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	===Stoicism and emotional repression===		===Stoicism and emotional repression===
	Men and women tend towards different forms of expression, although these tendencies are not rigid and overlap. There is disagreement as to the degree to which these dispositions are genetic or social. Men tend to be regarded as the ones who are supposed to give comfort and strength. If they break down, cry, or seek comfort they may be considered 'less masculine'. Women and other men do not give men an option to express feeling sad, tired, weak, depressed, inadequate, needy, or lonely without sacrificing their masculinity.		Men and women tend towards different forms of expression, although these tendencies are not rigid and overlap. There is disagreement as to the degree to which these dispositions are genetic or social. Men tend to be regarded as the ones who are supposed to give comfort and strength. If they break down, cry, or seek comfort they may be considered 'less masculine'. Women and other men do not give men an option to express feeling sad, tired, weak, depressed, inadequate, needy, or lonely without sacrificing their masculinity.
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	===Risk-taking===		===Risk-taking===

Revision as of 18:12, 20 June 2006

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Masculinity comprises culturally of the traits assigned to the male in various contexts. The word masculine can refer to:

The property of being biologically male, more precisely expressed in biology as "sex"
A gender role or behaviour traditionally associated with males
Grammatical gender, an inflection of nouns, largely derived from gender role association

Masculinity is sometimes used as a synonym for manhood. The antonym of masculinity is femininity; femininity in men is sometimes called effeminacy.

Masculinity is the measure of performance in a gender role associated with male humans. Traits often associated with masculanity have their roots in the genetic predispositions of male humans which are supported, contributed to, celebrated and often exaggerated by cultural and social constructs. Therefore while masculinity can mean different things to different cultures, there are often very common aspects to its definition across cultures. The most obvious example of this is the idea that to act in an effeminate manner reduces a male's masculinity. Sometimes gender scholars will use the phrase "hegemonic masculinity" to distinguish the most dominant form of masculinity from other variants. In the mid-twentieth century United States, for example, John Wayne might embody one form of masculinity, while Albert Einstein might be seen as masculine, but not in such a clearly hegemonic way.

In some cultures masculinity can be an indicator of social status much as wealth, race or social class. In western culture, for example, Greater masculinity usually brings greater social status for males among their peers, and many English words such as virtue (from the Latin vir for "man'", also used in words such as vim and vigor and virulent) reflect this, implying a clear association with strength. Masculinity is associated more commonly with adult men rather than younger boys as a key characteristic of social persona. The corresponding gender role for females is called femininity. To assert the presence of femininity or masculinity in a member of the opposite gender is to mark them as unusual, often in an undesirable way. In non-human primates, the corresponding trait is called dominance in both sexes, expressed as relative position within a gender group, where human terms such as "masculinity" are almost never used in general ethology.

Sociology

Since Emile Durkheim, masculinity has been an interest of sociologists. Janet Saltzman Chafetz (1974, 35-36) describes seven areas of traditional masculinity in Western culture:

Physical--virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and aging;
Functional--breadwinner, provider;
Sexual--sexually aggressive, experienced. Single status acceptable;
Emotional--unemotional, stoic;
Intellectual--logical, intellectual, rational, objective, practical,
Interpersonal--leader, dominating; disciplinarian; independent, individualistic (applies to western societies);
Other Personal Characteristics--success-oriented, ambitious; proud, egotistical (applies to some societies); , moral, trustworthy; decisive, competitive, uninhibited, adventurous.

(Levine, 1998, p.13)

Social scientists Deborah David and Robert Brannon (1976) give the following four rules for establishing masculinity:

No Sissy Stuff: anything that even remotely hints of femininity is prohibited. A real man must avoid any behavior or characteristic associated with women;
Be a Big Wheel: masculinity is measured by success, power, and the admiration of others. One must possess wealth, fame, and status to be considered manly;
Be a Sturdy Oak: manliness requires rationality, toughness, and self-reliance. A man must remain calm in any situation, show no emotion, and admit no weakness;
Give 'em Hell: men must exude an aura of daring and aggression, and must be willing to take risks, to "go for it" even when reason and fear suggest otherwise.

(Levine, 1998, p.145)

Definitions of masculinity, such as all of the above, are entirely subjective observations of their authors. Observable and traditionally accepted traits of masculinity may differ across time periods and cultures. For example see machismo, which includes negative traits such as some of the above and positive ones including assertiveness or standing up for rights, responsibility/selflessness, general code of ethics, and sincerity and/or respect

Development of masculinity

Main article: ]

File:Marines wrestle.jpg

Direct competition of physical strength is a feature of masculinity which appears in some form in virtually every culture on Earth. Here, two American marines in a wrestling match.

There is an extensive debate about how children develop gender identities. See Gender identity and Gender role for a full discussion of the subject.

