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The Imjin War (1592 – 1598), or Hideyoshi's Invasion of Korea, consisted of two Japanese invasions of Korea, with the professed aim of conquering China.

During the campaigns, the Japanese army occupied parts of the Korean peninsula while the Korean navy dominated the sea. On land, the Koreans responded with a scorched earth campaign. Unable to support the troops reliably by sea, and facing land rendered useless by the allied forces of Korea and China, Japan withdrew. Korea suffered great loss of life and cultural artifacts, as well as long-lasting damage to its economy.

The first invasion (1592-1593) is called the "Japanese Chaos of 1592" (1592 being imjin in the sexagenary cycle) in Korean and "Bunroku Campaign" in Japanese. The second invasion (1597-1598) is called the "Second Chaos of 1597" and "Keichō Campaign", respectively. In Chinese, the wars are referred to as the "Renzhen (see Imjin above) War to Defend the Nation" or the "Wanli Korean Campaign", after the reigning Chinese emperor.

Background

Korea

Main article Korea, History of Korea

Prior to the war, the Joseon Dynasty of Korea had presided over 200 years of relative peace since the coup that overthrew its predecessor, the Goryeo Dynasty (918 - 1392). However, there were occasions of armed conflict during this period; many Jurchen raids had occurred on the northern border of Korea (ended by the extension of the Korean border to the Tumen River), and Japanese Wokou raids on Korea's ports and coastal villages (a particularly severe incident in 1418 resulted in Korea's retaliatory invasion of Tsushima Island, called the Oei Invasion.

Preceding the Japanese invasion, Korea maintained an alliance with the Ming Dynasty of China. Korea and China overall shared a negative relationship due to long wars in the past. However, the Ming Dynasty during the early Joseon period maintained peaceful relations. Sharing Confucian ideals, a common enemy (the Jurchens), and commerce between the two countries helped create a friendly relationship between Korea and China. Korea and Japan traded commercially as well, and Japan traded with China mainly through Korea, but Korea had stronger ties with the Ryukyu Kingdom than with the main Japanese islands.

Yi I (1536-1584), then a scholar and influential philosopher, advised that Korea should train a well equipped army of at least 100,000 soldiers. He strongly believed that Japan would invade Korea and advised to the Korean court to begin reorganizing the army. Unfortunately, the Korean court heeded no attention. Also, a weak Korean performance in 1582 against the Jurchens showed that the Korean army was not trained properly.

Ryu Seong-ryong, another scholar, wanted to strengthen the military, fearing an invasion by Japan. He believed that all men, regardless of their social status (including slaves), should be conscripted, and castles and fortresses be repaired. Ryu also wanted to reorganize the military for better leadership, develop more advanced arquebuses, and improve armor even in the common foot infantry. Ryu later became Prime Minister of Korea.

However, these proposals were opposed by most advisors of the court, who believed Japan was not in a position to attack Korea. Also, they rejected the proposals to repair castles because of the money and labor that went into it. Ryu was dismissed by King Seonjo.

Japan

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Main article Japan, History of Japan

Toyotomi Hideyoshi established his hegemony over the warring states in Japan in the latter part of the 16th century. Hideyoshi united all the states and brought Japan to a brief period of peace. Motivated in part by a need to satisfy the perpetual hunger for territory by his vassals and find employment for restive samurai, he began to plan for the conquest of Ming Dynasty China. He revealed his plan first to Mori Terumoto in 1586, and pursued the plan after he defeated the clans of Shimazu and Hojo. Thousands of troops were mobilized and trained; weapons, and supplies were gathered; and hundreds of arquebuses were imported from Portugal. Hideyoshi failed to hire two Portuguese galleons to join the invasion; therefore, hundreds of ships were built to carry the entire Japanese army across the sea.

Several times, Hideyoshi sent ambassadors to request the Joseon court to allow his troops to move through the Korean peninsula to China. His first request was ignored, and the second request was snubbed after King Seonjo sent envoys to Hideyoshi's government and determined from their observations that Hideyoshi posed no threat. After the denial of his second request, Hideyoshi launched his armies against Korea in 1592. There were those who opposed Hideyoshi's plan, such as Tokugawa Ieyasu, and Konishi Yukinaga and So Yoshitoshi were among those who tried to arbitrate between Hideyoshi and the Joseon court.

Comparison of Korean and Japanese Armies

The Korean military in general was in need of many reforms due to the unnecessarily large command bureaucracy. The armies were poorly equipped with rusted weaponry, and most of the officers were incompetent in building strategies due to inexperience and ‘table-warfare’ ideologies.

Arquebuses

Presumably the main reason why the Koreans were so unsuccessful in the early stage of the war was the Japanese implementation of arquebuses from Portugal. Japan had opened her market for a time to the West to adopt European science and technology. When Japan first acquired the arquebuses, they were fascinated and immediately began manufacturing them. Korea's reaction was much more different, and instead disassociated herself from foreigners with the exception of Ming China. The Koreans did use fire arrows launched from hand guns, but generals and captains put the emphasis on archery. In fact, Korean bows were highly advanced compared to those of others: the range of the Korean arrows was 460 meters compared to the Japanese range of 320 meters.

