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Hillary Clinton
Hillary Rodham Clinton as Secretary of State in 2009.
67th United States Secretary of State
In office January 21, 2009 – February 1, 2013
President	Barack Obama
Deputy	James Steinberg William Joseph Burns
Preceded by	Condoleezza Rice
Succeeded by	John Kerry
United States Senator from New York
In office January 3, 2001 – January 21, 2009
Preceded by	Daniel Patrick Moynihan
Succeeded by	Kirsten Gillibrand
First Lady of the United States
In role January 20, 1993 – January 20, 2001
Preceded by	Barbara Bush
Succeeded by	Laura Bush
First Lady of Arkansas
In role January 11, 1983 – December 12, 1992
Preceded by	Gay Daniels White
Succeeded by	Betty Tucker
In role January 9, 1979 – January 19, 1981
Preceded by	Barbara Pryor
Succeeded by	Gay Daniels White
Personal details
Born	Hillary Diane Rodham (1947-10-26) October 26, 1947 (age 77) Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
Political party	Democratic (1968–present)
Other political affiliations	Republican (Before 1968)
Spouse	Bill Clinton (1975–present)
Children	Chelsea
Alma mater	Wellesley College Yale Law School
Signature
Website	www.hillaryclinton.com

Template:HillaryClintonSegmentsUnderInfoBox Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton (née: Hillary Diane Rodham; born October 26, 1947) is an American politician. She was United States Secretary of State in the administration of President Barack Obama from 2009 to 2013, a United States Senator representing New York from 2001 to 2009, and, as the wife of President Bill Clinton, First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001. A leading candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination to the 2008 presidential election, she has announced her candidacy for the Democratic nomination in the 2016 presidential election.

A native of Illinois, Hillary Rodham was the first student commencement speaker at Wellesley College in 1969 and earned a J.D. from Yale Law School in 1973. After a stint as a Congressional legal counsel, she moved to Arkansas and married Bill Clinton in 1975. She cofounded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families in 1977, she became the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978, and became the first female partner at Rose Law Firm in 1979. The National Law Journal twice listed her as one of the hundred most influential lawyers in America. During her tenure as First Lady of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and 1983 to 1992, she led a task force that reformed Arkansas's education system and sat on the board of directors of Wal-Mart and several other corporations.

As First Lady of the United States, her major initiative, the Clinton health care plan of 1993, failed to gain approval from the U.S. Congress. In 1997 and 1999, she played a leading role in advocating the creation of the State Children's Health Insurance Program, the Adoption and Safe Families Act, and the Foster Care Independence Act. Her years as First Lady drew a polarized response from the American public. The only First Lady to have been subpoenaed, she testified before a federal grand jury in 1996 regarding the Whitewater controversy, but was never charged with wrongdoing in this or several other investigations during her husband's presidency. Her marriage to the president was subjected to considerable public discussion following the Lewinsky scandal of 1998.

After moving to New York, Clinton was elected in 2000 as the first female senator from the state; she is the only First Lady ever to have run for public office. Following the September 11 attacks, she supported military action in Afghanistan and the Iraq Resolution, but subsequently objected to the George W. Bush administration's conduct of the Iraq war. She opposed most of Bush's domestic policies. Clinton was re-elected to the Senate in 2006. Running in the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, Clinton won far more primaries and delegates than any other female candidate in American history, but narrowly lost the nomination to Obama.

As Secretary of State in the Obama administration from January 2009 to February 2013, Clinton was at the forefront of the U.S. response to the Arab Spring and advocated the U.S. military intervention in Libya. She took responsibility for security lapses related to the 2012 Benghazi attack, which resulted in the deaths of American consulate personnel, but defended her personal actions in regard to the matter. Clinton visited more countries than any other Secretary of State. She viewed "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values, by combining military power with diplomacy and American capabilities in economics, technology, and other areas. She encouraged empowerment of women everywhere and used social media to communicate the U.S. message abroad. Leaving office at the end of Obama's first term, she authored her fifth book and undertook speaking engagements before announcing her second run for the presidency in April 2015.

Early life and education

Early life

Hillary Diane Rodham was born on October 26, 1947, at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago, Illinois. She was raised in a United Methodist family, first in Chicago and then, from the age of three, in suburban Park Ridge, Illinois. Her father, Hugh Ellsworth Rodham (1911–1993), was of Welsh and English descent; he managed a successful small business in the textile industry. Her mother, Dorothy Emma Howell (1919–2011), was a homemaker of English, Scottish, French, and Welsh descent. Hillary has two younger brothers, Hugh and Tony.

