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| {{for|the modern event|Olympic Games}} | |||
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| {{Olympic Games infobox}} | |||
| The '''Olympic Games''' ({{lang-grc|τὰ Ὀλύμπια ; ''ta Olympia''; the Olympics}}) were a series of ]s among representatives of ]s of ]. They were held in honor of ], and the Greeks gave them a ] ]. Historical records indicate that they began in 776 BC in ]. They continued to be celebrated when Greece came under ], until the emperor ] suppressed them in 394 AD as part of the campaign to impose Christianity as the ]. The games were held every four years, or '']'', which became a unit of time in historical chronologies. | |||
| During the celebration of the games, an ] was enacted so that athletes could travel from their countries to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors were olive leaf wreaths or crowns. The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance over their rivals. Politicians would announce political alliances at the games, and in times of war, priests would offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. The games were also used to help spread Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations and artistic competitions. The ] was counted as one of the ]. Sculptors and poets would congregate each olympiad to display their works of art to would-be patrons. | |||
| The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate,<ref>David Sansone, ''Ancient Greek civilization'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2003, p.32</ref> although a woman ] is also mentioned as a winning chariot owner. As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any ] and ] were allowed to participate, although the ], the officials in charge, allowed king ] to participate in the games only after he had proven his Greek ancestry.<ref>Robert Malcolm Errington, ''A history of Macedonia'', University of California Press, 1990, p.3</ref><ref>Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington, ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, p.16</ref> The games were always held at Olympia rather than alternating to different locations as is the tradition with the modern ].<ref name=perseus>{{cite web|title=The Ancient Olympics|publisher=Tufts University|work=The Perseus Project|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics|accessdate=2010-02-12| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100210170341/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics| archivedate= 10 February 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations. | |||
| ==Origins== | |||
| ] | |||
| To the Greeks it was important to root the Olympic Games in mythology.<ref>Kyle, 1999, p.101</ref> During the time of the ancient games their origins were attributed to the gods, and competing legends persisted as to who actually was responsible for the genesis of the games.<ref>Kyle, 1999, pp.101–102</ref> These origin of traditions have become nearly impossible to untangle, yet a chronology and patterns have arisen that help people understand the story behind the games.<ref>Kyle, 1999, p.102</ref> The earliest myths regarding the origin of the games are recounted by the Greek historian, ]. According to the story, the ] Herakles (not to be confused with the son of ]) and four of his brothers, Paeonaeus, Epimedes, Iasius and Idas, raced at Olympia to entertain the newborn Zeus. He crowned the victor with an olive tree wreath, (which thus became a peace symbol) which also explains the four year interval, bringing the games around every fifth year (counting inclusively).<ref>Spivey, 2005, pp.225–226</ref><ref>], Description of Greece, 5.7.6-9</ref> The other Olympian gods (so named because they lived permanently on Mount Olympus), would also engage in wrestling, jumping and running contests.<ref>Spivey, 2005, p.226</ref> Another myth, this one occurring after the aforementioned myth, is attributed to ]. He claims the festival at Olympia involved ], king of ] and eponymous hero of the ], and ] | |||
| , the son of Zeus. The story goes that after completing his ], Herakles established an athletic festival to honor his father. Pelops, using trickery, and the help of ], won a chariot race against a local king and claimed the king's daughter. This is also attributed to Pausanias and is dated by the historian at 776 BC.<ref>Spivey, 2005, pp.229–232</ref> The games of previous millennia were discontinued and then revived by ], ], and Cleoisthenes of ] at the behest of the ] who claimed that the people had strayed from the gods, which had caused a plague and constant war. Restoration of the games would end the plague, usher in a time of peace, and signal a return to a more traditional lifestyle.<ref>Kyle, 1999, pp.102–103</ref> The patterns that emerge from these myths are that the Greeks believed the games had their roots in religion, that athletic competition was tied to worship of the gods, and the revival of the ancient games was intended to bring peace, harmony and a return to the origins of Greek life.<ref>Kyle, 1999, p.102–104</ref> Since these myths were documented by historians like Pausanias, who lived during the reign of ] in the 160s AD, it is likely that these stories are more fable than fact. The games were abolished in 393 B.C by Emperor Theodosius.<ref>Spivey, 2005, pp.231–232</ref> | |||