Korean archers lost against Japanese arquebuses primarily because the range of the arquebus was longer. Although the reload time with bows was faster, training soldiers to become skilled archers was arduous and repetitive. Arquebuses were also less accurate, but Japanese commanders believed that a heavy volley would provide enough firepower.

Another reason was that nearly all Korean soldiers were not aware of arquebuses and most of them never experienced guns nor were trained to combat them. In the opening battles of the Imjin War, Koreans were shocked at the sudden, loud noises of the guns. Generals, on their part, were not accustomed to guns and could not strategize their battle plans to counter the arquebuses.

Armor

Another huge disadvantage for the Korean soldiers was their lack of armor. Although Korean troops were equipped with iron and lamellar armor during the Goryeo Dynasty, its usage declined by the mid-16th century. Koreans saw no need for the armour because of their considerable quantity and sophistication in projectile weapons, which they thought made face-to-face combat less likely, and hence armor less necessary. Although the government made wearing armor mandatory for all ranks, only the officers and generals complied. Most soldiers hesitated in wearing armor because it was too heavy and proved inconvenient. Nearly all the blame goes on the generals, who failed to emphasize armor to the lower ranks.

A common Korean soldier wore a heavy black leather jacket over their normal white clothes. A hard conical hat gave some protection as well. This uniform allowed easy movement and speed but no protection against bullets, arrows, or swords. Korean soldiers often used a long trident as their main weapon which proved to be a deadly weapon because Korean tridents had blades on all three prongs unlike the European counterpart.

Japanese foot soldiers wore bamboo and chainmail over their chest, arms, and legs. Shin guards also added protection to the lower legs and feet. A round cone hat was worn by the Japanese, usually painted with an insignia of a samurai's crest. This armor did not prevent arrows or bullets to pass but protected the soldier from sword or spear slashes. The large difference between the protection Korea and Japan had proved to be a huge cost to the Korean army at the start of the war.

Navy

The navy was the probably one of the few main military division in which Korea excelled. Firstly, Korea had a long tradition of boatbuilding since the Goryeo Dynasty and developed sturdy ships for commercial and military use. The Korean navy was mainly made up of Panokseons. The Japanese ships however, were hastily mobilized solely for the purpose of transportation.

Unlike the armor, the navy was not neglected, due to a constant need to protect the sea from Japanese pirates. Each Panokseon had 32 large cannons and multiple Hwachas, and had superior firepower and range to the Japanese ships. These two advantages were used in addition to the manipulation of the environment by Admiral Yi in the Battle of Noryang Point, and other battles, to destroy much of the Japanese fleet before engaging in mêlée combat.

Korean ships were overall very sturdy and, although somewhat slower than Japanese attack vessels, had great power in their cannon. Japanese ships, on the other hand, were too weak to support the recoil of cannon and could only carry 1 or 2 cannons. Also, Korean ships were built with wooden pegs while Japanese ships were built with iron nails. Unfortunately, iron nails rusted and made Japanese ships' hulls weak.

Also, Korean cannon surpassed those of the Japanese in firepower and range. Ironically, while Korea had nearly no arquebuses, Korean soldiers had a wide selection of cannons at their disposal. Cannons were first developed in the 1400s under King Sejong (1418-1450). Cannon were mainly used on battleships and castles but weren't very mobile and were unwieldy to use on the battlefield. Koreans used grenades and mortars from cannon as well, which were most effective in tight areas. Mortars were usually lobbed onto enemy ships.

It is quite likely that the only Korean general who had predicted the inevitable Japanese invasion and prepared for the war was Yi Sun-sin. Yi had become the Commander of Jeolla Left Naval Station in Yeosu. Yi began to build more warships and designed the Turtle Ship, which would become critical in securing important naval victories.

The Japanese military was carefully organized and the soldiers of different professions were well distributed among the armies. The Korean military, on the other hand, was not only disorganized, but inexperienced as well.

First Invasion

Initial Landing

Main articles Siege of Busan, Battle of Tadaejin

The invasion began when Japanese forces of the First and Second Divisions, under Konishi Yukinaga and Kato Kiyomasa landed on Busan and Tadaejin (다대진) concurrently on May 23, 1592 with 150,000 soldiers. Chong Pal, the general leading the Koreans in the Busan castle, repelled the Japanese heroically, but the morale crumbled when he died of a bullet and Busan fell.

Tadaejin, another port, was attacked by the Second Division. The overall strength of the castle walls was too weak to resist the Japanese and Tadaejin fell in a couple of hours. Both the First and Second Division took time to loot the two cities and then fortified it to allow safe passage for reinforcements, supplies, and ships.

It is interesting to note that the attacks on Busan and Tadaejin began nearly at the same time.