In many cultures non-standard characteristics of the "other" gender may become a social problem. Among sexually mature individuals, non-standard behaviors may be considered a sign of homosexuality, while a young female who exhibits masculine behavior is sometimes called a "tom boy". Within sociology such labeling and conditioning is known as peer pressure, and is a part of socialization to better match a culture's mores. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in by terms such as "machismo" or as "testosterone poisoning."

The relative importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning obviously plays a role, it can also be observed that certain aspects of the masculine identity exist in almost all human cultures, which points to a partly genetic origin.

The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral genetics, evolutionary psychology, human ecology and sociobiology. All human cultures seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through literature, costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of Homer, the King Arthur tales in English, the normative commentaries of Confucius or biographical studies of Muhammad. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the Bhagavad Gita or bushido's Hagakure.

Pressures Associated With Masculine Gender Role

Most men feel pressured to act masculine. These men feel that they have to prevail in situations that require physical strength and fitness. To appear weak, emotional, or sexually inefficient is a major threat to their self-esteem. To be content, these men must feel that they are decisive and self-assured, and rational. Masculine gender role stress may develop if a man feels that he has acted 'unmanly'. Conversely, acting 'manly' among peers will often result in increased self-esteem, social validation, or general competitive advantage.

In 1987, Eisler and Skidmore did studies on masculinity and created the idea of 'masculine stress'. They found five mechanisms of masculinity that accompany masculine gender role often result in emotional stress. They include:

a) the emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring fitness and strength
b) being perceived as emotional and thereby feminine
c) the need to feel conquering in regard to sexual matters and work
d) the need to repress tender emotions such as showing emotions restricted according to traditional masculine customs

Coping strategies

Men and women have different ways that they appraise stressful situations and cope with them. Standards of masculinity cannot only create stress in themselves for some men; they can also limit these men's abilities to relieve stress. Some men appraise situations using the schema of what is an acceptable masculine response rather than what is objectively the best response. Men are limited to a certain range of “approved” responses and coping strategies. Because of this limiting schema, men may not cope with stress. Women or men who are said to behave in a more effeminite manner, tend to break down letting out their emotions and discuss their stress with a friend. This makes them feel generally better. Men have limited options for coping with stress but often do so through further competition or by 'pushing harder'. The stress induced by the need to measure up in terms of masculinity often becomes the very fuel behind the resulting rewards and satisfaction in which it often results.

Stoicism and emotional repression

Men and women tend towards different forms of expression, although these tendencies are not rigid and overlap. There is disagreement as to the degree to which these dispositions are genetic or social. Men tend to be regarded as the ones who are supposed to give comfort and strength. If they break down, cry, or seek comfort they may be considered 'less masculine'. Women and other men do not give men an option to express feeling sad, tired, weak, depressed, inadequate, needy, or lonely without sacrificing their masculinity. vbdfbasfh

Risk-taking

Men, significantly more so than women, tend to drink and drive, not to wear seatbelts, to be aggressive, to fight, to drive fast, and to drive dangerously. Men are also more likely to be involved in a homicide, to be involved in a motor vehicle accident and other accidents (It should be noted, however, that any statistics involving males and autos can be misleading, as more men drive than women; more men have jobs requiring them to drive than women; and that even in households where both a man and woman drive, when together the driving is usually performed by the male).

Men are in fact three times more likely to die of accidents than females. Men make up 93% of workplace deaths. While many argue that this is because dangerous job industries are dominated by men, others argue that at least part of the gender disparity is due to masculine risk-taking behavior.

Men generally take more risks with their health than women. All these behaviors are acceptable for men and are to some extent deemed masculine. Men are twice as likely to die from cancer than women are. Men are more likely to smoke, not wear sunscreen, eat unhealthily, and not exercise.

The reasons for this willingness to take risks are widely debated. There is evidence to show that this is largely due to genetic predispositions of the male sex , though perhaps greatly exaggerated and supported by social constructs and related pressure. Some believe that men, especially young men, are genetically predisposed to be less risk-averse than women because, in terms of a group's reproductive capacity, the loss of a young man is much less risky in terms of evolution than the loss of a young woman, which would seem to present evolutionary pressures towards men being more predisposed to risk and danger (see handicap principle). Some also cite how widespread and culture-independent certain aspects of masculine identity are, implying that if masculinity was purely learned, different societies in different times would have completely different ideas about the masculine gender role, which has historically remained relatively consistent.

Independence and invulnerability

Men are significantly less likely to visit their physicians to receive preventive health care examinations. Men make 134.5 million fewer physician visits than American women each year. In fact, men make only 40.8% of all physician visits. A quarter of the men who are 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician. Men should go to annual heart checkups with physicians but many do not, increasing their risk of death from heart disease. In fact, men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women. Men are more likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illness because of their reluctance to go to the doctor. This may also be due to the fact that men tend to not notice symptoms as quickly as women do. Jerry Kaiser, a healthcare consultant believes that, "Men… still basically hunters and warriors… They tend to not pay attention to things that are invisible and internal. If there is no clear external stimulus, there's no response."

