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| THE FOUR FRIENDS AND THE HUNTER | |||
| {{EngvarB|date=September 2013}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}} | |||
| ] at the ] temple, ], Indonesia.]] | |||
| A friend in need is a friend indeed | |||
| The '''''Panchatantra''''' (]: Pañcatantra, {{lang-sa|पञ्चतन्त्र}}, 'Five Principles or Techniques') is an ancient ]n inter-related collection of ]s in verse and prose, in a ] format. The original ] work, which some scholars believe was composed around the 3rd century BCE,<ref>{{Harvnb|Jacobs|1888}}, Introduction, page xv; {{Harvnb|Ryder|1925}}, Translator's introduction, quoting Hertel: "that the original work was composed in Kashmir, about 200 B.C. At this date, however, many of the individual stories were already ancient."</ref> is attributed to ]. It is based on older oral traditions, including "animal fables that are as old as we are able to imagine".<ref>,'' London: Institute for Cultural Research Monograph Series No. 36, 1999, p 13</ref> | |||
| ________________________________________ | |||
| It is "certainly the most frequently translated literary product of India",<ref>, {{Harvnb|Olivelle|2006}}, quoting {{Harvnb|Edgerton|1924}}.</ref> and these stories are among the most widely known in the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ryder|1925}}, Translator's introduction: "The Panchatantra contains the most widely known stories in the world. If it were further declared that the Panchatantra is the best collection of stories in the world, the assertion could hardly be disproved, and would probably command the assent of those possessing the knowledge for a judgment."</ref> To quote {{Harvtxt|Edgerton|1924}}:<ref>{{Harvnb|Edgerton|1924|p=3}}. "reacht" and "workt" have been changed to conventional spelling.</ref> | |||
| Long, long ago, there lived three friends in a jungle. They were-a deer, a crow and a mouse. They used to share their meals together. | |||
| {{quote|...there are recorded over two hundred different versions known to exist in more than fifty languages, and three-fourths of these languages are extra-Indian. As early as the eleventh century this work reached Europe, and before 1600 it existed in Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, German, English, Old Slavonic, Czech, and perhaps other Slavonic languages. Its range has extended from Java to Iceland... it has been worked over and over again, expanded, abstracted, turned into verse, retold in prose, translated into medieval and modern vernaculars, and retranslated into Sanskrit. And most of the stories contained in it have "gone down" into the folklore of the story-loving Hindus, whence they reappear in the collections of oral tales gathered by modern students of folk-stories.}} | |||
| One day, a turtle came to them and said, "I also want to join your company and become your friend. I'm all alone. " | |||
| Thus it goes by many names in many cultures. In India, it had at least 25 recensions, including the Sanskrit ''Tantrākhyāyikā''<ref>{{Harvnb|Hertel|1915}}</ref> ({{lang-sa|तन्त्राख्यायिका}}) and inspired the '']''. It was translated into ] in 570 CE by ]. This became the basis for a ] translation as ''Kalilag and Damnag''<ref>{{Harvnb|Falconer|1885}}</ref> and a translation into Arabic in 750 CE by Persian scholar ] as '''''Kalīlah wa Dimnah'''''<ref>{{Harvnb|Knatchbull|1819}}</ref> ({{lang-ar|كليلة ودمنة}}). A ] version from the 12th century became known as ''Kalīleh o Demneh''<ref>{{Harvnb|Wood|2008}}</ref> ({{lang-fa|کلیله و دمنه}}) and this was the basis of Kashefi's 15th century ''Anvār-e Soheylī''<ref>{{Harvnb|Eastwick|1854}}, {{Harvnb|Wollaston|1877}}, {{Harvnb|Wilkinson|1930}},</ref> ({{lang-fa|انوار سهیلی}}, 'The Lights of ]'). The book in different form is also known as ''The Fables of Bidpai''<ref name="Jacobs">{{Harvnb|Jacobs|1888}}</ref><ref>''The Fables of Pilpay'', facsimile reprint of the 1775 edition, Darf Publishers, London 1987</ref> (or Pilpai, in various European languages) or ''The Morall Philosophie of Doni'' (English, 1570). | |||
| "You're most welcome," said the crow. "But what about your personal safety. There are many hunters around. They visit this jungle regularly. Suppose, a hunter comes, how will you save yourself?" | |||
| ==Content== | |||
| {{For|lists of stories in the Panchatantra|List of Panchatantra Stories}} | |||
| The ''Panchatantra'' is an inter-woven series of colourful fables, many of which involve animals exhibiting ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ryder|1925}}, Translator's introduction: "Thus, the lion is strong but dull of wit, the jackal crafty, the heron stupid, the cat a hypocrite. The animal actors present, far more vividly and more urbanely than men could do, the view of life here recommended—a view shrewd, undeceived, and free of all sentimentality; a view that, piercing the humbug of every false ideal, reveals with incomparable wit the sources of lasting joy." See also {{Harvnb|Olivelle|2006|pages=26–31}}</ref> According to its own narrative, it illustrates, for the benefit of three ignorant princes, the central Hindu principles of ''nīti''.<ref>For this reason, Ramsay Wood considers it an early precursor of the ] genre.</ref> While ''nīti'' is hard to translate, it roughly means prudent worldly conduct, or "the wise conduct of life".<ref name=niti>{{Harvnb|Ryder|1925}}, Translator's introduction: "The ''Panchatantra'' is a ''niti-shastra'', or textbook of ''niti''. The word ''niti'' means roughly “the wise conduct of life.” Western civilization must endure a certain shame in realizing that no precise equivalent of the term is found in English, French, Latin, or Greek. Many words are therefore necessary to explain what ''niti'' is, though the idea, once grasped, is clear, important, and satisfying."</ref> | |||
| "That is the reason why I want to join your group," said the turtle | |||