Battle of Sangju

Main article: Battle of Sangju

After securing the ports, the First Division (under Konishi Yukinaga) with 25,000 men marched quickly north to Sangju. Sangju was defended by Yi Il an older general who fought Jurchens in northern Korea. With a small garrison and a weak castle, Yi Il's men fell again to the powerful arquebuses.

Konishi then crossed Choryang Pass, which was a major strategic point that the Koreans failed to guard when Sin Lip made a bad decision to pull his cavalry back the Chungju. The failure to defend Choryang Pass would lead to the capture of Hanyang (present-day Seoul).

Battle of Chungju

Main article: Battle of Chungju

Konishi soon reached Chungju defended by a cavalry division under the command of Sin Lip. The newly recruited cavalry division of 8,000, having been outnumbered and limited to melee weapons, was overwhelmed by 19,000 Japanese soldiers equipped with arquebuses. The Battle of Chungju marked the last defense line to Hanyang, and the Japanese forces journeyed north without much complication.

Upon hearing of General Sin Lip's defeat, the Yi court took flight toward Pyongyang. In Kaesong, the Korean commoners mourned bitterly because they believed that their king was abandoning them. The Yi court would eventually travel as far as the very northern states of Korea, and the prince would be sent with other ambassadors to ask the Ming Emperor for military aid.

Meanwhile, the Second Divison of 23,000 men under Kato Kiyomasa captured Gyeongju, the former capital of Korea during the Silla Dynasty, and massive looting and burning took place. A series of minor battles between the Koreans and Japanese led Kato to Chuksan, and eventually Seoul in a month.

Capture of Hanseong

Chungju was the last line of defense for the Koreans and the road to Hanseong (present-day Seoul) was open to the Japanese. Both Generals Kato and Konishi vied to earn the honor of reaching Hanseong first, and the Third Division under Kuroda Nagasama was not far behind. In the end, Konishi managed to arrive near Hanseong first, and planned to attack the East Gate.

To their surprise, the city was left undefended and was found burned and destroyed. Konishi and his men simply walked through the massive gates. King Seonjo had already fled to Pyongyang the day before. There were no soldiers either. Korean looters helpfully destroyed the food warehouses and armories and the Japanese failed to collect any treasures or supplies.

Siege of Jinju

Main article Siege of Jinju (1592)

Jinju (진주) was a large castle that defended Jeolla Province. The Japanese commanders knew that control of Jinju would mean the fall of Jeolla. Therefore, a large army under Hosokawa Tadaoki gleefully approached Jinju. Jinju was defended by Kim Shi-min (김시민), one of the better generals in Korea, commanded a Korean garrison of 3,000 men. Kim had recently acquired about 200 new arquebuses that were equal in strength to the Japanese guns. With the help of arquebuses, cannon, and mortars, Kim and the Koreans were able to drive back the Japanese from Jeolla Province. Hosokawa lost over 30,000 men. The battle at Jinju is considered one of the greatest victories of Korea because it prevented the Japanese from entering Jeolla.

In 1593, Jinju would fall to the Japanese.

Japanese Northern Campaign

(See also Kato Kiyomasa's campaign in the North-Eastern part of Korea)

Japanese troops ravaged and looted many key towns in the southern part of Korea, took Pyongyang and advanced as far north as the Yalu and Tumen rivers. By 1593, Konishi was already planning to invade China.

Of the Second Division, Kato Kiyomasa was still unhappy because of Konishi's glory from the capture of Seoul. Kato planned to invade Hamgyong province in northern Korea and begin his China campaign. With an army of 20,000 men, Kato advanced north, capturing every single castle he arrived at. This included all the castles along Korea's eastern border.

Kato's first real resistance was at Haejungchang. Kato met Northern Korean Contingents, who were renowned as elites among the Korean army. Korean cavalry charged the field and smashed Kato's army as a whole. Surprised, Kato fell back to Haejungchang, a rice storage, built cover from rice pouches and waited for the attack to stop. Feeling confident about the first victory, the Korean commander ordered the cavalry to charge and harass the enemy under cover. Kato replied by heavy arquebus fire behind a 'rice wall' and forced the Koreans back to a nearby hill. After nightfall, Kato silently led his troops to the foot of the hill. He then ordered an attack from three sides and destroyed the Korean army as a whole.

This would be the last Korean resistance to his advance into northeastern China.

Kato then marched toward northeastern China, leaving the coast, and after the Battle of Songjin, captured two Korean princes who were sent down south with an escort of 1,000 Japanese soldiers as a negotiation condition. After crossing the Tumen River, Kato arrived in northeastern China, where Chinese authority did not reach and Jurchens ruled. Here Kato attacked a Jurchen fortress and took it by heavy arquebus fire. The next day Jurchens retaliated against the Japanese with 10,000 strong troops. The Japanese were practically surrounded by the Jurchen cavalry and while managing to pull out of Jurchen attacks, Kato quickly retreated back across the Tumen River. This would be the first and last time Kato and the Japanese ever stepped outside Korea during the war. It is interesting to note that Japan never reached China - their political goal - after this.

