] and ], with the result that consumption of these organs from elk more than one year old is prohibited in Finland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodqualitynews.com/Food-Alerts/All-clear-for-Finnish-foods |title=All-clear for Finnish foods |publisher=www.foodqualitynews.com |accessdate=2009-11-06}}</ref> Cadmium intake has been found to be elevated amongst all consumers of elk meat, though the elk meat was found to contribute only slightly to the daily cadmium intake. However the consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, with the study revealing that heavy consumers of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin below the levels which would probably cause adverse ].<ref>Vahteristo, L., Lyytikäinen, T., Venäläinen, E. R., Eskola, M., Lindfors, E., Pohjanvirta, R., & Maijala, R. (2003). Cadmium intake of moose hunters in Finland from consumption of moose meat, liver and kidney. ''Food Additives and Contamination, 20'', 453–463.</ref> | |||
| Dr. Valerius Geist, who emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union, wrote in his 1999 book ''Moose: Behaviour, Ecology, Conservation'': | |||
| <blockquote>Those who care most passionately about moose are hunters, in particular people who live in wilderness and rural communities and those who depend on moose for food. In Sweden, no fall menu is without a mouthwatering moose dish. The Swedes fence their highways to reduce moose fatalities and design moose-proof cars. Sweden is less than half as large as the Canadian province of British Columbia, but the annual take of moose in Sweden – upward of 150,000 – is twice that of the total moose harvest in North America. That is how much Swedes cherish their moose.</blockquote> | |||
| Boosting of moose populations in Alaska for hunting purposes is one of the reasons given for allowing aerial or airborne methods to remove wolves in designated areas, e.g., Craig Medred: "A kill of 124 wolves would thus translate to 1488 moose or 2976 caribou or some combination thereof".<ref>{{dead link|date=February 2011}}</ref> Many scientists believe that this artificial inflation of game populations is actually detrimental to both caribou and moose populations as well as the ecosystem as a whole. This is because studies have shown that when these game populations are artificially boosted, it leads to both habitat destruction and a crash in these populations.<ref>, Protect America’s Wildlife (PAW) Act</ref> | |||
| ===Vehicle collisions=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| A moose's body structure, with a large heavy body suspended on long spindly legs, makes these animals particularly dangerous when hit by ] with low ground clearances. Generally, when colliding with a moose at high speed, the car's bumper and front grille will break the moose's legs, causing the body of the moose to fall onto the car's hood and delivering the bulk of the animal's weight into the ], crushing the front roof support beams and anyone in the front seats.<ref>http://www.vti.se/sv/publikationer/pdf/algdocka-av-gummi-for-krockprov.pdf</ref> Collisions of this type are frequently lethal; ] offer no protection, and ]s may not deploy or be of much use if they do.<ref> Number 2, 2004, of Nordic Road & Transport Research. Annotations Sweden</ref> Although vehicles with higher clearances (such as trucks) are typically immune from this effect, the force of striking any 270+ kg (600+ pound) object at high speed should not be underestimated. These risks led to the development of a vehicle test referred to as the "]" ({{lang-sv|Älgtest}}, {{lang-de|Elchtest}}). | |||
| ]. Trees and brush are trimmed along high moose crossing areas so that moose can be seen as they approach the road.]] | |||
| Moose warning signs are used on roads in regions where there is a danger of collision with the animal. The triangular warning signs common in Sweden, Norway, and Finland have become coveted souvenirs among tourists traveling in these countries, causing the road authorities so much expense that the moose signs have been replaced with image-less generic warning signs in some regions.<ref>{{sv icon}} "", '']'', August 12, 2007. Accessed November 6, 2009."</ref> | |||
| In January 2008, the Norwegian newspaper '']'' estimated that some 13,000 moose had died in collisions with Norwegian trains since 2000. The state agency in charge of railroad infrastructure (Jernbaneverket) plans to spend 80 million ] to reduce collision rate in the future by fencing the railways, clearing vegetation from near the tracks, and providing alternative snow-free feeding places for the animals elsewhere.<ref> ] 28 January 2008</ref> | |||