| Apart from a short introduction — in which the author, ], is introduced as narrating the rest of the work to the princes — it consists of five parts. Each part contains a main story, called the ], which in turn contains several stories "emboxed" in it, as one character narrates a story to another. Often these stories contain further emboxed stories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Edgerton|1924|p=4}}</ref> The stories thus operate like a succession of ], ], sometimes three or four deep. Besides the stories, the characters also quote various epigrammatic verses to make their point.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ryder|1925}}, Translator's introduction: "These verses are for the most part quoted from sacred writings or other sources of dignity and authority. It is as if the animals in some English beast-fable were to justify their actions by quotations from Shakespeare and the Bible. These wise verses it is which make the real character of the ''Panchatantra''. The stories, indeed, are charming when regarded as pure narrative; but it is the beauty, wisdom, and wit of the verses which lift the ''Panchatantra'' far above the level of the best story-books."</ref> | |||
| No sooner had they talked about it than a hunter appeared on the scene. Seeing the hunter, the deer darted away; the crow flew in the sky and the mouse ran into a hole. The turtle tried to crawl away fast, but he was caught by the hunter. The hunter tied him up in the net. He was sad to lose the deer. But he thought, it was better to feast on the turtle rather than to go hungry. | |||
| The five books are called: | |||
| * ''Mitra-bheda'': The Separation of Friends (The Lion and the Bull) | |||
| * ''Mitra-lābha'' or ''Mitra-samprāpti'': The Gaining of Friends (The Dove, Crow, Mouse, Tortoise and Deer) | |||
| * ''Kākolūkīyam'': Of Crows and Owls (War and Peace) | |||
| * ''Labdhapraṇāśam'': Loss Of Gains (The Monkey and the Crocodile) | |||
| * ''Aparīkṣitakārakaṃ'': Ill-Considered Action / Rash deeds (The Brahman and the Mongoose) | |||
| The turtle's three friends became much worried to see his friend trapped by the hunter. They sat together to think of some plan to free his friend from the hunter's snare. | |||
| ===Indian version=== | |||
| ; ''Mitra-bheda'', The Separation of Friends | |||
| In the first book, a friendship arises between the lion Piṅgalaka, the king of the forest, and Sañjīvaka, a bull. Karataka ('Horribly Howling') and Damanaka ('Victor') are two jackals that are retainers to the lion king. Against Karataka's advice, Damanaka breaks up the friendship between the lion and the bull out of jealousy. This book contains around thirty stories, mostly told by the two jackals. It is the longest of the five books, making up roughly 45% of the work's length.<ref name=Olivelle23/> | |||
| The crow then flew high up in the sky and spotted the hunter walking along the river bank. As per the plan the deer ran ahead of the hunter unnoticed and lay on the hunter's path as if dead. | |||
| ;''Mitra-samprāpti'', The Gaining of Friends | |||
| Seeing the favour the ] performed to free the ] (or ]) and her companions, a crow decides to befriend the rat, despite the rat's initial objections. The ] evolves as their friendship grows to include the turtle and the ]. They collaborate to save the fawn when he is trapped, and later they work together to save the turtle, who falls in the trap. This makes up about 22% of the total length.<ref name=Olivelle23>{{Harvnb|Olivelle|2006|p=23}}</ref> | |||
| The hunter saw the deer from a distance, lying on the ground. He | |||
| ] version of ''],'' dated 1210 CE, illustrating the King of the Crows conferring with his political advisors.]] | |||
| ] | |||
| ;''Kākolūkīyam'', Of Crows and Owls | |||
| Traditional enemies, the crows and the owls are at war. One of the crows pretends to be an outcast from his own group to gain entry into the rival owl group; he learns their secrets and vulnerabilities. He later summons his group of crows to set fire to all entrances to the cave where the ]s live and the creatures suffocate to death. This is about 26% of the total length.<ref name=Olivelle23/> | |||
| was very happy to have found it again. "Now I'll have a good feast on it and sell its beautiful skin in the market," thought the hunter to himself. He put down the turtle on to the ground and ran to pick up the deer. | |||
| ;''Labdhapraṇāśam'', Loss of Gains | |||
| The story tells of a ] relationship between the ] and the crocodile. The crocodile risks the liaison by conspiring to acquire the heart of the monkey to heal his wife. When the monkey finds out the plan, he avoids the grim fate. | |||
| In the meantime, as planned, the rat gnawed through the net and freed the turtle. The turtle hurriedly crawled away into the river water. | |||
| ;''Aparīkṣitakārakaṃ'', Hasty Action | |||
| {{main|The Brahmin and the Mongoose}} | |||
| A Brahman leaves his child with a ] friend. When he returns, he sees blood on the mongoose's mouth, and kills his friend, believing the animal killed his child. The Brahman discovers his child alive, and learns that the mongoose defended the child from a snake. He regrets having killed his friend. | |||
| Unaware of the plot of these friends, the hunter went to fetch the dear for its tasty flesh and beautiful skin. But, what he saw with his mouth agape was that, when he reached near, the deer suddenly sprang up to its feet and darted away in the jungle. Before he could understand anything, the deer had disappeared. | |||
| ] that the honest bull-courtier, Sañjīvaka/Schanzabeh, is a traitor. The 1429 ] translation (from ]) was derived from the ] version, ''Kalila wa Dimna,'' of the Indian ''Panchatantra.'']] | |||
| Dejected, the hunter turned back to collect the turtle he had left behind on the ground in the snare. But he was shocked to see the snare lying nibbled at and the turtle missing. For a moment, the hunter thought that he was dreaming. But the damaged snare lying on the ground was proof enough to confirm that he was very much awake and he was compelled to believe that some miracle had taken place. | |||
| Damanaka ('Victor')/Dimna watches in full view of his shocked brother Karataka ('Horribly Howling')/Kalila .]] | |||
| The hunter got frightened on account of these happenings and ran out of the jungle. | |||
| ===Mid. Persian and Arabic versions=== | |||
| The ] ] translated the ''Panchatantra'' (in {{lang-pal|''Kalilag-o Demnag''}}) from ] to ] as ''Kalīla wa Dimna''. This "is considered the first masterpiece of ]."<ref name="mitejmes">{{citation|last=Lane|first=Andrew J.|title=Review: Gregor Schoeler's Écrire et transmettre dans les débuts de l’islam|year=2003|location=Cambridge|publisher= MIT Electronic Journal of Middle East Studies |url=http://web.mit.edu/CIS/www/mitejmes/issues/200310/br_lane.htm |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080306031906/http://web.mit.edu/CIS/www/mitejmes/issues/200310/br_lane.htm |archivedate = 6 March 2008}}</ref> | |||