| The origins of many aspects of the Olympics date to ] of the ] period and later.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy J. Raschke|title=Archaeology Of The Olympics: The Olympics & Other Festivals In Antiquity|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DwU1IlTEhrYC&pg=PA22|accessdate=12 August 2012|date=15 June 1988|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-11334-6|pages=22–}}</ref> Early examples are known such as those held for ] by ], described by ] and in Book 5 of ]'s '']'', in which ] organizes athletic contests on the anniversary of his father's death. | |||
| == History == | |||
| The games were held to be one of the two central rituals in ], the other being the much older religious festival, the ].<ref name="HickokSports">{{cite web |url=http://www.hickoksports.com/history/olancien.shtml |title=The Ancient Olympic Games |publisher=HickokSports |date=2005-02-04 |accessdate=2007-05-13| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070510082340/http://www.hickoksports.com/history/olancien.shtml| archivedate= 10 May 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><!-- I see the citation.....but still, something is missing here --> | |||
| The games started in Olympia, Greece, in a sanctuary site for the ] near the towns of Elis and ] (both in ] on the peninsula of ]). The first games began as an annual foot race of young women in competition for the position of the priestess for the goddess, ]<ref>Pausanias: v. 16. 2</ref> and a second race was instituted for a consort for the priestess who would participate in the religious traditions at the temple.<ref>Pindar: Pythian Odes ix</ref> | |||
| The ], the first recorded competition for women in the Olympic Stadium, were held as early as the sixth century BC. It originally consisted of foot races only, as did the competition for males. Some texts, including Pausanias's '']'', c. AD 175, state that ] gathered a group known as the "Sixteen Women" and made them administrators of the Heraea Games, out of gratitude for her marriage to ]. Other texts related to the Elis and Pisa conflict indicate that the "]" were peacemakers from Pisa and Elis and, because of their political competence, became administrators of the Heraea. Being the consort of Hera in ] ], Zeus was the father of the deities in the ] of that era. The Sanctuary of ] in Olympia housed a {{convert|13|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} ] that had been sculpted by ] circa 445 BC. This statue was one of the ancient ]. By the time of the Classical Greek culture, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, the games were restricted to male participants. | |||
| The historian ], who lived in the fourth century BC, is one potential candidate for establishing the use of Olympiads to count years, although credit for codifying this particular epoch usually falls to Hippias of Elis, to Eratosthenes, or even to Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have imitated.<ref>Plutarch, ''Numa Pompilius 1.4''</ref><ref>Dionysius, ''1.74-1-3''. Little remains of Eratosthenes' ''Chronographiae'', but its academic influence is clearly demonstrated here in the ''Roman Antiquities'' by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.</ref><ref>Denis Feeney in ''Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History''. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2007), 84.</ref> The Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and later, the ancient historians' method of counting the years even referred to these games, using the term '']'' for the period between two games. Previously, the local dating systems of the Greek states were used (they continued to be used by everyone except the historians), which led to confusion when trying to determine dates. For example, Diodorus states that there was a solar eclipse in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, which must be the eclipse of 316 BC. This gives a date of (mid-summer) 765 BC for the first year of the first Olympiad.<ref>"The Athletics of the Ancient Olympics: A Summary and Research Tool" by Kotynski, p.3 (Quote used with permission). For the calculation of the date, see Kotynski footnote 6.</ref> Nevertheless, there is disagreement among scholars as to when the games began.<ref>See, for example, Alfred Mallwitz's article "Cult and Competition Locations at Olympia" p.101 in which he argues that the games may not have started until about 704 BC. Hugh Lee, on the other hand, in his article "The 'First' Olympic Games of 776 B.C.E" p.112, follows an ancient source that claims that there were twenty-seven Olympiads before the first one was recorded in 776. There are no records of Olympic victors extant from earlier than the fifth century BC.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The only competition held then was, according to the later Greek traveller ] who wrote in 175 AD., the '']'' race, a race over about {{convert|190|m}}, measured after the feet of Hercules. The word ''stadium'' is derived from this foot race. | |||
| The Greek tradition of athletic nudity (gymnos)<ref>N.Yalouris.1976.The Olympic Games-through the ages.Print</ref> was introduced in 720 BC, either by the Spartans or by the Megarian ], and this was adopted early in the Olympics as well. | |||