Naval battles of Yi Sun-Shin

Battles are listed at the end of the article

While the Koreans were struggling on land, Admiral Yi was preparing for battle against the Japanese ships docked in Busan.

While the Japanese army were greatly successful on land, in June, 1592, a small Korean fleet commanded by Yi Sun-shin destroyed several Japanese flotillas and wrought havoc on Japanese logistics in the Battle of Okpo, Dangpo Battle, and Battle of Sacheon (1592). During the Battle of Sacheon, the Korean iron-roofed Geobukseon, or turtle ships, were introduced. After another Korean victory at the Battle of Tanghangpo, Japanese generals at Busan began to panic, fearing that their supply lines would be destroyed, so therefore the Japanese naval generals decided to kill Admiral Yi before his threat to Japanese supply ships would grow bigger. Therefore, the Japanese commanders sent Wakizaka Yasuharu, a prominent general, to destroy Admiral Yi's fleet.

At the Battle of Hansando, 1592, Admiral Yi proved again to be an awesome strategist. Wakizaka Yasuharu was reported to be seen with a very large Japanese fleet sailing down the Straits of Kyonnaeryang by local fishermen and scouts. Admiral Yi was reluctant to attack the Japanese in the narrow strait, for fear of his Panoksons performing badly in a tight spot. He also did not want the Japanese to escape onto land, where there would be a high chance of a revenge raid on a Korean village.

Therefore, Admiral Yi sent a few ships to lure the Japanese out of the strait into the Bay of Hansando. He had rehearsed this kind of operation many times before and soon, a burst of Japanese ships swarmed into the bay, Admiral Yi was waiting, and used his famous crane-wing formation to envelop the Japanese ships and massacre them. Not leaving any chance for the Japanese to board the Korean ships, Admiral Yi ordered the continuous fire of cannons. Not only at the Battle of Hansando, Admiral Yi won battles again and again.

In September, 1592, Admiral Yi dared to attack Busan, where the Japanese placed their navy headquarters. Yi managed to leave with all of his ships intact, while inflicting damage on several hundred enemy ships still in their docks.

Needless to say, the Japanese lost control of the Korea Strait after these naval defeats, and their activities were largely limited around Busan until the Battle of Chilchonryang in 1597. Without the continuous supplies coming from Busan, the Japanese army lost their initial advantage and could not proceed any further from Pyongyang.

It is to Admiral Yi's credit that his operations prevented the occupation of Korea by Japanese forces, and concluded the war with a Korean victory.

Korean Irregular Army

Throughout the Imjin War, irregular Korean forces were active and operated against the Japanese forces. Both Korean civilians and Buddhist monks gathered to form irregular armies. The irregulars' main jobs were to harass Japanese communication lines, ambush armies, kill Japanese commanders, and provide reinforcements.

Insurgency resistance was especially strong in the southern provinces of Chungcheong, Jeolla and Gyeongsang. Gwak Jae-u, Jo Heon (조헌), Kim Cheon-il (김전일), Go Kyung-myung (고경명), and Jeong In-hong (정인홍) were among the notable insurgency leaders.

Gwak Jae-u is one of the most celebrated heroes of the Seven Year War. He was originally a landowner in Gyeongsang province, but the urgency of the war caused him to begin gathering volunteers to fight the Japanese. In popular depiction, Gwak Jae-u is wearing an all-red tunic, claiming that the tunic was stained with the blood of Korean innocents slaughtered by the Japanese. Today, Gwak is remembered by Koreans as a mysterious patriotic hero.

Gwak Jae-u's first attack was on Japanese supply boats that transported supplies up and down on the Nam River. Gwak positioned his men in tall reeds in the water and preyed on Japanese river boats that ferried supplies. One of Gwak's most important achievemets were to destroy Japanese communication systems in Korea.

In the north, insurgency leader Jeong Mun-bu (정문부) fought against Kato Kiyomasa, and defeated the Japanese at the northernmost point in Korea. One of his most decisive victories was the Battle of Gilju, which forced Kato's army into retreat. Jeong's victories helped force the Japanese to retreat permanently from northern Korea. The whole of his campaign was carved into a stone memorial after the war.

While the official army was being easily overrun by the Japanese army, the hit-and-run tactics of the irregular army was actually the biggest threat for the invaders.

Buddhist Volunteers

As mentioned above, Buddhist monks formed a large part of the Korean irregular forces. An interesting thing to note is the participation of Buddhist monks who were only seen in mountains since the overthrow of the Goryeo dynasty. Buddhist monks proved to be great leaders and excelled at fighting the Japanese.

Buddhist monks recruited to the Korean irregular forces, with the inspiration of patriotism and to raise the status of Buddhism, since Joseon was a highly Confucianistic society. A certain monk named Hyujong, called on all monk volunteers to destroy the Japanese samurai, described as "poisonous devils". By the fall of 1593, a total of about 8,000 monk warriors gathered over the next couple months.