| By the time the Sanskrit version migrated several hundred years through Pahlavi (Middle Persian) into Arabic, some important differences arose. | |||
| The four friends once again started living happily. | |||
| The introduction and the frame story of the first book changed.<ref>{{citation | year=1990 | title = Burzōy's voyage to India and the origin of the book of Kalīlah wa Dimnah | author1=François de Blois | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-947593-06-3 | pages=22–23 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=JQ6ysVz89KEC&pg=PA22&dq=lacunae}}</ref> An initial introduction explains how the book was first composed at the time of Alexander the Great's (called ذو القرنين in the book- he with two horns) attempt to reach India. In it an Indian King repents past misdeeds and requests an Indian sage (called Bidaba) to compose a body of work with wisdom and fables that are to be passed down for the future generations. This is then stored in the great vault of kings as a national treasure. In the second part a Persian emperor hears of a great book of wisdom in the vaults of treasures in the land of the Indian kings. He sends one of his trusted aides who spends years winning the trust of the inner circle in the castle before he is able to access the book and return with it to Persia. The Persian emperor then rewards him and allows him to translate the book into the Persian language to be read by everyone. Ibn Al-Muqaffa then follows this long introduction, interjected with many sayings of wisdom, fables and noteworthy morals, with the actual fables of Kalila and Dimna.<ref>http://www.al-hakawati.net/arabic/Civilizations/75.pdf</ref> | |||
| The two jackals' names transmogrified into Kalila and Dimna. Perhaps because the first section constituted most of the work, or because translators could find no simple equivalent in Zoroastrian Pahlavi for the concept expressed by the Sanskrit word 'Panchatantra', the jackals' names, ''Kalila and Dimna,'' became the generic name for the entire work in classical times. | |||
| After the first chapter, Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ inserted a new one, telling of Dimna's trial. The jackal is suspected of instigating the death of the bull “Shanzabeh”, a key character in the first chapter. The trial lasts for two days without conclusion, until a tiger and leopard appear to bear witness against Dimna. He is found guilty and put to death. | |||
| Ibn al-Muqaffa' inserted other additions and interpretations into his 750CE "re-telling" (see Francois de Blois' Burzōy's voyage to India and the origin of the book ''Kalīlah wa Dimnah''). The political theorist Jennifer London suggests that he was expressing risky political views in a metaphorical way. (Al-Muqaffa' was murdered within a few years of completing his manuscript). London has analysed how Ibn al-Muqaffa' could have used his version to make "frank political expression" at the 'Abbasid court (see J. London's “How To Do Things With Fables: Ibn al-Muqaffa''s Frank Speech in Stories from Kalila wa Dimna,” ''History of Political Thought'' XXIX: 2 (2008)). | |||
| Al-Muqaffa' also changed the characterisation of some animals, perhaps to have local types which his readers would recognise. For instance, the crocodile in the fourth chapter is changed to a ]{{Verify source|date=March 2011}}, and the ] into a ]. The Brahman is described as a "hermit". | |||
| He begins each chapter of ''Kalila wa Dimna'' with a guiding frame-story theme that suggests key aspects of leadership: | |||
| # One should always be wary if one friend accuses another of crime; | |||
| # (Added chapter) Truth will be revealed, sooner or later; | |||
| # Cooperation among friends is vital to their survival; | |||
| # Mental strength and deceit are stronger in warfare than brute force; | |||
| # One must be careful not to betray friends, especially guarding against one's own tendencies towards foolishness; and | |||
| # One should be wary of hasty judgements.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} | |||
| ==Links with other fables== | |||
| Scholars have noted the strong similarity between a few of the stories in ''The Panchatantra'' and '']''. Examples are ']' and ']'.<ref name=e1965>''The Panchatantra'' translated in 1924 from the Sanskrit by Franklin Edgerton, George Allen and Unwin, London 1965 ("Edition for the General Reader"), page 13</ref> "The Broken Pot" is similar to Aesop's "]",<ref>They are both classified as "about daydreams of wealth and fame".</ref> "The Gold-Giving Snake" is similar to Aesop's "The Man and the Serpent" and "Le Paysan et Dame serpent" by ] (''Fables'')<ref>They are both classified as .</ref> Other well-known stories include "]" and "]". Similar animal fables are found in most cultures of the world, although some ] view India as the prime source.<ref>{{citation|author=K D Upadhyaya|title=The Classification and Chief Characteristics of Indian (Hindi) Folk-Tales}}: "It is only in the fitness of things that Professors Hertel and Benfey should regard this land as the prime source of fables and fiction."</ref><ref>{{citation | year=1996 | title = 'Because it gives me peace of mind': Ritual Fasts in the Religious Lives of Hindu Women | author1=Anne Mackenzie Pearson | publisher=SUNY Press | isbn=978-0-7914-3037-8 | page=279 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=ux5pLOqzzBkC&pg=PA279&dq=pancatantra}}</ref> | |||
| India is described as the "chief source of the world's fable literature" in ''].''<ref>''Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore Mythology and Legend'' (1975), p. 842</ref> | |||
| The French fabulist ] acknowledged his indebtedness to the work in the introduction to his Second Fables: | |||
| :''"This is a second book of fables that I present to the public... I have to acknowledge that the greatest part is inspired from Pilpay, an Indian Sage".<ref>("Je dirai par reconnaissance que j’en dois la plus grande partie à Pilpay sage indien")'' Avertissement to the Second Compilation of Fables, 1678, Jean de La Fontaine</ref> | |||