| Several groups fought over control of the sanctuary at Olympia, and hence the games, for prestige and political advantage. Pausanias later writes that in 668 BC, Pheidon of ] was commissioned by the town of Pisa to capture the sanctuary from the town of Elis, which he did and then personally controlled the games for that year. The next year, Elis regained control. | |||
| The Olympic Games were part of the ], four separate games held at two- or four-year intervals, but arranged so that there was at least one set of games every year. The Olympic Games were more important and more prestigious than the ], ], and ]. | |||
| The games were in decline for many years but continued past 385 AD, by which time flooding and earth quakes had damaged the buildings and invasions by barbarians had reached Olympia.<ref name="Young2008">{{cite book|author=David C. Young|title=A Brief History of the Olympic Games|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gMuuQZubxDIC&pg=PA135|accessdate=1 April 2013|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-77775-6|pages=135–}}</ref> In 394 Theodosius I banned all pagan festivals, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held.<ref name="Perrottet2004">{{cite book|author=Tony Perrottet|title=The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B2VPMUBAxUUC&pg=PA190|accessdate=1 April 2013|date=8 June 2004|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-1-58836-382-4|pages=190–}}</ref> | |||
| == Culture == | |||
| ]" is a copy of a Greek statue c. 5th century BC. It represents an ancient Olympic discus thrower]] | |||
| The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god ], and on the middle day of the games, 100 oxen would be sacrificed to him.<ref name=perseus/> Over time Olympia, site of the games, became a central spot for the worship of the head of the Greek ] and a temple, built by the Greek architect ] was erected on the mountaintop. The temple was one of the largest ] temples in Greece.<ref name=perseus/> The sculptor ] created a statue of the god made of gold and ivory. It stood {{convert|42|ft}} tall. It was placed on a throne in the temple. The statue became one of the ].<ref name=perseus/> As the historian ] put it, <blockquote>"... the glory of the temple persisted ... on account both of the festal assembly and of the Olympian Games, in which the prize was a crown and which were regarded as sacred, the greatest games in the world. The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece."<ref name=perseus/></blockquote> | |||
| Artistic expression was a major part of the games. Sculptors, poets and other artisans would come to the games to display their works in what became an artistic competition. Sculptors created works like ]'s '']'' or ''Discus Thrower''. Their aim was to highlight natural human movement and the shape of muscles and the body. Poets would be commissioned to write prose in honor of the Olympic victors. These poems, known as ''Epinicians'', were passed on from generation to generation and many of them have lasted far longer than any other honor made for the same purpose.<ref name=perseus/> ], one of the founders of the modern ], wanted to fully imitate the ancient Olympics in every way. Included in his vision was to feature an artistic competition modeled on the ancient Olympics and held every four years, during the celebration of the Olympic Games.<ref>Stanton, 2000, pp.3–4</ref> His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in ] in ].<ref>Stanton, 2000, p. 17</ref> | |||
| ==Politics== | |||
| ] in ], one of the leading city-states of the ancient world]] | |||
| Power in ] became centered around the ] in the 8th century BC.<ref>Hansen, 2006, p. 9</ref> The city-state was a population center organized into a self-contained political entity.<ref>Hansen, 2006, pp.9–10</ref> These city-states often lived in close proximity to each other, which created competition for limited resources. Though conflict between the city-states was ubiquitous, it was also in their self-interest to engage in trade, military alliances and cultural interaction.<ref>Hansen, 2006, p.10</ref> The city-states had a dichotomous relationship with each other: On one hand, they relied on their neighbors for political and military alliances, while on the other they competed fiercely with those same neighbors for vital resources.<ref>Hansen, 2006, p.114</ref> The Olympic Games were established in this political context and served as a venue for representatives of the city-states to peacefully compete against each other.<ref>Raschke, 1988, p. 23</ref> | |||
| In the first 200 years of the games' existence, they only had regional religious importance. Only Greeks in proximity to the mountain competed in these early games. This is evidenced by the dominance of Peloponnesian athletes in the victors' rolls.<ref>Spivey, 2005, p.172</ref> The spread of Greek colonies in the 5th and 6th centuries BC is repeatedly linked to successful Olympic athletes. For example, Pausanias recounts that ] was founded c. 630 BC by settlers from ] with ]n support. The support Sparta gave was primarily the loan of three-time Olympic champion Chionis. The appeal of settling with an Olympic champion helped to populate the colonies and maintain cultural and political ties with the city-states near Olympia. Thus, ] culture and the games spread while the primacy of Olympia persisted.<ref>Spivey, 2005, pp.182–183</ref> | |||
