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| {{Infobox Former Country | |||
| | conventional_long_name = Roanoke Colony | |||
| | common_name = Roanoke | |||
| | continent = North America | |||
| | region=southeast | |||
| | country = New World | |||
| | status = colony | |||
| | empire = England | |||
| | government_type =London Co. | |||
| | title_representative = | |||
| | legislature = | |||
| | capital = | |||
| | common_languages = English | |||
| | religion =Christianity | |||
| | year_start = 1585 | |||
| | year_end = Unknown | |||
| | event1 = Birth of ] | |||
| | date_event1 = August 18, 1587 | |||
| | event2 = | |||
| | year_event2 = | |||
| | event3 = | |||
| | date_event3 = | |||
| | event4 = | |||
| | date_event4 = | |||
| | image_coat = | |||
| | symbol_type = | |||
| | image_map = Roanoke map 1584.JPG | |||
| | image_map_caption = '''Virginea Pars''' map, including Roanoke Island, drawn by ] during his initial visit in 1585 | |||
| | s1 = | |||
| }} | |||
| The '''Roanoke Colony''' on ] in ], present-day ], ], was a late-16th-century attempt by ] to establish a permanent ]. The enterprise was financed and organized originally by ], who drowned in 1583 during an aborted attempt to colonize ]. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's half brother ] would gain his brother's charter from Queen Elizabeth I and subsequently would execute the details of the charter through his delegates ] and ], Raleigh's distant cousin.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/documents/before-1600/charter-to-sir-walter-raleigh-march-25-1584.php | title=Charter to Sir Walter Raleigh March 25, 1584 | publisher=] | accessdate=5 January 2013}}</ref> | |||
| The final group of colonists disappeared during the ], three years after the last shipment of supplies from ]. Their disappearance gave rise to the nickname "The Lost Colony". To this day there has been no conclusive evidence as to what happened to the colonists. | |||
| == Raleigh's charter == | |||
| {{See also|Anglo-Spanish War (1585)}} | |||
| On March 25, 1584, Queen ] granted Raleigh a ] for the ] of the area of North America. This charter specified that Raleigh needed to establish a colony in ], or lose his right to colonization.<ref name="Quinn1985">{{cite book|last=Quinn|first=David B.|title=Set Fair for Roanoke: Voyages and Colonies, 1584-1606|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DvA0Az4owikC|accessdate=3 June 2011|date=February 1985|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0-8078-4123-5}}</ref>{{rp|9}} | |||
| Raleigh and Elizabeth intended that the venture should provide riches from the ] and a base from which to send ]s on raids against the treasure fleets of ].<ref name="Kupperman1984"/>{{rp|135}} Raleigh himself never visited North America, although he led expeditions in 1595 and 1617 to South America's ] basin in search of the legendary golden city of ]. | |||
| ]]] | |||
| ==First voyages to Roanoke Island== | |||
| {{Further|List of colonists at Roanoke}} | |||
| On April 27, 1584, Raleigh dispatched an expedition led by ] and ] to explore the Eastern coast of North America. They arrived on Roanoke Island on July 4,<ref name="Quinn1985"/>{{rp|32}} and soon established relations with the local natives, the ]s and ]s. Barlowe returned to England with two Croatans named ] and ], who were able to describe the politics and geography of the area to Raleigh.<ref name="Quinn1985"/>{{rp|44–45}} Based on this information, Raleigh organized a second expedition, to be led by Sir Richard Grenville. | |||
| Grenville's fleet departed ] on April 9, 1585, with five main ships: the ''Tiger'' (Grenville's), the ''Roebuck'', the ''Red Lion'', the ''Elizabeth'', and the ''Dorothy''. Unfortunately, a severe storm off the coast of Portugal separated the ''Tiger'' from the rest of the fleet.<ref name="Quinn1985"/>{{rp|57}} The captains had a contingency plan if they were separated, which was to meet up again in ], and the ''Tiger'' arrived in the "Baye of Muskito"<ref name="nps">{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/fora/forteachers/teacher-handbook-to-roanoke-revisited.htm|title=Teacher Handbook to Roanoke Revisited|work=Fort Raleigh National Historic Site|publisher=]|accessdate=10 July 2011}}</ref> (]) on May 11. | |||
| ] | |||