| ''The Panchatantra'' is the origin also of several stories in '']'', '']'', and of many Western nursery rhymes and ballads.<ref name=thane/> | |||
| ==Origins and function== | |||
| ] | |||
| In the Indian tradition, ''The Panchatantra'' is a {{IAST|nītiśāstra}}. ''Nīti'' can be roughly translated as "the wise conduct of life"<ref name=niti/> and a ''śāstra'' is a technical or scientific treatise; thus it is considered a treatise on political science and human conduct. Its literary sources are "the expert tradition of political science and the folk and literary traditions of storytelling". It draws from the ] ] ] ''śāstra''s, quoting them extensively.<ref name=olivelle18/> It is also explained that ''nīti'' "represents an admirable attempt to answer the insistent question how to win the utmost possible joy from life in the world of men" and that ''nīti'' is "the harmonious development of the powers of man, a life in which security, prosperity, resolute action, friendship, and good learning are so combined to produce joy".<ref name=niti/> | |||
| ''The Panchatantra'' shares many stories in common with the Buddhist ], purportedly told by the historical ] before his death around 400 BCE. As the scholar Patrick Olivelle writes, "It is clear that the Buddhists did not invent the stories. It is quite uncertain whether the author of borrowed his stories from the ''Jātaka''s or the ''Mahābhārata'', or whether he was tapping into a common treasury of tales, both oral and literary, of ancient India."<ref name=olivelle18/> Many scholars believe the tales were based on earlier oral folk traditions, which were finally written down, although there is no conclusive evidence.<ref>Bedekar: "Its probable relation to early folk and oral tradition of story telling in India has been suggested by many. Rather, it is fashionable to make such statements that 'Panchatantra' and allied Katha literature in India had their origin in early folk stories. However, not a single credible evidence has been produced till this date, other than lengthy discussions on hypothetical assumptions."</ref> In the early 20th century, ] found that many folk tales in India appeared to be borrowed from literary sources and not vice-versa.<ref>] 1919. "'The Panchatantra' in Modern Indian Folklore", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society,'' Vol 39, pp 1 &17: "It is doubtless true that in the remote past many stories had their origin among the illiterate folk, often in pre-literary times, and were later taken into literature. It is also just as true that many stories that appear in literature existed there first and are not indebted to the folklore for their origin. But leaving aside questions concerning the early history of Hindu stories and dealing strictly with modern Indian fiction, we find that folklore has frequently taken its material from literature. This process has been so extensive that of the 3000 tales so far reported, all of which have been collected during the past fifty years, at least half can be shown to be derived from literary sources. This table affords considerable evidence in support of the theory that it is the folk tales and not the literary tales that are borrowed.</ref> | |||
| An early Western scholar who studied ''The Panchatantra'' was Dr. Johannes Hertel, who thought the book had a ] character. Similarly, Edgerton noted that "The so-called 'morals' of the stories have no bearing on morality; they are unmoral, and often immoral. They glorify shrewdness and practical wisdom, in the affairs of life, and especially of politics, of government."<ref name=e1965/> Other scholars dismiss this assessment as one-sided, and view the stories as teaching {{IAST|dharma}}, or proper moral conduct.<ref>{{citation | last=Falk|first=H. | title=Quellen des Pañcatantra | year=1978 | pages=173–188}}</ref> Also:<ref>{{citation | year=1996 | title = Comparative ethics in Hindu and Buddhist traditions | author1=Roderick Hindery | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. | isbn=978-81-208-0866-9 | page=166 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=-FswBLvTkvQC&pg=PA166&dq=roguery}}</ref> | |||
| {{quote|On the surface, the Pañcatantra presents stories and sayings which favor the outwitting of roguery, and practical intelligence rather than virtue. However, From this viewpoint the tales of the Pañcatantra are eminently ethical. the prevailing mood promotes an earthy, moral, rational, and unsentimental ability to learn from repeated experience}} | |||
| As Olivelle observes:<ref name=olivelle18>{{Harvnb|Olivelle|2006|p=18}}</ref> | |||
| {{quote|Indeed, the current scholarly debate regarding the intent and purpose of the 'Pañcatantra' — whether it supports unscrupulous Machiavellian politics or demands ethical conduct from those holding high office — underscores the rich ambiguity of the text.}} | |||
| In the first frame story, the evil Damanaka ('Victor') wins, and not his good brother Karataka. The persistent theme of evil-triumphant in ''Kalila and Dimna'' Part One, frequently outraged readers among Jewish, Christian and Muslim religious leaders who encountered the work in translation. Some scholars believe that ] inserted a chapter at the end of Part One, which puts Dimna in jail, on trial and eventually to death, in an effort to assuage religious opponents of the work.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} | |||
| The pre-Islamic original, ''The Panchatantra'', contains no such dogmatic moralising. As Joseph Jacobs observed in 1888, "... if one thinks of it, the very ''raison d'être'' of the Fable is to imply its moral without mentioning it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Jacobs|1888}}, </ref> | |||
| ==Cross-cultural migrations== | |||
| {{See also|Hitopadesha}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| The work has gone through many different versions and translations from the sixth century to the present day.<ref>See: | |||
| * ''Kalila and Dimna, Selected fables of Bidpai'', retold by Ramsay Wood (with an Introduction by Doris Lessing), Illustrated by Margaret Kilrenny, New York: Alfred A Knopf, 1980 | |||
| * ''Kalila and Dimna, Tales for Kings and Commoners, Selected Fables of Bidpai'', retold by Ramsay Wood, Introduction by Doris Lessing, Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, 1986 | |||