Battle of Haengju

Main article Battle of Haengju

The Japanese invasion into Jeolla province was broken down and pushed back by Gwon Yul, a respected general at the hills of Ichiryeong, where outnumbered Koreans fought overwhelming Japanese troops and gained victory. Gwon Yul quickly advanced northwards, re-taking Suwon and then swung south toward Heangju where he would wait for the Chinese reinforcements. After he got the message that the Koreans were destroyed at Pyokje, Gwon Yul decided to fortify Haengju.

Bolstered by the victory at Pyokje, Kato and his army of 30,000 men advanced to the south of Hanseong to attack Haengju Fortress, an impressive mountain fortress that overlooked the surrounding area. An army of 3,800 led by Gwon Yul was garrisoned at the fortress waiting for the Japanese. Kato believed his overwhelming army would destroy the Koreans and therefore ordered the Japanese soldiers to advance upon the steep slopes of Haengju with little apparent plan. Gwon Yul answered the Japanese with fierce fire from the fortification using Hwachas, rocks, handguns, bows, and even quicklimes were thrown at the Japanese. But Kato stubbornly ordered his men up. The Japanese eventually forced the Koreans to the second line of defense, but they pushed no further. After nine massive assaults and 10,000 casualties, Kato burned his dead and finally pulled his troops back.

The Battle of Haengju was an important victory for the Koreans, and celebrated as one of the three most decisive Korean victories; Battle of Haengju, Siege of Jinju (1592), and Battle of Hansando.

Today, the site of Haengju fortress has a memorial built to honor Gwon Yul.

Intervention of Ming China

China sent land and naval forces to Korea in both the first and second invasions to assist in defeating the Japanese. Chinese credit goes largely to assisting Korean reorganization of the military after the war.

After the fall of Pyongyang, King Seonjo retreated to Uiji, a small city near the border of China. With the First and Second Divisions rapidly approaching, King Seonjo made another shameful retreat into China. At the Chinese court, King Seonjo informed of the Japanese invasion.

In July, the Ming Dynasty Emperor Wanli and his advisers did not take the threat of the Japanese lightly and soon, responding to Korean King Seonjo's request for aid, sent a relatively small force of 5,000 soldiers to help.

Hideyoshi, having suffering numerous setbacks, including logistical problems caused by Korean saboteurs and major naval defeats at the hands of the Korean navy, proposed to China the division of Korea: the north as a self-governing Chinese satellite, and the south to remain in Japanese hands. The peace talks were mostly carried out by Konishi Yukinaga, who did most of the fighting against the Chinese. The offer was promptly rejected. This negotiation was, of course, done out of sight of the Korean Royal Court. Both sides resumed hostilities.

The Ming Emperor sent a large force in January 1593 under the two famous Generals Song Yingchang and Li Rusong. The salvage army had a prescribed strength of 100,000, made up of 42,000 from five northern military districts and a contingent of 3,000 soldiers proficient in the use of firearms from South China. The Ming army was also well armed with artillery pieces.

In February 1593 a large combined force of Chinese and Korean soldiers attacked Pyongyang and drove the Japanese into eastward retreat. Li Rusong personally led a pursuit with over 20,000 strong troops, along with a small force of Koreans, but was halted near Pyokje by the sally of a large Japanese formation.

In late February, Li ordered a raid into the Japanese rear and burned several hundred thousand koku of military rice supply, forcing the Japanese invading army to retreat from Seoul due to the prospect of food shortage.

These engagements ended the first phase of the war, and peace negotiations followed. The Japanese evacuated Hanseong in May and retreated to fortifications around Busan. Some Japanese soldiers left the army and settled down in Korea, even marrying Korean women. An uneasy truce was to last for close to four years.

Negotiations between China and Japan

By May 18, 1593, all the Japanese soldiers retreated back to Japan. In the summer of 1593, a Chinese delegation visited Japan and stayed at the court of Hideyoshi for more than a month. The Ming government withdrew most of its expeditionary force, but kept 16,000 men on the Korean peninsula to guard the truce.

An envoy from Hideyoshi reached Beijing in 1594. Most of the Japanese army had left Korea by autumn 1596; a small garrison was nevertheless left in Busan. Satisfied with the Japanese overtures, the imperial court in Beijing dispatched an embassy to allow retired Regent (Taikō (太閤)) Hideyoshi to have the title of "King of Japan" on condition of complete withdrawal of Japanese forces from Korea.

The Ming ambassador met Hideyoshi in October 1596 but there was a great deal of misunderstanding about the context of the meeting. Hideyoshi was enraged to learn that China insulted the Emperor of Japan by presuming to cancel the Emperor's divine right to the throne, offering to recognize Hideyoshi instead. To insult the Chinese, he demanded among other things, a royal marriage with the Wanli Emperor's daughter, the delivery of a Korean prince as hostage, and four of Korea's southern provinces.

Peace negotiations soon broke down and the war entered its second phase when Hideyoshi sent another invasion force. Early in 1597, both sides resumed hostilities.

Korean Military Reorganization

Proposal for Military Reforms

During the period between the First and Second invasion, the Korean government had a chance to examine the reasons on why they had been destroyed by the Japanese. Yu Song-nyong, the Prime Minister, spoke out about the Korean disadvantage.