Reasons men give for not having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, and a dislike of situations out of their control. These are feelings that result from their ideas of masculinity, specifically independence, control, and invulnerability.

Media encouragement

According to Arran Stibbe (2004), men's health problems and behaviors can be linked to the socialized gender role of men in our culture. In exploring magazines, he found that they promote traditional masculinity. Men's magazines tend to celebrate “male” activities and behavior such as admiring guns, fast cars, sexually libertine women, and reading or viewing pornography regularly. In men's magazines several “ideal” images of men are promoted, all of which entail significant health risks. The body-builder image that is promoted typically has poor exercise regimens that fail to equally train all muscle groups or to include cardiovascular activity. The “steak and potato” image is linked to high cholesterol. The excessive beer-drinker image can lead to alcoholism and drunk driving. The fast-food, pizza and McDonalds lover image promotes obesity. The sexual champion image puts men at a higher risk for STDs.

Alcohol consumption behavior

Research on beer commercials by Strate (Postman, Nystrom, Strate, And Weingartner 1987; Strate 1989, 1990) and by Wenner (1991) show some results relevant to studies of masculinity. In beer commercials, the ideas of masculinity (especially risk-taking) are presented and encouraged. The commercials often focus on situations where a man is overcoming an obstacle in a group. The men will either be working hard or playing hard. For instance the commercial will show men who do physical labor such as construction workers, or farm work, or men who are cowboys. Beer is shown as a reward for a job well done. Beer is also associated with the end of the day as a transition from work to leisure. Beer commercials that involve playing hard have a central theme of mastery (over nature or over each other), risk, and adventure. For instance, the men will be outdoors fishing, camping, playing sports, or hanging out in bars. There is usually an element of danger as well as a focus on movement and speed. This appeals to and emphasizes the idea that real men overcome danger and enjoy speed (i.e. fast cars/driving fast). The bar serves as a setting for test of masculinity (skills like pool, strength and drinking ability) and serves as a center for male socializing. Beer is also associated with nature. The idea that beer is natural and pure, not harmful, perhaps even healthy is strongly suggested.

Another example of the depiction of alcohol consumption and bars as central to male socialization can be found in the cartoon The Simpsons. Homer Simpson, the patriarch of the family, is often referred to as an alcoholic and spends a great deal of time at Moe's Tavern. In many episodes, Homer Simpson is portrayed as choosing to spend time at the bar drinking "Duff beer" over spending time with his wife and children.

Perhaps because of this media portrayal and “strong man” attitude, men consume more alcohol than females. Men drink three times as much alcohol as women, often engaging in risky behavior such as binge drinking. According to a study done by Rorabaugh, college men are among the heaviest drinkers in American society. It is conceptualized that college men are seeking adventure. From early in their college experience, men are immersed in drinking. According to Green, drinking games are “an important factor in the socialization of new students into heavy use". Drinking is seen as an adventure in itself as well as for the fact that it frees men to experience sex, violence, and other adventurous behaviors. In exchange for taking the risk presented, college men receive acceptance from their peers. Not only is alcohol in itself a risk in these men’s lives, but some college rituals and traditions expect men to mix danger while they have consumed alcohol. In American colleges, young men view their manhood as developing in a moment that is socially dominated by alcohol.

Masculine roles

The following characters and roles are commonly considered in academic papers as popular embodiments of masculinity.

References

Mirande, Alfredo (1997). Hombres y Machos: Masculinity and Latino Culture, p.72-74. ISBN 0813331978.

Levine, Martin P. (1998). Gay Macho. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0814746942.
Stibbe, Arran. (2004). “Health and the Social Construction of Masculinity in Men’s Health Magazine.” Men and Masculinities; 7 (1) July, pp. 31-51.
Strate, Lance “Beer Commercials: A Manual on Masculinity” Men’s Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001

External links

MensHealth.com, a magazine on issues of interest to men. Covers fitness, sex, health, guy wisdom, weight loss, nutrition, and style. In the health section you can find information on illnesses and how to fight them, in addition to information about cholesterol, back pain, heart disease, and stress management.

MensHealth.org, dedicated to promoting the health and wellness of men and boys. Their goal is to reduce preventable risks and help men and boys live longer and healthier lives. It has a health assessment program and offers services to help men and their families improve their health.

MenWeb.org articles on health issues, provides articles on health issues and studies that provide statistics and facts. Information on self-help through diet and lifestyle changes as well as information on mental health is highlighted.

NIMH web pages on men and depression, talks about men and their depression and how to get help.

Tony Montana and true masculinity Provides advice and guides on how to be a real man also know as an Alpha Male.

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