| * ''Tales of Kalila and Dimna, Classic Fables from India'', retold by Ramsay Wood, Introduction by Doris Lessing, Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions International, 2000, This is a reprint of the 1986 edition, repackaged with a fresh title and a new cover. | |||
| * ''Kalila and Dimna, Fables of Friendship and Betrayal'', by Ramsay Wood, Introduction by Doris Lessing, Postscript by Dr Christine van Ruymbeke, London: Saqi Books, 2008 | |||
| * ''Kalila and Dimna, The Panchatantra Retold, Book One'', by Ramsay Wood, Introduction by Doris Lessing, Random House India, Noida, Uttar Pradesh: 2010 | |||
| * "Kalile e Dimna, Fiable indiane di Bidpai", cura di Ramsay Wood, Venice: Neri Pozza, 2007 | |||
| * ''Animal Tales of the Arab World'' by Denys Johnson-Davies, Hoopoe Books, Cairo 1995 | |||
| * ''Kalila und Dimna, oder die Kunst, Fruende zu gewinnen, Fabeln des Bidpai'', erzahlt von Ramsay Wood, Vorwort von Doris Lessing, translated by Edgar Otten, Herder/Spektrum, Freiberg 1996 | |||
| * ''Kalila y Dimna, Fabulas de Bidpai'', Contadas por Ramsay Wood, Introduccio de Doris Lessing , translated from the English by Nicole d'Amonville Alegria, Kairos, Barcelona 1999 | |||
| * ''Kalila wa Dimna or The Mirror for Princes'' by Sulayman Al-Bassam, Oberon Modern Plays, London 2006, | |||
| * ''Kalila et Dimna, Fables indiennes de Bidbai'', choisies et racontées par Ramsay Wood, Albin Michel, Paris 2006 </ref> The original Indian version was first translated into a foreign language (]) by ] in 570CE, then into Arabic in 750. This became the source of versions in European languages, until the English translation by ] of the ] '']'' in 1787. | |||
| ===Early cross-cultural migrations=== | |||
| The ''Panchatantra'' approximated its current literary form within the 4th–6th centuries CE, though originally written around 200 BCE. No Sanskrit texts before 1000 CE have survived.<ref>{{Harvnb|Edgerton|1924|p=9}}</ref> According to ]n tradition, it was written by Pandit ], a sage. Buddhist monks on pilgrimage took the influential Sanskrit text (probably both in oral and literary formats) north to Tibet and China and east to South East Asia.<ref>]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}] "Review: Colin Thubron, ''Shadow of the Silk Road,'' London: Chatto & Windus, 2006, ''New Statesman,'' 25 September 2011, Review includes description of how some of the monks likely traveled in ancient times.</ref> These led to versions in all Southeast Asian countries, including Tibetan, Chinese, Mongolian, Javanese and Lao derivatives.<ref name=thane/> | |||
| ===How Borzuy brought the work from India=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The ''Panchatantra'' also migrated westwards, during the ] reign of ] Anushiravan. Around 570 CE his notable physician ] translated the work from Sanskrit into the ] language, and transliterated the main characters as ''Karirak ud Damanak''.<ref>, in ''Medieval Islamic Civilization, An Encyclopaedia'', Vol. II, p. 432-433, ed. Josef W. Meri, New York-London: Routledge, 2006</ref><ref>Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub, ''Naqde adabi'', Tehran 1959 pp:374–379. (See Contents 1.1 ])</ref> | |||
| According to the story told in the '']'' (''The Book of the Kings'', ]'s late 10th century national epic by ]), Borzuy sought his king's permission to make a trip to Hindustan in search of a mountain herb he had read about that is "mingled into a compound and, when sprinkled over a corpse, it is immediately restored to life."<ref name="The Shāh Nãma 1985, pages 330 - 334">The Shāh Nãma, The Epic of the Kings, translated by Reuben Levy, revised by Amin Banani, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1985, Chapter XXXI (iii) How Borzuy brought the Kalila of Demna from Hindustan, pages 330 – 334</ref> He did not find the herb, but was told by a wise sage of <blockquote>"a different interpretation. The herb is the scientist; science is the mountain, everlastingly out of reach of the multitude. The corpse is the man without knowledge, for the uninstructed man is everywhere lifeless. Through knowledge man becomes revivified."</blockquote> The sage pointed to the book ''Kalila,'' and Borzuy obtained the king's permission to read and translate the book, with the help of some Pandits.<ref name="The Shāh Nãma 1985, pages 330 - 334"/> | |||
| ===The Arabic classic by Ibn al-Muqaffa=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Borzuy's 570 CE Pahlavi translation (''Kalile va Demne'', now lost) was translated into ]. Nearly two centuries later, it was translated into Arabic by ] around 750 CE<ref>''The Fables of Kalila and Dimnah'', translated from the Arabic by Saleh Sa'adeh Jallad, 2002. Melisende, London, ISBN 1-901764-14-1</ref> under the Arabic title, ''Kalīla wa Dimna''.<ref>''Muslim Neoplatonist: An Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity'', Ian Richard Netton, 1991. Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-0251-8</ref> After the Arab invasion of Persia (Iran), Ibn al-Muqaffa's version (two languages removed from the pre-Islamic Sanskrit original) emerged as the pivotal surviving text that enriched world literature.<ref>See fourteen illuminating commentaries about or relating to ''Kalila wa Dimna'' under the entry for Ibn al-Muqqaffa in the INDEX of ''The Penguin Anthology of Classical Arabic Literature'' by Rober Irwin, Penguin Books, London 2006</ref> Ibn al-Muqqaffa's work is considered a model of the finest Arabic prose style,<ref>James Kritzeck (1964) ''Anthology of Islamic Literature'', New American Library, New York, page 73: | |||
| {{quote|On the surface of the matter it may seem strange that the oldest work of Arabic prose which is regarded as a model of style is a translation from the Pahlavi (Middle Persian) of the Sanskrit work ''Panchatantra'', or ''The Fables of Bidpai'', by Ruzbih, a convert from ], who took the name Abdullah ibn al-Muqaffa. It is not quite so strange, however, when one recalls that the Arabs had much preferred the poetic art and were at first suspicious of and untrained to appreciate, let alone imitate, current higher forms of prose literature in the lands they occupied. | |||