| While waiting for the other ships, Grenville established relations with the ] there while simultaneously engaging in some privateering against them,<ref name="Quinn1985"/>{{rp|62}} and also built a fort. The ''Elizabeth'' arrived soon after the fort's construction.<ref name="Milton2001">{{cite book|last=Milton|first=Giles|title=Big Chief Elizabeth: The Adventures and Fate of the First English Colonists in America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2KOxKem5utIC&pg=PA91|accessdate=10 July 2011|date=2001-10-19|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-42018-5}}</ref>{{rp|91}} Eventually, Grenville tired of waiting for the remaining ships, and departed on June 7. The fort was abandoned, and its location remains unknown. | |||
| When the ''Tiger'' sailed through ] on June 26, it struck a ], ruining most of the food supplies.<ref name="Quinn1985"/>{{rp|63}} The expedition succeeded in repairing the ship, and in early July reunited with the ''Roebuck'' and ''Dorothy'', both of which had arrived in the ] some weeks previous. The ''Red Lion'' had been with them, but had merely dropped off its passengers and left for ] for privateering.<ref name="Quinn1985"/>{{rp|64}} | |||
| After the initial exploration of the mainland coast and the native settlements there, the natives of the village of ] were blamed for stealing a silver cup. In retaliation, the village was sacked and burned.<ref name="Quinn1985"/>{{rp|72}} English writer and courtier ]'s contemporary reports of the first voyage to Roanoke, compiled from accounts by various financial backers including Sir Walter Raleigh (Hakluyt himself never traveled to the New World), also describe this incident.<ref name="Blacker 1965 522">{{cite book|last=Blacker|first=Irwin|title=Hakluyt's Voyages: The Principle Navigations Voyages Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation|year=1965|publisher=The Viking Press|location=New York|pages=522}}</ref> | |||
| Despite this incident and a lack of food, Grenville decided to leave ] and 107 men to establish the colony at the north end of ], promising to return in April 1586 with more men and fresh supplies. They disembarked on August 17, 1585.<ref name="unc_2011-01-17">{{cite web | url=http://docsouth.unc.edu/nc/lane/lane.html | title=The Account by Ralph Lane. An account of the particularities of the imployments of the English men left in Roanoke by Richard Greenevill under the charge of Master Ralph Lane Generall of the same, from the 17. of August 1585. until the 18. of June 1586. at which time they departed the Countrey; sent and directed to Sir Walter Ralegh. | accessdate=2011-01-17 | author=Lane, Ralph | work=Old South Leaflets (General Series) ; No. 119. | publisher=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill}}</ref> Lane built a small fort on the island and ordered the exploration of the surrounding areas. There are no surviving pictures of the Roanoke fort, but it was likely similar in structure to the one in Guayanilla Bay. | |||
| As April 1586 passed, there was no sign of Grenville's relief fleet. Meanwhile in June, bad blood resulting from their destruction of the village spurred an attack on the fort, which the colonists were able to repel.<ref name="Lynwood1909">{{cite book|last=Fleming|first=Walter Lynwood|title=The South in the Building of the Nation: History of the States|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GbsRAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=3 June 2011|year=1909|publisher=The Southern historical publication society}}</ref>{{rp|5}} Soon after the attack, when ] paused on his way home from a successful raid in the ] and offered to take the colonists, including the metallurgist ], back to England, they accepted. On this return voyage, the Roanoke colonists introduced ], ], and ]es.<ref name="Lynwood1909"/>{{rp|5}} The relief fleet arrived shortly after Drake's departure with the colonists. Finding the colony abandoned, Grenville returned to England with the bulk of his force, leaving behind a small detachment both to maintain an English presence and to protect Raleigh's claim to ]. | |||
| ==Additional voyages to Roanoke Colony== | |||
| ]'', the first English child born in North America. Lithograph, 1880.]] | |||
| In 1587, Raleigh dispatched a new group of 150 colonists to establish a colony on ]. They were led by ], an artist and friend of Raleigh who had accompanied the previous expeditions to Roanoke. White was later appointed Governor and Raleigh named 12 assistants to aid in Roanoke's settlement. They were ordered to travel to Roanoke first to gather Grenville's men, but when they arrived on July 22, 1587, they found nothing except a skeleton that may have been the remains of one of the English garrison.<ref name="Blacker 1965 522"/> | |||