| In the Canadian province of ], collisions with moose are frequent enough that all new highways have fences to prevent moose from accessing the road, similar to how it has long been done in Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Demonstratively, Highway 7 between ] and ], which has one of the highest frequencies of moose collisions in the province, did not have these fences until 2008, although it was and continues to be extremely well signed.<ref>, New Brunswick Department of Transportation</ref><ref>, Communications New Brunswick, April 8, 2008</ref> In ], it is recommended to motorists to use caution between dusk and dawn, because that is when moose are most active and most difficult to see, increasing the risk of collisions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.roads.gov.nl.ca/moose.htm |title=Highway Driving Conditions – Department of Transportation and Works |publisher=www.roads.gov.nl.ca |accessdate=2009-11-06}}</ref> Local moose sightings are often reported on radio stations so that motorists can take care while driving in particular areas. | |||
| In Sweden, a fence will not be placed unless the road meets the minimum requirement of one accident, involving a moose, per kilometre road and year.<ref>{{sv icon}} . www.ttela.se (2010-12-21). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref> | |||
| ===Domestication=== | |||
| ], December 1952.]] | |||
| Domestication of moose was investigated in the ] before ]. Early experiments were inconclusive, but with the creation of a moose farm at ] in 1949 a small-scale moose domestication program was started, involving attempts at ] of animals based on their behavioural characteristics. Since 1963, the programme has continued at ], which had a herd of 33 ] moose as of 2003. Although at this stage the farm is not expected to be a profit-making enterprise, it obtains some income from the sale of ] and from visiting tourist groups. Its main value, however, is seen in the opportunities it offers for the research in the ] and behaviour of the moose, as well as in the insights it provides into the general principles of animal ]. | |||
| In Sweden, there was a debate in the late 18th century about the national value of using the moose as a domestic animal. Among other things, the moose was proposed to be used in postal distribution, and there was a suggestion to develop a moose-mounted cavalry. Such proposals remained unimplemented, mainly because the extensive hunting for moose nearly drove it to extinction<ref>Sune Björklöf: , Populär Historia, no 5, 1995. Visited 2010-05-17.</ref> and because of moose aggressiveness during the rutting period. | |||
| Varieties of ] are produced in ], Sweden. | |||
| == Paleontology == | |||
| ] | |||
| Moose are an old genus. Like its relatives, '']'' and '']'', the genus ''Alces'' gave rise to very few species which endured for long periods of time. This differs from the '']'', such as the ], which evolved many species before going extinct. Some scientists, such as Adrian Lister, grouped all the species as one genus, the Alcinae, while others, such as Augusto Azzaroli, used the term "alces" for the living species, placing the fossile species into the subgenera ''"]"'' and ''"Libralces."'' | |||
| The earliest known species is '']'' (French moose), which lived in the ], about 2 million years ago. ''Libralces gallicus'' came from the warm savannahs of Pliocene Europe, with the best preserved skeletons being found in southern France. ''Libralces gallicus'' was 1.25 times larger than the Alaskan moose in linear dimensions, making it nearly twice as massive. ''Libralces gallicus'' had many striking differences compared to its modern descendants. It had a longer, narrower snout and a less-developed nasal cavity, more resembling that of a modern deer, lacking any sign of the modern moose-snout. Its face resembled that of the modern ]. However, the rest of its skull structure, skeletal structure and teeth bore strong resemblance to those features that are unmistakable in modern moose, indicating a similar diet. Its antlers consisted of a 2 1/2 meter long horizontal bar, with no tines, ending in small palmations. Its skull and neck structure suggest an animal that fought using high-speed impacts, much like the ], rather than locking and twisting antlers the way modern moose combat. Their long legs and bone structure suggest an animal that was adapted to running at high speeds over rough terrain.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Deer of the world: their evolution, behaviour, and ecology'' By Valerius Geist - Page 244-250</ref><ref name="North America' Page 178-181">''Morphological Change in Quaternary Mammals of North America'' By Robert Allen Martin, Anthony D. Barnosky - Cambridge University Press 1993 Page 178-181</ref> | |||