| Leaving aside the great skill of its translation (which was to serve as the basis for later translations into some forty languages), the work itself is far from primitive, having benefited already at that time 750 CE from a lengthy history of stylistic revision. ''Kalilah and Dimnah'' is in fact the patriarchal form of the Indic fable in which animals behave as humans — as distinct from the Aesopic fable in which they behave as animals. Its philosophical heroes through the ''initial'' interconnected episodes ''illustrating The Loss of Friends, the first Hindu principle of polity'' are the two jackals, Kalilah and Dimnah. | |||
| It seems unjust, in the light of posterity's appreciation of his work, that Ibn al-Muqaffa was put to death after charges of heresy about 755 CE.}} See also pages 69 – 72 for his vivid summary of Ibn al-Muqaffa's historical context. | |||
| </ref> and "is considered the first masterpiece of ]."<ref name="mitejmes" /><!-- In the ''The Golden Age of Persia'', ] ascribes significant Arabic literary developments to al-Muqaffa --> | |||
| Some scholars believe that Ibn al-Muqaffa's translation of the second section, illustrating the Sanskrit principle of ''Mitra Laabha'' (Gaining Friends), became the unifying basis for the ] (''Ikwhan al-Safa'') — the anonymous 9th century CE encyclopedists whose prodigious literary effort, '']'', codified Indian, Persian and Greek knowledge. A suggestion made by Goldziher, and later written on by ] in his '']'', proposes that "The appellation is presumably taken from the story of the ringdove in ''Kalilah wa-Dimnah'' in which it is related that a group of animals by acting as faithful friends (''ikhwan al-safa'') to one another escaped the snares of the hunter." This story is mentioned as an ] when the Brethren speak of mutual aid in one ''risaala'' (]), a crucial part of their system of ethics. | |||
| ]'' of the ] version by ].]] | |||
| ===Spread to the rest of Europe=== | |||
| Almost all pre-modern European translations of the Panchatantra arise from this Arabic version. From Arabic it was re-translated into Syriac in the 10th or 11th century, into ] in 1080, into 'modern' Persian by Abu'l Ma'ali Nasr Allah Munshi in 1121, and in 1252 into Spain (old Castilian, ''Calyla e Dymna''). | |||
| Perhaps most importantly, it was translated into ] by Rabbi Joel in the 12th century. This Hebrew version was translated into ] by ] as ''Directorium Humanae Vitae'', or "Directory of Human Life", and printed in 1480, and became the source of most European versions. A German translation, ''Das Buch der Beispiele'', of the Panchatantra was printed in 1483, making this one of the earliest books to be printed by ]'s press after the Bible.<ref name=thane>Vijay Bedekar, , Institute for Oriental Study, Thane</ref> | |||
| The Latin version was translated into Italian by ] in 1552. This translation became the basis for the first English translation, in 1570: Sir ] translated it into ] as ''The Fables of Bidpai: The Morall Philosophie of Doni'' (reprinted by Joseph Jacobs, 1888).<ref name=Jacobs/> La Fontaine published ''The Fables of Bidpai'' in 1679, based on "the Indian sage Pilpay".<ref name=thane/> | |||
| ==Modern era== | |||
| It was the Panchatantra that served as the basis for the studies of ], the pioneer in the field of comparative literature.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2c8oAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA5&dq=basis |title=Harvard Oriental Series |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=14 April 2013}}</ref> His efforts began to clear up some confusion surrounding the history of the Panchatantra, culminating in the work of Hertel ({{Harvnb|Hertel|1908}}, {{Harvnb|Hertel|1912}}, {{Harvnb|Hertel|1915}}) and {{Harvtxt|Edgerton|1924}}.<ref name=thane/> Hertel discovered several recensions in India, in particular the oldest available Sanskrit recension, the ''Tantrakhyayika'' in Kashmir, and the so-called North Western Family Sanskrit text by the Jain monk Purnabhadra in 1199 CE that blends and rearranges at least three earlier versions. Edgerton undertook a minute study of all texts which seemed "to provide useful evidence on the lost Sanskrit text to which, it must be assumed, they all go back", and believed he had reconstructed the original Sanskrit Panchatantra; this version is known as the Southern Family text. | |||
| Among modern translations, ]'s translation ({{Harvnb|Ryder|1925}}), translating prose for prose and verse for rhyming verse, remains popular.<ref>{{citation | year=2002 | title = Art and culture: painting and perspective | editor1=Ahsan Jan Qaisar | editor2=Som Prakash Verma | publisher=Abhinav Publications | isbn=978-81-7017-405-9 | page=33 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=cHILthAUauEC&pg=PA33&dq=Ryder%27s}}: "it became the most popular and easily accessible English translation, going into many reprints."</ref> In the 1990s two English versions of the ''Panchatantra'' were published, Chandra Rajan's translation (based on the Northwestern text) by Penguin (1993), and Patrick Olivelle's translation (based on the Southern text) by Oxford University Press (1997). Olivelle's translation was republished in 2006 by the ].<ref>{{Harvtxt|Rajan|1993}}, {{Harvtxt|Olivelle|1997}}, {{Harvtxt|Olivelle|2006}}.</ref> | |||
| Recently Ibn al-Muqaffa's historical milieu itself, when composing his masterpiece in Baghdad during the bloody ] overthrow of the ] dynasty, has become the subject (and rather confusingly, also the title) of a gritty Shakespearean drama by the multicultural Kuwaiti playwright ].<ref>''Kalila wa Dimna or The Mirror for Princes'' by Sulayman Al-Bassam, Oberon Modern Plays, London 2006</ref> Ibn al-Muqqafa's biographical background serves as an illustrative metaphor for today's escalating bloodthirstiness in Iraq — once again a historical vortex for clashing civilisations on a multiplicity of levels, including the obvious tribal, religious and political parallels. | |||
| The novelist ] notes in her introduction to ]'s 1980 "retelling" of the first two of the five Panchatantra books,<ref>''Kalila and Dimna, Selected fables of Bidpai'', retold by Ramsay Wood (with an Introduction by Doris Lessing), Illustrated by Margaret Kilrenny, A Paladin Book, Granada, London, 1982</ref> that | |||