| They were counting on these men to help with the new colony, but when they could find no one, they gave up hope of ever seeing Grenville's men alive.<ref name="Blacker 1965 522"/> The fleet's commander, ], now refused to let the colonists return to the ships, insisting they establish the new colony on Roanoke.<ref name="Milton2001">{{cite book|last=Milton|first=Giles|title=Big Chief Elizabeth: The Adventures and Fate of the First English Colonists in America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2KOxKem5utIC|accessdate=3 June 2011|date=2001-10-19|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-42018-5}}</ref>{{rp|215}} His motive remains unclear. | |||
| White re-established relations with the Croatans and tried to establish friendly relations with the tribes Ralph Lane had battled the previous year. The hostile tribes refused to meet with him. Shortly thereafter, colonist George Howe was killed by an Indian while searching alone for crabs in ].<ref name="GrizzardSmith2007">{{cite book|last1=Grizzard|first1=Frank E.|last2=Smith|first2=D. Boyd|title=Jamestown Colony: A Political, Social, and Cultural History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=555CzPsGLDMC&pg=PA120|accessdate=3 June 2011|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-637-4}}</ref>{{rp|120–23}} | |||
| Fearing for their lives, the colonists persuaded Governor White to return to England to explain the colony's desperate situation and ask for help.<ref name="GrizzardSmith2007"/>{{rp|120–23}} Left behind were about 115 colonists — the remaining men and women who had made the Atlantic crossing plus White's newly born granddaughter ], the first English child born in the Americas.<ref name="Miller2000">{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Lee|title=Roanoke: Solving the Mystery of the Lost Colony|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=A_T0GyxK9DYC|accessdate=3 June 2011|year=2000|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=978-1-55970-584-4}}</ref>{{rp|19}} | |||
| ===White returns to England=== | |||
| White sailed for England in late 1587. Crossing the Atlantic at that time of year was a considerable risk, as shown by Fernandez's claim that their ship barely made it back.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/fora/johnwhite.htm|last= Neville|first=John D.|title=The John White Colony|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2008-10-08}}</ref> Plans for a relief fleet were delayed by the captain's refusal to return during the winter. The coming of the ] led to every able English ship being commandeered to fight, which left White with no seaworthy vessels available to return to Roanoke.<ref name="Kupperman1984">{{cite book|last=Kupperman|first=Karen Ordahl|authorlink=Karen Ordahl Kupperman|title=Roanoke, The Abandoned Colony|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CfqZ2SbQbh4C&pg=PA124|accessdate=3 June 2011|date=1984-01-25|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-7339-1}}</ref>{{rp|125–26}} | |||
| He managed to hire two small vessels considered unnecessary for England's defense and sailed for Roanoke in the spring of 1588. White's attempt to return to Roanoke was foiled by human nature and circumstance; the two vessels were small, and their captains were greedy. They attempted to capture several Spanish ships on the outward-bound voyage to improve their profits, but they were captured themselves and their cargo seized. With nothing left to deliver to the colonists, the ships returned to England.<ref name="Kupperman1984">{{cite book|last=Kupperman|first=Karen Ordahl|title=Roanoke, The Abandoned Colony|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CfqZ2SbQbh4C&pg=PA124|accessdate=3 June 2011|date=1984-01-25|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-7339-1}}</ref>{{rp|125–26}} | |||
| ]".]] | |||
| Because of the ], White was not able to mount another resupply attempt for three more years. He finally gained passage on a privateering expedition that agreed to stop off at Roanoke on the way back from the Caribbean. White landed on August 18, 1590, on his granddaughter's third birthday, but found the settlement deserted. His men could not find any trace of the 90 men, 17 women, and 11 children, nor was there any sign of a struggle or battle.<ref name="Kupperman1984"/>{{rp|130–33}} | |||
| The only clue was the word "Croatoan" carved into a post of the fence around the village and "Cro" carved into a nearby tree. All the houses and fortifications had been dismantled, which meant their departure had not been hurried. Before he left the colony, White instructed them that if anything happened to them, they should carve a ] on a tree nearby, indicating their disappearance had been forced. As there was no cross, White took this to mean they had moved to "Croatoan Island" (now known as ]), but he was unable to conduct a search. A massive storm was forming and his men refused to go any farther; the next day they left.<ref name="Kupperman1984"/>{{rp|130–33}} | |||