| ''Libralces'' existed until the middle ], and were followed briefly by a species called ''Cervalces carnutorum''. The main differences between the two consisted of shortening of the horizontal bar in the antlers, and broadening of the palmations, indicating a likely change from open plains to more forested environments, and skeletal changes that suggest an adaptation to marshy environments. | |||
| ''Cervalces carnutorum'' was soon followed by a much larger species called '']'' (broad-fronted stag-moose). The Pleistocene epoch was a time of ], in which most species were much larger than their descendants of today, including exceptionally large lions, hippopotamuses, mammoths, and deer. Many fossiles of ''Cervalces latifrons'' have been found in Siberia, dating from about 1.2 to 0.5 million years ago. This is most likely the time at which the species migrated from the Eurasian continent to North America. Like its descendants, it inhabited mostly northern latitudes, and was probably well-adapted to the cold. ''Cervalces latifrons'' was the largest deer known to have ever existed, standing more than 2.1 meters tall at the shoulders. This is bigger than even the Irish elk, which was 1.8 meters tall at the shoulders. Its antlers were smaller than the Irish elk, but comparable in size to ''Libralces gallicus''. However, the antlers had a shorter horizontal bar and larger palmations, more resembling that of a modern moose.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="North America' Page 178-181"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/species-of-the-day/evolution/cervalces-latifrons/index.html |title=Cervalces latifrons | Natural History Museum |publisher=Nhm.ac.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-11-09}}</ref> | |||
| ''Alces alces'' (modern moose) appeared during the late Pleistocene epoch. The species arrived in North America at the end of the Pleistocene, and coexisted with a late-surviving species of ''Cervalces latifrons'', which Azzaroli classified as a separate species called '']'', or the American stag-moose.<ref>''The evolution of artiodactyls'' By Donald R. Prothero, Scott E Foss - Johns Hopkins University Press 2007 Page 254</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * {{portal-inline|Animals}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{Reflist |colwidth=30em | |||
| |refs = | |||
| <ref name=spieg120903>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/wild-elks-return-to-germany-a-853581.html |title=Elks Make a Dangerous Comeback in Germany |work=Spiegel |date=2012-09-03}}</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| * (''Alces alces''), Centre for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research. | |||
| * {{cite book |publisher=Lerner Publications |isbn=1-57505-426-4, 9781575054261 |last=DuTemple |first=Lesley A. |title=North American Moose |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=cEtyxoXC5d8C&lpg=PP1&dq=North%20American%20Moose&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true |date=2000-02-01}} | |||
| * {{cite book |publisher=Voyageur Press (MN) |isbn=0-89658-422-4 |last=Geist |first=Valerius |coauthors=Michael H. Francis |title=Moose: Behavior, Ecology, Conservation |date=1999-11}} | |||
| * {{cite book |publisher=Gibbs Smith |isbn=0-87905-455-7, 9780879054557 |last=Promack |first=Jennie |coauthors=Thomas J. Sanker |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=639shiQhz8sC&lpg=PP1&dq=Seasons%20of%20the%20Moose&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true |title=Seasons of the Moose |date=1992-06-01}} | |||
| * {{cite book |edition=illustrated |publisher=Cowles Creative Publishing |isbn=1-55971-638-X |last=Strong |first=Paul |title=Wild Moose Country |date=1998-05}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{commons|Alces alces}} | |||
| {{wikispecies|Alces alces}} | |||
| * {{ITIS |id=180703 |taxon=Alces alces}} | |||
| * | |||
| * {{cite web |title=North American Mammals: Alces alces |url=http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=1}} | |||
| {{Artiodactyla|R.1}} | |||
| {{North American Game}} | |||
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