| {{quotation|"... it is safe to say that most people in the West these days will not have heard of it, while they will certainly at the very least have heard of the ''Upanishads'' and the ''Vedas''. Until comparatively recently, it was the other way around. Anyone with any claim to a literary education knew that the ''Fables of Bidpai'' or the ''Tales of Kalila and Dimna'' — these being the most commonly used titles with us — was a great Eastern classic. There were at least twenty English translations in the hundred years before 1888. Pondering on these facts leads to reflection on the fate of books, as chancy and unpredictable as that of people or nations."}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
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| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
| ==Editions and translations== | |||
| (Ordered chronologically.) | |||
| ===Sanskrit texts=== | |||
| ;Critical editions | |||
| * {{citation | year=1908 | last=Hertel|first=Johannes | title = The Panchatantra: a collection of ancient Hindu tales, in the recension called Panchakhyanaka, and dated 1199 A.D., of the Jaina monk, Pūrṇabhadra, critically edited in the original Sanskrit (in Nâgarî letters, and, for the sake of beginners, with word-division) | publisher= ] Volume 11 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=jB0YAAAAYAAJ}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=1912 | last=Hertel|first=Johannes | title =The Panchatantra-text of Pūrṇabhadra : critical introduction and list of variants | publisher=Harvard Oriental Series Volume 12 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=Va7YAAAAMAAJ}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=1912 | last=Hertel|first=Johannes | title =The Panchatantra-text of Pūrṇabhadra and its relation to texts of allied recensions as shown in parallel specimens | publisher=Harvard Oriental Series Volume 13 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=GrDYAAAAMAAJ}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=1915 | last=Hertel|first=Johannes | title=The Panchatantra: a collection of ancient Hindu tales in its oldest recension, the Kashmirian, entitled Tantrakhyayika | publisher=Harvard Oriental Series Volume 14 | url=http://books.google.com/?id=-x0YAAAAYAAJ}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=1924 | last=Edgerton|first=Franklin| title=The Panchatantra Reconstructed (Vol.1: Text and Critical Apparatus, Vol.2: Introduction and Translation) | publisher=American Oriental Series Volumes 2–3 | place=New Haven, Connecticut}} | |||
| ;Others | |||
| * {{citation | year=1896 | title=The Pañchatantraka of Vishṇusarman | publisher=Tukârâm Jâvjî | url=http://books.google.com/?id=K7IWAAAAYAAJ | editor=Kāśīnātha Pāṇḍuraṅga Paraba}}, | |||
| * {{citation | year= 1935 | title=Panchatantra with the commentary Abhinavarajalaxmi | author=Pandit Guru Prasad Shastri | publisher=Bhargava Pustakalaya | place=Benares | url=http://www.archive.org/details/PanchatantramWithSanskritCommentaryByGpShastri}} (Text with Sanskrit commentary) | |||
| * {{citation | year= 1975 | title=Pañcatantram | author=Shayamacharan Pandey | publisher=] | place=Vārāṇasī | url=http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Panchatantra_Of_Vishnu_Sharma_Sampurna.html?id=1OeLMbf3wvkC | isbn= 9788120821583}} (Complete Sanskrit text with Hindi translation) | |||
| ===Translations in English=== | |||
| * {{citation | year=1819 | title=Kalila and Dimna or The Fables of Bidpai | last=Knatchbull|first=Rev Wyndham | place=Oxford | url=http://www.archive.org/details/kalilaanddimnao00almgoog}} (translated from Silvestre de Stacy's laborious 1816 collation of different Arabic manuscripts) | |||
| * {{citation | year=1854 | title=The Anvari Suhaili; or the Lights of Canopus Being the Persian version of the Fables of Pilpay; or the Book Kalílah and Damnah rendered into Persian by Husain Vá'iz U'L-Káshifí | last=Eastwick|first=Edward B (transl.)|authorlink=Edward Backhouse Eastwick | publisher=Stephen Austin, Bookseller to the East-India College | place=Hertford | url=http://books.google.com/?id=W0oOAAAAQAAJ}} Also online at | |||
| * {{citation | year=1877 | title=The Anwar-I-Suhaili Or Lights of ] Commonly Known As Kalilah And Damnah Being An Adaptation By Mulla Husain Bin Ali Waiz-Al-Kashifi of The Fables of Bidapai | last=Wollaston|first= Arthur N. (transl.) | publisher=W H Allen | place=London}} | |||
| * {{citation| year=1885 | title=Kalilah and Dimnah or The Fables of Bidpai | last=Falconer|first=Ion Keith|authorlink=Ion Keith Falconer | publisher=Cambridge University Press | url=http://books.google.com/?id=CGvYAAAAMAAJ}}, reprinted by Philo Press, Amsterdam 1970 | |||
| * {{citation| year=1888 | title=The earliest English version of the Fables of Bidpai | last=Jacobs|first=Joseph | place=London | url=http://www.archive.org/details/earliestenglishv00doniuoft}} (edited and induced from ''The Morall Philosophie of Doni'' by Sir Thomas North, 1570) | |||
| *''Tales Within Tales'' – adapted from the fables of Pilpai, Sir Arthur N Wollaston, John Murray, London 1909 | |||
| * {{citation | year=1930 | title=The Lights of Canopus described by J V S Wilkinson | last=Wilkinson | publisher=The Studio Limited | place=London}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=1925 | title=The Panchatantra | last=Ryder|first=Arthur W. (transl)|authorlink=Arthur W. Ryder | publisher=University of Chicago Press | isbn=81-7224-080-5}} (also republished in 1956, reprint 1964, and by Jaico Publishing House, Bombay, 1949). (Translation based on Hertel's North Western Family Sanskrit text.) | |||
| * {{citation | year=1993 | title={{IAST|Viṣṇu Śarma: The Panchatantra}} | last=Rajan|first=Chandra (transl.) | publisher=Penguin Books | place=London | isbn=978-0-14-045520-5}} (reprint: 1995) (also from the North Western Family text.) | |||
| * {{citation | year=1997 | title=The Pancatantra: The Book of India's Folk Wisdom | last=Olivelle|first=Patrick (transl.) | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-283988-6}} (Translation based on Edgerton's Southern Family Sanskrit text.) | |||
| * {{citation | year=2004 | title=Panchatantra – A vivid retelling of India's most famous collection of fables | last=Dharma|first=Krishna (transl.) | publisher=Torchlight Publishing | place=Badger CA, USA | isbn=978-1-887089-45-6}} (Accessible popular compilation derived from a Sanskrit text with reference to the aforementioned translations by Chandra Rajan and Patrick Olivelle.) | |||