| ==Thomas Harriot== | |||
| Born in 1560, ] entered Raleigh's employment in the early 1580s, after graduating from ]. While he did not accompany them on the first voyage, Harriot may have been among the men of Arthur Barlowe's 1584 expedition of the colony. He trained the members of Raleigh's first Roanoke expedition in navigational skills and eventually sailed to Roanoke with the second group of settlers, where his skills as a naturalist became particularly important along with those of painter and settlement leader John White.<ref name="Harriot">{{cite book|last=Harriot|first=Thomas|title=A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia|publisher=The Norton Anthology of American Literature|editor=Nina Baym}}</ref> | |||
| Between their arrival in Roanoke in April 1585 and the July 1586 departure, Harriot and White both conducted detailed studies of the Roanoke area, with Harriot compiling his samples and notes into several notebooks that, unfortunately, did not survive the colony's disappearance. However, Harriot also wrote descriptions of the surrounding flora and fauna of the area, which survive in his work ''A Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia,'' written as a report on the colony's progress to the English government on the request of Raleigh. Viewed as propaganda for the colony by modern historians, this work has become vastly important to Roanoke's history because of not only Harriot's observations on wildlife, but also his depictions of Indian activities at the time of the colony's disappearance.<ref name="Harriot"/> | |||
| In the text, Harriot reports that relations between the Roanoke Indians and the English settlers were mutually calm and prosperous, contradicting other historical evidence that catalogues the bloody struggles between the Roanoke Indians and both of Raleigh's commanders, Sir Richard Grenville and his successor Ralph Lane. Harriot recounts little to none of these accounts in his report to England and does not mention the disorderly state of the colony under either Grenville's or Lane's tenure, correctly assuming these facts would prevent Roanoke from gaining more settlers. Ironically, Harriot's text did not reach England, or the English press, until the year of 1588, by which time the fate of the "Lost Colony" was sealed in all but name.<ref name="Harriot"/> | |||
| ==Investigations into Roanoke== | |||
| ] | |||
| Twelve years went by before Raleigh decided to find out what happened to his colony. Led by Samuel Mace, this 1602 expedition differed from previous voyages in that Raleigh bought his own ship and guaranteed the sailors' wages so that they would not be distracted by privateering. However, Raleigh still hoped to make money from the trip, and Mace's ship landed in the Outer Banks to gather aromatic woods or plants such as ] that would generate a decent profit back in England. By the time they could turn their attention to the colonists, the weather had turned bad and they were forced to return without even making it to Roanoke Island. Having been arrested for treason, Raleigh was unable to send any further missions.<ref name="Kupperman1984"/>{{rp|134–35}} | |||
| Meanwhile, the Spanish had different reasons for wanting to find the colony. Knowing of Raleigh's plans to use Roanoke as a base for privateering, they were hoping to destroy it. Moreover, they had been getting mostly inaccurate reports of activities there, and as such they imagined the colony to be far more successful than it really was.<ref name="Kupperman1984"/>{{rp|135–37}} | |||
| In 1590, they found the remnants of the colony purely by accident, but assumed it was only an outlying base of the main settlement, which they believed was in the Chesapeake Bay area (John White's intended location). But just as the Anglo-Spanish War prevented White from returning in a timely manner, Spanish authorities in the New World could not muster enough support back home for such a venture.<ref name="Kupperman1984"/>{{rp|135–37}} | |||
| ==Hypotheses about the disappearance {{anchor|Hypotheses}} == | |||
| The end of the 1587 colony is unrecorded, leading to its being referred to as the "Lost Colony", and there are multiple hypotheses as to the fate of the colonists. | |||
| ===Integration with local tribes=== | |||
| ] | |||
| In her 2000 book ''Roanoke: Solving the Mystery of the Lost Colony,'' historian Lee Miller postulated that some of the Lost Colony survivors sought shelter with the ], who were attacked by another tribe, identified by the ] as the "Mandoag" (an Algonquian name commonly given to enemy nations). The "Mandoag" are believed to be either the ], an ]-speaking tribe,<ref name="Smallwood2002"/>{{rp|45}} or the ], also known as the Wainoke.<ref name="Miller2000"/>{{rp|255–56}} | |||