As a child, Hillary Rodham was a teacher's favorite at her public schools in Park Ridge. She participated in sports such as swimming and baseball and earned numerous awards as a Brownie and Girl Scout. She attended Maine East High School, where she participated in student council, the school newspaper, and was selected for National Honor Society. For her senior year, she was redistricted to Maine South High School, where she was a National Merit Finalist and graduated in the top five percent of her class of 1965. Her mother wanted her to have an independent, professional career, and her father, otherwise a traditionalist, felt that his daughter's abilities and opportunities should not be limited by gender.

Raised in a politically conservative household, Rodham helped canvass Chicago's South Side at age thirteen following the very close 1960 U.S. presidential election, where she found evidence of electoral fraud against Republican candidate Richard Nixon. She then volunteered to campaign for Republican candidate Barry Goldwater in the U.S. presidential election of 1964. Rodham's early political development was shaped most by her high school history teacher (like her father, a fervent anticommunist), who introduced her to Goldwater's The Conscience of a Conservative, and by her Methodist youth minister (like her mother, concerned with issues of social justice), with whom she saw and met civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. in Chicago in 1962.

Wellesley College years

In 1965, Rodham enrolled at Wellesley College, where she majored in political science. During her first year, she served as president of the Wellesley Young Republicans; with this Rockefeller Republican-oriented group, she supported the elections of Mayor John Lindsay and Senator Edward Brooke. She later stepped down from this position, as her views changed regarding the American Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War. In a letter to her youth minister at this time, she described herself as "a mind conservative and a heart liberal". In contrast to the 1960s current that advocated radical actions against the political system, she sought to work for change within it. In her junior year, Rodham became a supporter of the antiwar presidential nomination campaign of Democrat Eugene McCarthy. Following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., Rodham organized a two-day student strike and worked with Wellesley's black students to recruit more black students and faculty. In early 1968, she was elected president of the Wellesley College Government Association and served through early 1969; she was instrumental in keeping Wellesley from being embroiled in the student disruptions common to other colleges. A number of her fellow students thought she might some day become the first female President of the United States. To help her better understand her changing political views, Professor Alan Schechter assigned Rodham to intern at the House Republican Conference, and she attended the "Wellesley in Washington" summer program. Rodham was invited by moderate New York Republican Representative Charles Goodell to help Governor Nelson Rockefeller's late-entry campaign for the Republican nomination. Rodham attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami. However, she was upset by the way Richard Nixon's campaign portrayed Rockefeller and by what she perceived as the convention's "veiled" racist messages, and left the Republican Party for good.

Rodham wrote her senior thesis, a critique of the tactics of radical community organizer Saul Alinsky, under Professor Schechter. (Years later, while she was First Lady, access to the thesis was restricted at the request of the White House and it became the subject of some speculation.) In 1969, she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts, with departmental honors in political science. Following pressure from some fellow students, she became the first student in Wellesley College history to deliver its commencement address. Her speech received a standing ovation lasting seven minutes. She was featured in an article published in Life magazine, due to the response to a part of her speech that criticized Senator Brooke, who had spoken before her at the commencement. She also appeared on Irv Kupcinet's nationally syndicated television talk show as well as in Illinois and New England newspapers. That summer, she worked her way across Alaska, washing dishes in Mount McKinley National Park and sliming salmon in a fish processing cannery in Valdez (which fired her and shut down overnight when she complained about unhealthy conditions).

Yale Law School and postgraduate studies

Rodham then entered Yale Law School. There she served on the editorial board of the Yale Review of Law and Social Action. During her second year, she worked at the Yale Child Study Center, learning about new research on early childhood brain development and working as a research assistant on the seminal work, Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973). She also took on cases of child abuse at Yale-New Haven Hospital and volunteered at New Haven Legal Services to provide free legal advice for the poor. In the summer of 1970 she was awarded a grant to work at Marian Wright Edelman's Washington Research Project, where she was assigned to Senator Walter Mondale's Subcommittee on Migratory Labor. There she researched migrant workers' problems in housing, sanitation, health and education. Edelman later became a significant mentor. Rodham was recruited by political advisor Anne Wexler to work on the 1970 campaign of Connecticut U.S. Senate candidate Joseph Duffey, with Rodham later crediting Wexler with providing her first job in politics.