| The games faced a serious challenge during the ], which primarily pitted Athens against Sparta, but, in reality, touched nearly every Hellenistic city-state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Peloponnesian War|last=Lendering|first=Jona|publisher=Livius, Articles on Ancient History|url=http://www.livius.org/pb-pem/peloponnesian_war/peloponnesian_war.html|accessdate=2010-02-13| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100213095957/http://www.livius.org/pb-pem/peloponnesian_war/peloponnesian_war.html| archivedate= 13 February 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The Olympics were used during this time to announce alliances and offer sacrifices to the gods for victory.<ref name=perseus/><ref name=thucydides>{{cite book|title=The History of the Peloponnesian War|last=Thucydides|date=431 BC|volume=5|publisher=The Internet Classics Archive|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.5.fifth.html|accessdate=2010-02-13|others=Translated by ]|isbn=0-525-26035-8| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100213061123/http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.5.fifth.html| archivedate= 13 February 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> | |||
| During the Olympic Games, a truce, or ''ekecheiria'' was observed. Three runners, known as ''spondophoroi'' were sent from ] to the participant cities at each set of games to announce the beginning of the truce.<ref name=swaddling11>Swaddling, 1999, p.11</ref> During this period, armies were forbidden from entering Olympia, wars were suspended, and legal disputes and the use of the death penalty were forbidden. The truce was primarily designed to allow athletes and visitors to travel safely to the games and was, for the most part, observed.<ref name=swaddling11/> ] wrote of a situation when the ]ns were forbidden from attending the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 ] for assaulting the city of ] during the period of the ''ekecheiria''. The Spartans disputed the fine and claimed that the truce had not yet taken hold.<ref name=thucydides/><ref>Strassler & Hanson, 1996, pp.332–333</ref> | |||
| While a martial truce was observed by all participating city-states, no such reprieve from conflict existed in the political arena. The Olympic Games evolved the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the ancient world.<ref>Kyle, 2007, p. 8</ref> As such the games became a vehicle for city-states to promote themselves. The result was political intrigue and controversy. For example, ], a Greek historian, explains the situation of the athlete Sotades, <blockquote>"Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans."<ref name=perseus/></blockquote> | |||
| == Events == | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Only free men who spoke ] were allowed to participate in the Ancient Games of classical times.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} They were to some extent "international", in the sense that they included athletes from the various Greek city-states. Additionally, participants eventually came from Greek colonies as well, extending the range of the games to far shores of the ] and of the ]. | |||
| To be in the games, the athletes had to qualify and have their names written in the lists. It seems that only young people were allowed to participate, as the Greek writer ] relates that one young man was rejected for seeming overmature, and only after his lover, who presumably vouched for his youth, interceded with the King of Sparta, was he permitted to participate. Before being able to participate, every participant had to take an oath in front of the statue of ], saying that he had been in training for ten months. | |||
| At first, the Olympic Games lasted only one day, but eventually grew to five days. The Olympic Games originally contained one event: the '']'' (or "stade") race, a short sprint measuring between {{convert|180|and|240|m}}, or the length of the stadium. The length of the race is uncertain, since tracks found at archeological sites, as well as literary evidence, provide conflicting measurements. Runners had to pass five stakes that divided the lanes: one stake at the start, another at the finish, and three stakes in between. | |||
| ] | |||
| The '']'', or two-stade race, was introduced in 724 BC, during the 14th Olympic games. The race was a single lap of the stadium, approximately {{convert|400|m}}, and scholars debate whether or not the runners had individual "turning" posts for the return leg of the race, or whether all the runners approached a common post, turned, and then raced back to the starting line. | |||
| A third foot race, the ''dolichos'', was introduced in 720 BC. Accounts of the race present conflicting evidence as to the length of the ''dolichos''; however, the length of the race was 18–24 laps, or about three miles (5 km). The runners would begin and end their event in the stadium proper, but the race course would wind its way through the Olympic grounds. The course often would flank important shrines and statues in the sanctuary, passing by the ] statue by the temple of ] before returning to the stadium. | |||