Yu pointed out about the Korean castle defences (which he had vigorously advocated before the war) that were extremely weak. He noted how Korean castles had incomplete fortifications and walls too easy to scale. He also wanted cannons set up in the walls. Yu proposed to have strong towers with gun turrets for cannons. Besides castles, Yu wanted to form a line of defences in Korea. He proposed to create a series of walls and forts, all enveloping Seoul as the center.

Yu also pointed out how efficient the Japanese army was (considering their speed of taking only 1 month to Seoul) and how well trained they were. The superior military units the Japanese generals deployed was a large part of the Japanese. Yu noted how the Japanese moved their units in complex movements, often weakening the enemy with arquebuses, then attacking with melee weapons. Korean armies often moved forward in one body, without any organization.

China helped Korea reorganize the military largely. Yu was recommended to train Korean soldiers with the "three arts", which included the skills of swordsmanship, archery, and arquebuses. Chinese generals suggested that Koreans should be trained in all three skills, clearly being able to effectively repel any kind of attack, be they melee, arrows, or bullets.

Military Training Agency

King Seonjo and the Korean court finally began to reform the military. In Spetemeber 1593, the Military Training Agency was established. The agency carefully divided up the army into units and companies. Also, within the companies were squads of archers, arquebusers, and edged weapons. The agency set up divisional units in each region of Korea and battalions were garrisoned at castles. The number of the members of the agency soon grew to about 10,000, originally less than 80 members.

One of the most important changes were the eligible people to be conscripted. Now, both high, upper class citizens and slaves were subject to drafts and all males had to enter military service to be trained and famimliarized with weapons.

Unfortunately, the creation of the Military Training Agency was halfhearted and under developed. Also, nearly all the reforms Yu called for were ignored again. The lack of manpower and a devastated economy put Korea in nearly the same position as in the first invasion. Although the second invasion was quickly repelled with the help of China, Korea failed to reform the military.

Second Invasion

Hideyoshi was unsatisfied with the first campaign, and decided to push his luck with another attack on Korea.

One of the main differences of the First and Second invasions, was that China was a long lost achievement for the Japanese. Failing to gain a foothold during Kato Kiyomasa's Chinese campaign and the full retreat of the Japanese during the first invasion affected the Japanese morale. Hideyoshi and his generals planned to conquer Korea.

Soon after the Chinese ambassadors returned safely to China, in 1597, Hideyoshi sent 200 ships with approximately 141,100 men under the overall command of Kobayakawa Hideaki. Upon hearing this news, the imperial court in Beijing appointed Yan Hao (楊鎬) as the supreme commander of an initial mobilization of 55,000 troops from various provinces across China, such as Sichuan, Zhejiang, Huguang, Fujian, and Guangdong. A naval force of 21,000 was included in the effort. Rei Huang, a Chinese historian, estimated that the combined strength of the Chinese army and navy at the height of the second campaign was around 75,000. Korean forces totaled 30,000 with General Gwon Yul's army in Gong Mountain (공산; 公山) in Daegu, General Kwon Eung's (권응) troops in Gyeongju, General Gwak Jae-u's soldiers in Changnyung (창녕), Yi Bok-nam’s (이복남) army in Naju, and Yi Si-yun's troops in Choong Poong-ryung.

Initial Offensive

The Japanese planned to attack Jeolla Province in the southwestern part of the peninsula, and eventually occupy Jeonju, the provincial capital. Korean success in the Siege of Jinju in 1592 had saved this area from further devastation during the first invasion. But this time, Japanese commanders wanted to capture this area. Two Japanese armies, under Mori Hidemoto and Ukita Hideie, began the assault in Busan and marched towards Jeonju, taking Sacheon and Changpyong along the way.

Siege of Namwon

Main article Siege of Namwon

Namwon was located 30 miles southeast from Chonju. It was the largest fortress in Jeolla Province, and a coalition force of 6,000 soldiers (including 3,000 Chinese) and civilian volunteers were readied to fight the approaching Japanese forces. The Japanese laid siege to the walls of the fortress with ladders and siege towers. The two sides exchanged volleys of arquebuses and bows. Eventually the Japanese forces scaled the walls and sacked the fotress. The Siege of Namwon resulted in 4,000 casualties to the Korean and Chinese forces. The entire Jeolla Province fell under the Japanese control.

Battle of Hwangsoksan

Main article Battle of Hwangsoksan

Hwangsoksan Fortress consisted of extensive walls that circumscribed the Hwangsok mountain, and garrisoned thousands of soldiers led by the guerilla leader Gwak Jae-u. When Kato Kiyomasa laid siege on the mountain with a colossal army, the Koreans lost morale and retreated with 350 casualties.