| The so-called "Zuniga Map" (named for Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, who had secured a copy and passed it on to ]<ref name="Hunter2010">{{cite book|last=Hunter|first=Douglas|title=Half Moon: Henry Hudson and the Voyage That Redrew the Map of the New World|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kMykb1AbSHsC|accessdate=17 August 2011|date=2010-08-31|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|isbn=978-1-60819-098-0}}</ref>{{rp|112}}), drawn about 1607 by the Jamestown settler Francis Nelson, also gives credence to this claim. The map states "four men clothed that came from roonock" were living in an Iroquois site on the ]. ], a secretary of the Jamestown Colony, wrote in his ''The historie of travaile into Virginia Britannia'' in 1612 that, at the Indian settlements of Peccarecanick and Ochanahoen, there were reportedly two-story houses with stone walls. The Indians supposedly learned how to build them from the Roanoke settlers.<ref name="Stick1983">{{cite book|last=Stick|first=David|title=Roanoke Island, The Beginnings of English America|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EoECT_ZPdHUC|accessdate=9 June 2011|date=November 1983|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0-8078-4110-5}}</ref>{{rp|222}} | |||
| There were also reported sightings of European captives at various Indian settlements during the same time period.<ref name="Miller2000"/>{{rp|250}} Strachey wrote in 1612 that four English men, two boys and one girl had been sighted at the Eno settlement of Ritanoc, under the protection of a chief called Eyanoco. Strachey reported that the captives were forced to beat ] and that they had escaped the attack on the other colonists and fled up the Chaonoke river, the present-day ] in ].<ref name="Miller2000"/>{{rp|242}}<ref name="Stick1983"/>{{rp|222}}<ref>], ''Captain John Smith'', 1881. Repr. in ], accessed April 1, 2008.</ref> For four hundred years, various authors have speculated that the captive girl was Virginia Dare.{{citation needed|date=March 2011}} | |||
| ] wrote in his 1709 ''A New Voyage to Carolina'' that the Croatans living on Hatteras Island used to live on Roanoke Island and claimed to have white ancestors: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "A farther Confirmation of this we have from the Hatteras Indians, who either then lived on Ronoak-Island, or much frequented it. These tell us, that several of their Ancestors were white People, and could talk in a Book, as we do; the Truth of which is confirm'd by gray Eyes being found frequently amongst these Indians, and no others. They value themselves extremely for their Affinity to the English, and are ready to do them all friendly Offices. It is probable, that this Settlement miscarry'd for want of timely Supplies from England; or thro' the Treachery of the Natives, for we may reasonably suppose that the English were forced to cohabit with them, for Relief and Conversation; and that in process of Time, they conform'd themselves to the Manners of their Indian Relations."<ref>{{cite book|last=Lawson|first=John|authorlink=John Lawson (explorer)|title=A New Voyage to Carolina|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1838|year=1709|location=London|page=48}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| From the early 17th century to the middle 18th century, European colonists reported encounters with gray-eyed American Indians who claimed descent from the colonists<ref name="Miller2000"/>{{rp|257, 263}} (although at least one, a story of a Welsh priest who met a ] warrior who spoke the Welsh language, is likely to be a hoax).<ref name="Williams1979">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Gwyn A.|title=Madoc, The Making of a Myth|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7QYJAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=17 August 2011|year=1979|publisher=Eyre Methuen|isbn=978-0-413-39450-7}}</ref>{{rp|76}} Records from French ]s who settled along the ] in 1696 tell of meeting Tuscaroras with blond hair and blue eyes not long after their arrival. As Jamestown was the nearest English settlement, and they had no record of being attacked by Tuscarora, the likelihood that origin of those fair-skinned natives was the Lost Colony is high.<ref name="Smallwood2002">{{cite book|last=Smallwood|first=Arwin D.|title=Bertie County: An Eastern Carolina History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OBSvQutgfaoC|accessdate=9 June 2011|date=2002-10-16|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=978-0-7385-2395-8}}</ref>{{rp|28}} | |||