| The last running event added to the Olympic program was the '']'', or "Hoplite race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the Olympic Games. The runners would run either a single or double '']'' (approximately 400 or 800 yards) in full or partial armour, carrying a shield and additionally equipped either with ]s or a helmet.<ref name="Gilman1">{{cite book|title=Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic Corinth: The Origins of the Greek Stadion|last=Gilman|first=David|year=1993|isbn=0-87169-206-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=HiILAAAAIAAJ&pg=PT53|publisher=American Philosophical Society|location=Philadelphia}}</ref><ref name="Perrottet1">{{cite journal|last=Perrottet|first=Tony|title=Let the Games Begin|journal=Smithsonian Magazine|url=http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com/issues/2004/august/games.php?page=2}}</ref> As the armour weighed between 50 and {{convert|60|lb|abbr=on}}, the ''hoplitodromos'' emulated the speed and stamina needed for warfare. Due to the weight of the armour, it was easy for runners to drop their shields or trip over fallen competitors. In a vase painting depicting the event, some runners are shown leaping over fallen shields.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} The course they used for these runs were made out of clay, with sand over the clay. | |||
| Over the years, more events were added: ] (''pygme''/''pygmachia''), ] (''pale'') in 708 BC,<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=dHvoM08EYccC&pg=PA44&dq=greek+wrestling+olympic+bc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ya4aUdS_HciLywH6ooD4Cg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=greek%20wrestling%20olympic%20bc&f=false</ref> and ], a fighting competition combining both elements. Wrestling was also the final decisive event in the ancient pentathlon.<ref>http://www.olympics.mu/ancient-olympic-wrestling.html</ref><ref>http://www.acta-archeo.com/html/4-11793-Pancrace.php</ref> Boxing became increasingly brutal over the centuries. Initially, soft leather covered their fingers, but eventually, hard leather with metal sometimes was used.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576089/Ancient_Olympic_Games.html|title=Boxing gets Brutal |publisher=Encarta|date=2006-03-23|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwKLElKO|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}.</ref> The fights had no rest periods and no rules against hitting a man while he was down. Bouts continued until one man either surrendered or died- however, killing an opponent wasn't a good thing, as the dead boxer was automatically declared the winner. | |||
| Other events include ], as well as a ], consisting of wrestling, ''stadion'', ], ], and ] (the latter three were not separate events). In the chariot racing event, it was not the rider, but the owner of the chariot and team who was considered to be the competitor, so one owner could win more than one of the top spots. | |||
| ], ] of ], won the mule '']'' event, and this ] was struck in commemoration.<ref>"," in Barclay Vincent Head, ''Historia Numorum''.</ref>]] | |||
| The addition of events meant the festival grew from one day to five days, three of which were used for competition. The other two days were dedicated to religious rituals. On the final day, there was a banquet for all the participants, consisting of 100 oxen that had been sacrificed to ] on the first day. | |||
| The winner of an Olympic event was awarded an ] and often was received with much honour throughout Greece, especially in his home town, where he was often granted large sums of money (in Athens, 500 ], a small fortune) and prizes including vats of ]. (See ].) Sculptors would create statues of Olympic victors,<ref>]</ref> and poets would sing odes in their praise for money. | |||
| Participation in most events was limited to male athletes except for women who were allowed to take part by entering horses in the ] events. In 396 BC, and again in 392 BC, the horses of a ]n princess named ] won the four-horse race. | |||
| The athletes usually competed ], not only as the weather was appropriate, but also as the festival was meant to celebrate, in part, the achievements of the human body. ] was used by the competitors, not only as a substitute for ] for washing, bathing, and cleaning, but also as a natural ], to keep skin smooth, and provide an appealing look for the participants. Because the men competed nude, married women were forbidden to watch the Olympics under penalty of death.<ref>". ''Penn Museum''.</ref> Contrastingly, in ]—which, compared to ], was less restrictive to its female citizens in general—both men and women did exercise unclothed. | |||
| <!-- more: | |||
| * specific winner | |||
| * better details | |||
| * customs | |||
| * Roman influence --> | |||
| == Famous athletes ==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | |||
| ] | |||
| * from ] | |||
| ** ] (owner of a four-horse chariot) (first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor) | |||
| * from ]: | |||
| ** ] (boxing 79th Olympiad, 464 BC) and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos (boxing and '']'') | |||
| ** ] (running: ''stadion'', ''diaulos'' and ''hoplitodromos'') | |||
| * from ]: | |||
| ** ] (running: ''stadion'', ''diaulos'' and ''hoplitodromos'') | |||