Korean naval operations

The Korean navy played a crucial part in the second invasion, as well as the first. The Japanese advances were halted due to the lack of reinforcements and supplies, as the frequent naval victories of the allied forces prevented the Japanese from accessing the tributaries on the western side of the Korean peninsula. Also, China sent a large number of Chinese fleets to aid the Koreans. This made the Korean navy an even bigger threat to the Japanese, since they had to fight a larger enemy fleet.

The war at sea took off on a bad start when Won Gyun took Admiral Yi's place as commander.

Because Admiral Yi, the commander of the Korean navy, was so able in naval warfare, the Japanese plotted to demote him by making use of the laws that governed the Korean military. A Japanese double agent working for the Koreans falsely reported that Japanese General Kato Kiyomasa would be coming on a certain date with great Japanese fleet on another attack on Korean shores, and insisted that Admiral Yi be sent to lay an ambush.

Knowing that the area had sunken rocks detrimental for the ships, Admiral Yi refused, and for refusing instruction from higher command he was demoted and jailed by King Seonjo. Added to that, Admiral Won Gyun accused Admiral Yi for drinking and idling. Won Gyun was quickly put in Admiral Yi's place. Won Gyun's place of Admiral Yi would soon bring the destruction of the Korean navy at Chilchonryang.

Battle of Chilchonryang

Main article Battle of Chilchonryang

On August 28, 1597, a Japanese fleet engaged the entire Korean navy at Chilchonryang strait, and the battle resulted in 157 sunken Korean ships and 20,000 casualties when Won Gyun failed to effectively use his cannons. Won Gyun and his remaining army were killed after he struggled ashore to a Japanese fort. Only 13 Korean warships survived the battle and retreated to Yosu. With the descrution of the Korean navy, the area around the Korea Strait was finally under Japanese control and supply ships could reach Busan without being attacked.

Battle of Myeongnyang

Main article Battle of Myeongnyang

After the debacle in Chilchonryang, King Seonjo immediately reinstated Admiral Yi. Admiral Yi quickly returned to Yosu only to find his entire navy destroyed. However, Yi re-organized the navy now reduced to 13 ships and 200 men, which would be the grand total of the Korean navy for next several months. Nonetheless, Admiral Yi's strategies did not waver, and on September 16, 1597, he led the Korean fleet against a Japanese fleet of 333 in the Myeongnyang Strait. The naval Battle of Myeongnyang resulted in Korean victory with at least 123 Japanese vessels sunk, and the Japanese were forced to return to Pusan. Admiral Yi won back the control of the Korean shores.

Siege of Ulsan

Main article: Siege of Ulsan

By late 1597, Japanese forces were very near Hansung (present-day Seoul), and behind them was a trail of devastation. They defeated the Korean forces at Chiksan and Sangju, and laid siege on Gyeongju. After the news of the loss at Myeongnyang, Japanese commanders decided to destroy Gyeongju completely. Already having been sacked and looted in the first invasion, the city was burnt down by the Japanese soldiers in a revengeful raid. The Japanese retreated south to Ulsan.

Yet Admiral Yi's control of the areas over the Korea Strait permitted no supply ships to reach the western side of the Korean peninsula, into which many extensive tributaries merge. Without provisions and reinforcements, the Japanese forces had to remain in the coastal fortresses that they still controlled. To gain advantage of the situation, the Chinese and Korean coalition forces attacked Ulsan, a major Japanese stronghold. This siege was the first major offensive from the Chinese and Korean forces in the second phase of the war.

A river around the fortress in Ulsan prevented the allied forces from laying siege on the fortress from all sides. A total of around 36,000 with the help of singijeons and hwachas nearly succeeded in sacking the fortress, but reinforcements under Kato Kiyomasa came across the river to aid their allies and prolonged the siege. Later, Japanese were running out of food and the victory was imminent for the allied forces, but another Japanese reinforcement arrived from the rear of the Chinese and Korean troops and forced them to retreat.

Battle of Sacheon

Main article Battle of Sacheon (1598)

During the winter of 1597, the Chinese and Korean allies repelled the Japanese forces from reaching Hansung (present-day Seoul). Now there was no hope for the Japanese to conquer the Korean peninsula; therefore, Japanese forces began to prepare to retreat. From the beginning of spring in 1598, the Korean forces and 100,000 Chinese soldiers prepared to retake castles on the coastal areas. The Wanli Emperor of China sent a fleet under the artillery expert Chen Lin in May 1598; this naval force saw action in joint exercises with the Koreans against the Japanese navy. And in June 1598, under Commander Konishi Yukinage's warning of the dire situations in the campaign, withdrew 70,000 troops and left 60,000 -mostly Satsuma warriors under Shimazu clan commanders. The remaining Japanese forces fought desperately, turning back Chinese attacks on Suncheon and Sacheon as the Ming army amassed more troops to prepare for a final assault.

The Chinese believed that Sacheon was crucial in their program to retake the lost castles. Although the Chinese were ascendant initially, the tide of the battle turned when Japanese reinforcements attacked the rear of the Chinese army and the Japanese soldiers inside the fortress counter-attacked through the gates. The Chinese forces retreated with 30,000 losses.