| In the late 1880s, North Carolina state legislator ] discovered that his "redbones" (those of Indian blood) neighbors in ] claimed to have been descended from the Roanoke settlers. He also noticed that many of the words in their language had striking similarities to obsolete English words. Furthermore, many of the family names were identical to those listed in Hakluyt's account of the colony. Thus on February 10, 1885, convinced that these were the descendants of the Lost Colony, he helped to pass the "Croatan bill", that officially designated the Native American population around Robeson county as Croatan.<ref name="Stick1983"/>{{rp|231–33}} Two days later on February 12, 1885, the '']'' published an article regarding the ] Native Americans' origins. This article states: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "...They say that their traditions say that the people we call the Croatan Indians (though they do not recognize that name as that of a tribe, but only a village, and that they were Tuscaroras), were always friendly to the whites; and finding them destitute and despairing of ever receiving aid from England, persuaded them to leave , and go to the mainland... They gradually drifted away from their original seats, and at length settled in Robeson, about the center of the county..."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.skarorehkatenuakanation.org/1885observer.html |title=The Croatan Indians of Robeson |publisher=Fayetteville Observer |date=February 12, 1885 |accessdate=2009-08-16}}</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| However, the case was far from settled. A similar legend claims that the now-extinct ] of ], are descended from the English colonists of Roanoke Island.{{citation needed|date=June 2011}} Indeed, when these Native Americans were last encountered by subsequent settlers, they noted that these Native Americans already spoke ] and were aware of the ] religion. The historical surnames of this group also correspond with those who lived on Roanoke Island, and many exhibit ] physical features along with Native American features. However, no documented evidence exists to link the Saponi to the Roanoke colonists. | |||
| Other tribes that claim partial descent from surviving Roanoke colonists include the ] (who absorbed the ] and Eno people), and the ] and the ] tribes. The ] was established to test all of these claims. | |||
| Furthermore, ] was convinced that the colonists had relocated westward to the banks of the ] in ], and Conway Whittle Sams claimed that after being attacked by Wanchese and Powhatan, the colonists scattered to multiple locations: the Chowan River, and south to the ] and Neuse Rivers.<ref name="Stick1983"/>{{rp|233}} | |||
| ===Other theories=== | |||
| ====Chesepians==== | |||
| Historian ] hypothesized that the colony moved wholesale and was later destroyed. When Captain ] and the Jamestown colonists settled in Virginia in 1607, one of their assigned tasks was to locate the Roanoke colonists. The ] ] told Captain Smith about his ]-based ], and went on to say that he had wiped out the Roanoke colonists just prior to the arrival of the Jamestown settlers because they were living with the ], a tribe living in the eastern portion of the present-day ] sub-region who, besides having refused to join Chief Powhatan's Powhatan Confederacy,<ref name="ParramoreStewart2000">{{cite book|last1=Parramore|first1=Thomas C.|last2=Stewart|first2=Peter C.|last3=Bogger|first3=Tommy L.|title=Norfolk: The First Four Centuries|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pWiCMTB35mEC|accessdate=17 August 2011|date=April 2000|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-1988-1}}</ref>{{rp|21–24}} were also prophesied to rise up and destroy his empire.<ref name="Strachey">{{cite book|last=Strachey|first=William|title=The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia: Expressing the cosmographie and comodities of the country, togither with the manners and customes of the people|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fYYMAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=17 August 2011|year=1612|publisher=Hakluyt Society}}</ref>{{rp|101}} | |||