In the late spring of 1971 she began dating Bill Clinton, also a law student at Yale. That summer she interned at the Oakland, California, law firm of Treuhaft, Walker and Burnstein. The firm was well known for its support of constitutional rights, civil liberties, and radical causes (two of its four partners were current or former Communist Party members); Rodham worked on child custody and other cases. Clinton canceled his original summer plans in order to live with her in California; the couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school. The following summer, Rodham and Clinton campaigned in Texas for unsuccessful 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern. She received a Juris Doctor degree from Yale in 1973, having stayed on an extra year to be with Clinton. He first proposed marriage to her following graduation but she declined, uncertain if she wanted to tie her future to his.

Rodham began a year of postgraduate study on children and medicine at the Yale Child Study Center. Her first scholarly article, "Children Under the Law", was published in the Harvard Educational Review in late 1973. Discussing the new children's rights movement, it stated that "child citizens" were "powerless individuals" and argued that children should not be considered equally incompetent from birth to attaining legal age, but that instead courts should presume competence except when there is evidence otherwise, on a case-by-case basis. The article became frequently cited in the field.

Marriage and family, law career and First Lady of Arkansas

From the East Coast to Arkansas

During her postgraduate study, Rodham served as staff attorney for Edelman's newly founded Children's Defense Fund in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and as a consultant to the Carnegie Council on Children. In 1974 she was a member of the impeachment inquiry staff in Washington, D.C., advising the House Committee on the Judiciary during the Watergate scandal. Under the guidance of Chief Counsel John Doar and senior member Bernard Nussbaum, Rodham helped research procedures of impeachment and the historical grounds and standards for impeachment. The committee's work culminated in the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974.

By then, Rodham was viewed as someone with a bright political future: Democratic political organizer and consultant Betsey Wright had moved from Texas to Washington the previous year to help guide her career, and Wright thought Rodham had the potential to become a future senator or president. Meanwhile, Clinton had repeatedly asked Rodham to marry him and she continued to demur. After failing the District of Columbia bar exam and passing the Arkansas exam, Rodham came to a key decision. As she later wrote, "I chose to follow my heart instead of my head". She thus followed Bill Clinton to Arkansas, rather than staying in Washington, where career prospects were brighter. He was then teaching law and running for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in his home state. In August 1974, Rodham moved to Fayetteville, Arkansas, and became one of only two female faculty members in the School of Law at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. She gave classes in criminal law, where she was considered a rigorous teacher and tough grader, and was the first director of the school's legal aid clinic. She still harbored doubts about marriage, concerned that her separate identity would be lost and that her accomplishments would be viewed in the light of someone else's.

Early Arkansas years

Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton bought a house in Fayetteville in the summer of 1975 and Hillary finally agreed to marry. Their wedding took place on October 11, 1975, in a Methodist ceremony in their living room. A story about the marriage in the Arkansas Gazette indicated that she was retaining the name Hillary Rodham. The motivation was to keep the couple's professional lives separate and avoid apparent conflicts of interest and because, as she told a friend at the time, "it showed that I was still me." The decision did upset both their mothers. Bill Clinton had lost the congressional race in 1974, but in November 1976 was elected Arkansas Attorney General, and so the couple moved to the state capital of Little Rock. There, in February 1977, Rodham joined the venerable Rose Law Firm, a bastion of Arkansan political and economic influence. She specialized in patent infringement and intellectual property law while also working pro bono in child advocacy; she rarely performed litigation work in court.

Rodham maintained her interest in children's law and family policy, publishing the scholarly articles "Children's Policies: Abandonment and Neglect" in 1977 and "Children's Rights: A Legal Perspective" in 1979. The latter continued her argument that children's legal competence depended upon their age and other circumstances and that in serious medical rights cases, judicial intervention was sometimes warranted. An American Bar Association chair later said, "Her articles were important, not because they were radically new but because they helped formulate something that had been inchoate." Historian Garry Wills would later describe her as "one of the more important scholar-activists of the last two decades", while conservatives said her theories would usurp traditional parental authority, would allow children to file frivolous lawsuits against their parents, and exemplified legal "crit" theory run amok.