Death of Hideyoshi

On 18 September 1598, Hideyoshi died, and the council of five regents immediately decided to withdraw the remaining Japanese army from imminent destruction. The council was clandestine about Hideyoshi's death because they feared that, upon hearing the news, the Japanese soldiers' morale would plummet even more and panic. The decree for withdrawal was sent to the Japanese commanders late in October.

Battle of Noryang Point

Main article Battle of Noryang Point

Noryang Point was the final naval battle in the war. The Korean navy under Admiral Yi had recovered from its losses and was aided by the Chinese navy under Chen Lin. Intelligence revealed that 500 Japanese ships were anchored in the narrow straits of Noryang in order to withdraw the remaining Japanese troops. Noting the narrow geography of the area, Admiral Yi and the Chen Lin led a surprise attack against the Japanese fleet at dawn on December 16, 1598.

The allied fleet fired volleys of cannons and fire arrows against the resting Japanese fleet. The Japanese fleet hurriedly prepared and sailed toward the allied fleet through the strait. It suffered much devastation from the bombardments as the ships became concentrated into bundles, due to narrowness of the strait. As mentioned above, Japanese cannon technology was far more inferior to that of the Korean and Chinese; therefore, they could not return any fire.

As the Japanese ships became nearer, Chen Lin ordered the Chinese fleet to engage in melee combat. Fierce battle ensued and the Japanese began to suffer when Admiral Yi's fleet began to send mortars into their ships. When General Chen Lin's flagship was threatened, Admiral Yi came to aid with his ship. By dawn, nearly half of Japanese battle ships were destroyed; as the Japanese began to retreat, Admiral Yi ordered the final charge to destroy the remaining few. Admiral Yi's flagship sped forward. It was then when Admiral Yi was shot. Only 3 nearby captains, including his cousin, saw his death. Admiral Yi told his captains to keep his death secret and to continue the battle so that the morale of the soldiers would not drop.

The battle ended as an allied victory with a Japanese loss of nearly 450 battleships out of the original 500. Only after the battle did the soldiers learn of Admiral Yi's death, and it is said that Chen Lin lamented that Admiral Yi died in place of him.

Aftermath

The Imjin War left deep scars in Korea. Farmlands were devastated, irrigation dikes were destroyed, villages and towns were burned down, the population was first plundered and then dispersed, and many skilled workers (celadonware makers, craftsmen, artisans, etc) were kidnapped and brought to Japan to help develop and expand Japan's crafts during the war. Japanese craftsmanship increased dramatically after the war.

One of the worst consequences Korea suffered were the hundreds of Korean artifacts stolen by the Japanese generals. Even today, many Korean artifacts are displayed in Japan. For several years Korea has been demanding the return of these artifacts, but Japan does not comply.

In 1598 alone, the Japanese took some 38,000 ears as gruesome trophies. The long war reduced the productive capacity of farmlands from 1,708,000 kyol to 541,000 kyol. Many of captured Korean children were eventually sold as slaves to Portuguese traders, and sold to various European colonies over the world. With the death of Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Ieyasu eventually gained control of Japan and established 300 years of peace.

Also, Seoul was burned to a crisp. The royal palace was in a damaged state and markets of Seoul were destroyed.

Ming Dynasty China had invested enormous human and material resources in Korea, which helped empty the state treasury and weakened its northeastern border against the emerging power of Manchu.

Following the war, political and economic relations between Korea and Japan were suspended. Negotiations between the Korean court and the Tokugawa Shogunate were carried out via the Japanese lord on Tsushima Island, So Yoshitoshi. The So clan desired to restore commercial relations through Korea, Japan at the time relying on Chinese silk for kimonos. Tokugawa Ieyasu favored peaceful relations abroad. In 1604, Tokugawa Ieyasu released some captives, but required that starting in 1607 a Korean emissary must visit Edo on a regular basis, even though Japan would not reciprocate. Accompanying this action, limited trade relations were restored.

References

1. The University Record, February 22, 1999. Imjin War diaries are memorial of invasions for Koreans
2. ^ 브리태니커백과사전. 정유재란 (丁酉再亂)
3. Turnbull, Stephen, Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War, Cassel, 2002, p. 187
4. pg. 111 Woongjinweewinjungi #14 Yi Sun-shin by Baek Sukgi. (C) Woongjin Publishing Co., Ltd.

See also

• Timeline of the Imjin War
• List of Imjin War battles
• History of Korea
• List of Korea-related topics
• Military history of Korea
• Military history of Japan
• Li Rusong
• Toyotomi Hideyoshi
• Yi Sun-sin
• List of wars
• Bukgwan Victory Monument
• Ming China
• Immortal Yi Soon-shin (TV series)

External links

• Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Korean Invasions: the Bunroku Campaign (1592-93)
• 임진왜란 (very visual website)
• The Battles of Imjin Waeran (in Korean)
• The Imjin Waeran (in Korean)

• Invasions
• Joseon Dynasty
• Seven-Year War
• Wars of China
• Wars of Japan
• Wars of Korea