| Chief Powhatan reportedly produced several English-made iron implements to back his claim, but no bodies were found and no archaeological evidence has been found to support this claim,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.lost-colony.com/Beechland.html | title=A Search for the Lost Colony in Beechland | first=Philip S. | last=McMullan, Jr. | publisher=The Lost Colony Center for Science and Research | accessdate=2011-08-17}}</ref> however, and that which was found at a Chesepian village site in ] in present-day ] suggests that the Chesepian tribe was related to the ] in Carolina, rather than the Powhatans. There were also reports of a Native American burial mound in the ] area of ] in present day ], where the principal Chesepian village of ] may have been located.{{citation needed|date=August 2011}} | |||
| ====Lost at sea, starvation==== | |||
| One possibility is that the colonists simply gave up waiting, tried to return to England on their own, and perished in the attempt. When Governor White left in 1587, he left the colonists with a ] and several small ships for exploration of the coast or removal of the colony to the mainland.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} <!-- Whose theory is this? Can this be expanded?--> | |||
| ====Spanish==== | |||
| Another theory is that the Spanish destroyed the colony. Earlier in the century, the Spanish did destroy evidence of the ] colony of ] in coastal ] and then massacred the inhabitants of ], a French colony in present-day ], ]. However, this is unlikely, as the Spanish were still looking for the location of England's failed colony as late as 1600, ten years after White discovered that the colony was missing.<ref name="Kupperman1984"/>{{rp|137}} | |||
| ====Dare Stones==== | |||
| From 1937 to 1941, a series of ] were discovered that claimed to have been written by ], mother of ]. They told of the travelings of the colonists and their ultimate deaths. Most historians believe that they are a fraud, but there are some today that still believe the stones are genuine.<ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| | last = La Vere | |||
| | first = David | |||
| | title = The 1937 Chowan River ‘Dare Stone’: A Re-evaluation | |||
| | journal = North Carolina Historical Review | |||
| | date = July 2009 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| ====Virginea Pars Map==== | |||
| In May 2011, Brent Lane of the ] was studying the Virginea Pars Map, which was made by John White during his 1585 visit to Roanoke Island, and noticed two patches where the map had been corrected. The patches are made of paper contemporaneous with that of the map. Lane asked researchers at the ] in ], where the map has been kept since 1866, what might be under the patches, sparking a research investigation. Under one of the patches, the symbol for a fort is visible when the map is placed over a light box.<ref></ref> | |||
| On May 3, 2012, at Wilson Library of the ], members of the Foundation and representatives of the museum announced the discovery of "a large, square-shaped symbol with oddly shaped corners." This symbol presumed to represent a fort is visible when the map is viewed on a ]. Some scholars speculate that the colonists relocated to that location, on what is now called Salmon Creek in the ] community of ]. The Scotch Hall Preserve ] community was planned on the site, but it has not been fully developed.<ref>{{Cite news | |||
| | last = Price | |||
| | first = Jay | |||
| | title = Old map offers new clues to fate of the Lost Colony | |||
| | work = ] | |||
| | date = 4 May 2012 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| ==Archaeological evidence== | |||
| In 1998, ] organized "The Croatoan Project", an archaeological investigation into the events at Roanoke. The excavation team sent to the island uncovered a 10-] (42%) gold 16th-century English ], ], and two 16th-century copper ]s at the site of the ancient Croatoan capital, 50 miles (80 km) from the old Roanoke colony. Genealogists were able to trace the lion crest on the signet ring to the Kendall coat of arms, and concluded that the ring most likely belonged to one Master Kendall who is recorded as having lived in the ] colony on Roanoke Island from 1585 to 1586. If this is the case, the ring represents the first material connection between the Roanoke colonists and the Native Americans on Hatteras Island.<ref></ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outer-banks.com/hatteras-school/dig98.html |title=Croatan Dig 1998-1999 Season |publisher=Outer-banks.com |date=1999-10-25 |accessdate=2009-08-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.lib.ecu.edu/special/ead/findingaids/1061/ |title=Guide to the Croatan 16}}</ref> | |||