| * {{citation | year=2006 | title = The Five Discourses on Worldly Wisdom | publisher= ] | last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |isbn=978-0-8147-6208-0 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=LHS-rHrE6PEC&pg=PA17}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=2008 | title=Kalila and Dimna, Fables of Friendship and Betrayal, Introduction by Doris Lessing, Postscript by Dr Christine van Ruymbeke | last=Wood|first=Ramsay | publisher=] | place=London | isbn=978-0-86356-661-5 | id={{ASIN|0863566618|country=uk}}}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=2008 | title=Kalila and Dimna, Fables of Friendship and Betrayal (Vol. 1: Books 1 & 2) Introduction by Doris Lessing (US Kindle edition) | last=Wood|first=Ramsay | publisher=Zirac Press| place=Edinburg | isbn=0-86356-661-8 | url= http://www.amazon.com/dp/B002AQTGM0/}} . | |||
| * {{citation | year=2010 | title=Kalila and Dimna, The Panchatantra Retold – Book One, Introduction by Doris Lessing | last=Wood|first=Ramsay | publisher=] | place=Noida | url=http://www.randomhouse.co.in/BookDetails.aspx?BookId=BQML2Scuudw%3d}} | |||
| * {{citation | year=2011 | title=Kalila and Dimna, Fables of Conflict and Intrigue (Vol. 2: Books 4 & 5), Introduction by Michael Wood (US Kindle edition) | last=Wood|first=Ramsay | publisher=Zirac Press| place=Edinburg | isbn= 0-9567081-0-2 | url= http://www.amazon.com/dp/B007J6UJDG/}} . | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| <div class="references-small" style=> | |||
| *N. M. Penzer (1924), ''The ocean of story, being C.H. Tawney's translation of Somadeva's Katha sarit sagara (or Ocean of streams of story)'': Volume V (of X), | |||
| *''Burzoy's Voyage to India and the Origin of the Book of Kalilah wa Dimnah'' , Francois de Blois, Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1990 | |||
| *''On Kalila wa Dimna and Persian National Fairy Tales'' , Dr. Pavel Basharin , Tansoxiana 12, 2007 | |||
| *''The Past We Share — The Near Eastern Ancestry of Western Folk Literature'', E. L. Ranelagh, Quartet Books, Horizon Press, New York, 1979 | |||
| *''In Arabian Nights — A search of Morocco through its stories and storytellers'' by Tahir Shah, Doubleday, 2008. This is a book that explores the ancient living tradition of storytelling that bridges East and West, yet somehow seems to survive at much more pervasively vibrant levels in contemporary Moroccan culture. | |||
| *Ibn al-Muqaffa, Abdallah. ''Kalilah et Dimnah''. Ed. P. Louis Cheiko. 3 ed. Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1947. | |||
| *Ibn al-Muqaffa, Abd'{{not a typo|allah}}. ''Calila e Dimna''. Eds. Juan Manuel Cacho Blecua and María Jesus Lacarra. Madrid: Editorial Castalia, 1984. | |||
| *Keller, John Esten, and Robert White Linker. ''El libro de Calila e Digna''. Madrid Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1967. | |||
| *Latham, J.D. "Ibn al-Muqaffa` and Early `Abbasid Prose." ''`Abbasid Belles-Lettres''. Eds. Julia Ashtiany, et al. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989. 48–77. | |||
| *Parker, Margaret. ''The Didactic Structure and Content of El libro de Calila e Digna''. Miami, FL: Ediciones Universal, 1978. | |||
| *Penzol, Pedro. Las traducciones del "Calila e Dimna". Madrid,: Impr. de Ramona Velasco, viuda de P. Perez,, 1931. | |||
| *Shaw, Sandra. ''The ] — Birth Stories of the Bodhisatta'' , Penguin Classics, Penguin Books India, New Delhi, 2006 | |||
| *Wacks, David A. "The Performativity of Ibn al-Muqaffa''s ''Kalîla wa-Dimna'' and ''Al-Maqamat al-Luzumiyya'' of al-Saraqusti." ''Journal of Arabic Literature'' 34.1–2 (2003): 178–89.</div> | |||
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Revision as of 07:25, 7 June 2014
THE FOUR FRIENDS AND THE HUNTER
A friend in need is a friend indeed ________________________________________ Long, long ago, there lived three friends in a jungle. They were-a deer, a crow and a mouse. They used to share their meals together.
One day, a turtle came to them and said, "I also want to join your company and become your friend. I'm all alone. "
"You're most welcome," said the crow. "But what about your personal safety. There are many hunters around. They visit this jungle regularly. Suppose, a hunter comes, how will you save yourself?"
"That is the reason why I want to join your group," said the turtle
No sooner had they talked about it than a hunter appeared on the scene. Seeing the hunter, the deer darted away; the crow flew in the sky and the mouse ran into a hole. The turtle tried to crawl away fast, but he was caught by the hunter. The hunter tied him up in the net. He was sad to lose the deer. But he thought, it was better to feast on the turtle rather than to go hungry.
The turtle's three friends became much worried to see his friend trapped by the hunter. They sat together to think of some plan to free his friend from the hunter's snare.
The crow then flew high up in the sky and spotted the hunter walking along the river bank. As per the plan the deer ran ahead of the hunter unnoticed and lay on the hunter's path as if dead.
The hunter saw the deer from a distance, lying on the ground. He
was very happy to have found it again. "Now I'll have a good feast on it and sell its beautiful skin in the market," thought the hunter to himself. He put down the turtle on to the ground and ran to pick up the deer.
In the meantime, as planned, the rat gnawed through the net and freed the turtle. The turtle hurriedly crawled away into the river water.
Unaware of the plot of these friends, the hunter went to fetch the dear for its tasty flesh and beautiful skin. But, what he saw with his mouth agape was that, when he reached near, the deer suddenly sprang up to its feet and darted away in the jungle. Before he could understand anything, the deer had disappeared.
Dejected, the hunter turned back to collect the turtle he had left behind on the ground in the snare. But he was shocked to see the snare lying nibbled at and the turtle missing. For a moment, the hunter thought that he was dreaming. But the damaged snare lying on the ground was proof enough to confirm that he was very much awake and he was compelled to believe that some miracle had taken place.
The hunter got frightened on account of these happenings and ran out of the jungle.
The four friends once again started living happily.