| ** ] (wrestling) | |||
| ** ] (''stadion'') | |||
| ** Timasitheos of Croton (wrestling) | |||
| * from other cities: | |||
| ** ] (''stadion'', the very first Olympic champion) | |||
| ** ] of ] (running: ''diaulos'') | |||
| ** ] (''boxer'', ''pankratiast'' and ''runner'') | |||
| * non-Greek: | |||
| ** ] (steerer of a four-horse chariot)<ref>Tiberius, AD 1 or earlier – cf. Ehrenberg & Jones, Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius p. 73 (n.78)</ref> | |||
| ** ] (steerer of a ten-horse chariot) | |||
| ** ], Prince and future King of ], last known Ancient Olympic victor (boxing) during the 291st Olympic Games in the 4th century<ref>369 according to ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece'' by Nigel Wilson, 2006, Routledge (UK) or 385 according to ''Classical Weekly'' by Classical Association of the Atlantic States</ref> | |||
| ==Olympic festivals in other places== | |||
| {{Main|Ancient Olympics in various places}} | |||
| Athletic festivals under the name of "Olympic games", named in imitation of the original festival at Olympia, were established over time in various places all over the Greek world. Some of these are only known to us by inscriptions and coins; but others, as the Olympic festival at ], obtained great celebrity. After these Olympic festivals had been established in several places, the great Olympic festival itself was sometimes designated in inscriptions by the addition of ].<ref>], '']'', 1875'' – </ref> | |||
| ==Ancient Olympic Games in literature== | |||
| # ''The Olympian: A Tale of Ancient Hellas'' by E.S. Kraay, ISBN 1439201676. | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * '']'', the Roman games influenced by Greek traditions | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| {{More footnotes|date=March 2012}} | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{refbegin}} | |||
| *{{cite book|title=Polis, an Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State|last=Hansen|first=Mogens Herman|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|year=2006|isbn=0-19-920849-2|url=http://books.google.com/?id=UwFoJTJZ1wIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=greek+city+state&cd=1#v=onepage&q=|accessdate=2010-02-12}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=The Landmark Thucydides|last1=Hanson|first1=Victor Davis|last2=Strassler|first2=Robert B.|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|year=1996|url=http://books.google.com/?id=pjt3ZGU61wIC&pg=PA332&dq=olympic+truce+violated&cd=2#v=onepage&q=olympic%20truce%20violated|accessdate=2010-02-12 | isbn=978-1-4165-9087-3}} | |||
| * ( 2009-10-25); | |||
| * {{cite book|title=Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World|last=Kyle|first=Donald G.|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Oxford, England|year=2007|isbn=978-0-631-22970-4|url=http://books.google.com/?id=tEbcu-sDkFEC&pg=PA8&dq=greek+city+state+pride+at+the+olympics&cd=1#v=onepage&q=greek%20city%20state%20pride%20at%20the%20olympics|accessdate=2010-02-12}} | |||
| * Mallowitz, Alfred. ''Cult and Competition Locations at Olympia''. Raschke 79–109. | |||
| * Miller, Stephen. "The Date of Olympic Festivals". <ins> Mitteilungen: Des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung.</ins> Vol. 90 (1975): 215–237. | |||
| * {{cite book|title=The Archaeology of the Olympics: the Olympics and Other Festivals in Antiquity|last=Raschke|first=Wendy J., ed.|publisher=Wisconsin University Press|location=Madison, Wisconsin|year=1988|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DwU1IlTEhrYC&pg=PA23&dq=greek+city+state+olympics&cd=6#v=onepage&q=|accessdate=2010-02-12 | isbn=978-0-299-11334-6}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=The Ancient Olympics|last=Spivey|first=Nigel|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|year=2005|isbn=0-19-280433-2|url=http://books.google.com/?id=_kcwp0RYS7sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=origins+of+the+ancient+olympics&cd=3#v=onepage&q=origins%20of%20the%20ancient%20olympics|accessdate=2010-02-12}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=The Forgotten Olympic Art Competitions:The story of the Olympic art competitions of the 20th century|last=Stanton|first=Richard|publisher=Trafford|location=Victoria, Canada|year=2000|isbn=1-55212-606-4|url=http://books.google.com/?id=p3Mz55M5DRwC&pg=PP8&dq=art+of+the+ancient+olympics&cd=7#v=onepage&q=art%20of%20the%20ancient%20olympics|accessdate=2010-02-23}} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=The ancient Olympic Games|last=Swaddling|first=Judith|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin, Texas|isbn=0-292-77751-5|year=1999|url=http://books.google.com/?id=2-HQMnDiLqIC&pg=PA11&dq=announcing+olympic+truce&cd=1#v=onepage&q=|accessdate=2010-02-12}} | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| </div> | |||
| == External links == | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * : General and detailed information | |||
| * : A special exhibit | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * . Thomas F. Scanlon, professor of Classics, University of California | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{Ancient Olympic sports}} | |||
| {{Olympic Games}} | |||
| {{Ancient Greece topics}} | |||
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