In 1977, Rodham cofounded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families, a state-level alliance with the Children's Defense Fund. Later that year, President Jimmy Carter (for whom Rodham had been the 1976 campaign director of field operations in Indiana) appointed her to the board of directors of the Legal Services Corporation, and she served in that capacity from 1978 until the end of 1981. From mid-1978 to mid-1980, she served as the chair of that board, the first woman to do so. During her time as chair, funding for the Corporation was expanded from $90 million to $300 million; subsequently she successfully fought President Ronald Reagan's attempts to reduce the funding and change the nature of the organization.

Following her husband's November 1978 election as Governor of Arkansas, Rodham became First Lady of Arkansas in January 1979, her title for twelve years (1979–1981, 1983–1992). Clinton appointed her chair of the Rural Health Advisory Committee the same year, where she secured federal funds to expand medical facilities in Arkansas's poorest areas without affecting doctors' fees.

In 1979, Rodham became the first woman to be made a full partner of Rose Law Firm. From 1978 until they entered the White House, she had a higher salary than that of her husband. During 1978 and 1979, while looking to supplement their income, Rodham made a spectacular profit from trading cattle futures contracts; an initial $1,000 investment generated nearly $100,000 when she stopped trading after ten months. The couple also began their ill-fated investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation real estate venture with Jim and Susan McDougal at this time.

On February 27, 1980, Rodham gave birth to their daughter Chelsea. In November 1980, Bill Clinton was defeated in his bid for re-election.

Later Arkansas years

Bill Clinton returned to the governor's office two years later after winning the election of 1982. During her husband's campaign, Rodham began to use the name Hillary Clinton, or sometimes "Mrs. Bill Clinton", to assuage the concerns of Arkansas voters; she also took a leave of absence from Rose Law to campaign for him full-time. As First Lady of Arkansas again, she made a note of using Hillary Rodham Clinton as her name. She was named chair of the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee in 1983, where she sought to reform the state's court-sanctioned public education system. In one of the Clinton governorship's most important initiatives, she fought a prolonged but ultimately successful battle against the Arkansas Education Association to establish mandatory teacher testing and state standards for curriculum and classroom size. It became her introduction into the politics of a highly visible public policy effort. In 1985, she introduced Arkansas's Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youth, a program that helps parents work with their children in preschool preparedness and literacy. She was named Arkansas Woman of the Year in 1983 and Arkansas Mother of the Year in 1984.

Clinton continued to practice law with the Rose Law Firm while she was First Lady of Arkansas. She earned less than the other partners, as she billed fewer hours, but still made more than $200,000 in her final year there. The firm considered her a "rainmaker" because she brought in clients, partly thanks to the prestige she lent it and to her corporate board connections. She was also very influential in the appointment of state judges. Bill Clinton's Republican opponent in his 1986 gubernatorial re-election campaign accused the Clintons of conflict of interest, because Rose Law did state business; the Clintons countered the charge by saying that state fees were walled off by the firm before her profits were calculated.

From 1982 to 1988, Clinton was on the board of directors, sometimes as chair, of the New World Foundation, which funded a variety of New Left interest groups. From 1987 to 1991, she was the first chair of the American Bar Association's Commission on Women in the Profession, created to address gender bias in the legal profession and induce the association to adopt measures to combat it. She was twice named by the National Law Journal as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America: in 1988 and in 1991. When Bill Clinton thought about not running again for governor in 1990, Hillary considered running, but private polls were unfavorable and, in the end, he ran and was re-elected for the final time.

Clinton served on the boards of the Arkansas Children's Hospital Legal Services (1988–1992) and the Children's Defense Fund (as chair, 1986–1992). In addition to her positions with nonprofit organizations, she also held positions on the corporate board of directors of TCBY (1985–1992), Wal-Mart Stores (1986–1992) and Lafarge (1990–1992). TCBY and Wal-Mart were Arkansas-based companies that were also clients of Rose Law. Clinton was the first female member on Wal-Mart's board, added following pressure on chairman Sam Walton to name a woman to it. Once there, she pushed successfully for Wal-Mart to adopt more environmentally friendly practices, was largely unsuccessful in a campaign for more women to be added to the company's management, and was silent about the company's famously anti-labor union practices.