| It is also believed that the reason for the extreme deficiency in archaeological evidence is due to shoreline erosion. Since all that was found was a rustic looking fort on the north shore, and this location is well documented and backed up, it is commonly believed that the settlement must have been nearby. The northern shore, between 1851 and 1970, lost 928 feet because of erosion. If in the years leading up to and following the brief life of the settlement at Roanoke, shoreline erosion was following the same trend, it is likely the site of dwellings is underwater, along with any artifacts or signs of life.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dolan|first=Robert|coauthors=Kenton Bosserman|title=Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|date=September 1972|volume=62|issue=3|pages=424–426|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1972.tb00875.x}}</ref> | |||
| ==Lost Colony DNA Project== | |||
| The Lost Colony DNA Project, launched in 2005, is an ongoing effort underway by the Lost Colony of Roanoke DNA Project at ] of ]. The project will use DNA testing to help determine whether some Lost Colony survivors assimilated with the local Native American tribes either through adoption or enslavement. The project will attempt to locate and test as many potential descendants as possible. Testing is also planned for some of the recovered remains. | |||
| ==Climate factors== | |||
| In 1998, a team led by ] David W. Stahle, of the ], Department of Geography, in ], and ] Dennis B. Blanton, of the Center for Archaeological Research at The ] in ], used tree ring cores from 800-year-old bald cypresses taken from the ] area of ] and the ] area of ] to reconstruct precipitation and temperature chronologies. | |||
| The researchers concluded that the settlers of the Lost Colony landed at ] in the summer of the worst growing-season drought in 800 years. "This drought persisted for 3 years, from 1587 to 1589, and is the driest 3-year episode in the entire 800-year reconstruction," the team reported in the journal ''Science''. A map shows that "the Lost Colony drought affected the entire ] but was particularly severe in the Tidewater region near Roanoke ." The authors suggested that the Croatan who were shot and killed by the colonists may have been scavenging the abandoned village for food as a result of the drought.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stahle |first=David W. |authorlink= |year=1998 |month= |title=The Lost Colony and Jamestown Droughts |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5363 |pages=564–567 |doi=10.1126/science.280.5363.564 |url= |pmid=9554842 |display-authors=1 |last2=Cleaveland |first2=MK |last3=Blanton |first3=DB |last4=Therrell |first4=MD |last5=Gay |first5=DA }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Caroline Lee Heuer, Jonathon T. Overpeck |url=http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/drought/drght_james.html |title=Drought: A Paleo Perspective - Lost Colony and Jamestown Drought |publisher=Ncdc.noaa.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-08-16}}</ref> | |||
| == Portrayals and re-enactments == | |||
| ]-winning playwright ] wrote ] in 1937 to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the birth of Virginia Dare. The play presents a conjecture of the fate of Roanoke Colony. It has played at Waterside Theater at ] on Roanoke Island nearly continually since, with the only interruption being during ]. Alumni of the cast include ] (who played Sir Walter Raleigh), ], ], ], and '']'' correspondent ]. ]'s 2013 children's book, ''Children of the Wild'', is a fictional recreation of the Roanoke colony, as seen through the perspective of four child colonists. | |||
| == See also == | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{Reflist|3}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * {{cite book | author=Hariot, Thomas, John White and John Lawson | title=A Vocabulary of Roanoke | location=Evolution Publishing | publisher=] | year=1999 | isbn=1-889758-81-7}} This volume contains practically everything known about the Croatan language spoken on Roanoke Island. | |||
| * Retrieved April 2011 | |||
| * {{cite book | author=] | title=Big Chief Elizabeth | location=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | publisher=] | year=2000 | isbn=0-374-26501-1}} Critically acclaimed account, based on contemporary travel accounts from 1497–1611, of attempts to establish a colony in the Roanoke area. Milton is also the author of the 2013 children's fictional work, ''Children of the Wild'', which tells the story of the colony through the eyes of four English children. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{commons category}} | |||
| * | |||
| * by ] | |||
| {{Kingdom of England}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Roanoke Colony}} | |||
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