Bill Clinton presidential campaign of 1992

Hillary Clinton received sustained national attention for the first time when her husband became a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination of 1992. Before the New Hampshire primary, tabloid publications printed claims that Bill Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Arkansas lounge singer Gennifer Flowers. In response, the Clintons appeared together on 60 Minutes, where Bill Clinton denied the affair but acknowledged "causing pain in my marriage". This joint appearance was credited with rescuing his campaign. During the campaign, Hillary Clinton made culturally disparaging remarks about Tammy Wynette and her outlook on marriage, and about women staying home and baking cookies and having teas, that were ill-considered by her own admission. Bill Clinton said that in electing him, the nation would "get two for the price of one", referring to the prominent role his wife would assume. Beginning with Daniel Wattenberg's August 1992 The American Spectator article "The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock", Hillary Clinton's own past ideological and ethical record came under attack from conservatives. At least twenty other articles in major publications also drew comparisons between her and Lady Macbeth.

First Lady of the United States

Role as First Lady

When Bill Clinton took office as president in January 1993, Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States, and her press secretary reiterated that she would be using that form of her name. She was the first First Lady to hold a postgraduate degree and to have her own professional career up to the time of entering the White House. She was also the first to have an office in the West Wing of the White House in addition to the usual First Lady offices in the East Wing. She was part of the innermost circle vetting appointments to the new administration and her choices filled at least eleven top-level positions and dozens more lower-level ones. After Eleanor Roosevelt, Clinton is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history.

Some critics called it inappropriate for the First Lady to play a central role in matters of public policy. Supporters pointed out that Clinton's role in policy was no different from that of other White House advisors and that voters had been well aware that she would play an active role in her husband's presidency. Bill Clinton's campaign promise of "two for the price of one" led opponents to refer derisively to the Clintons as "co-presidents" or sometimes the Arkansas label "Billary". The pressures of conflicting ideas about the role of a First Lady were enough to send Clinton into "imaginary discussions" with the also-politically-active Eleanor Roosevelt. From the time she came to Washington, she also found refuge in a prayer group of The Fellowship that featured many wives of conservative Washington figures. Triggered in part by the death of her father in April 1993, she publicly sought to find a synthesis of Methodist teachings, liberal religious political philosophy, and Tikkun editor Michael Lerner's "politics of meaning" to overcome what she saw as America's "sleeping sickness of the soul"; that would lead to a willingness "to remold society by redefining what it means to be a human being in the twentieth century, moving into a new millennium." Other segments of the public focused on her appearance, which had evolved over time from inattention to fashion during her days in Arkansas, to a popular site in the early days of the World Wide Web devoted to showing her many different, and frequently analyzed, hairstyles as First Lady, to an appearance on the cover of Vogue magazine in 1998.

Health care and other policy initiatives

In January 1993, Bill appointed Hillary to head the Task Force on National Health Care Reform, hoping to replicate the success she had in leading the effort for Arkansas education reform. Unconvinced regarding the merits of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), she privately urged that passage of health care reform be given higher priority. The recommendation of the task force became known as the Clinton health care plan, a comprehensive proposal that would require employers to provide health coverage to their employees through individual health maintenance organizations. Its opponents quickly derided the plan as "Hillarycare"; some protesters against it became vitriolic, and during a July 1994 bus tour to rally support for the plan, she wore a bulletproof vest at times.

Failing to gather enough support for a floor vote in either the House or the Senate, although Democrats controlled both chambers, the proposal was abandoned in September 1994. Clinton later acknowledged in her memoir that her political inexperience partly contributed to the defeat, but cited many other factors. The First Lady's approval ratings, which had generally been in the high-50s percent range during her first year, fell to 44 percent in April 1994 and 35 percent by September 1994. Republicans made the Clinton health care plan a major campaign issue of the 1994 midterm elections, which saw a net Republican gain of fifty-three seats in the House election and seven in the Senate election, winning control of both; many analysts and pollsters found the plan to be a major factor in the Democrats' defeat, especially among independent voters. The White House subsequently sought to downplay Hillary Clinton's role in shaping policy. Opponents of universal health care would continue to use "Hillarycare" as a pejorative label for similar plans by others.

Along with Senators Ted Kennedy and Orrin Hatch, she was a force behind the passage of the State Children's Health Insurance Program in 1997, a federal effort that provided state support for children whose parents could not provide them with health coverage, and conducted outreach efforts on behalf of enrolling children in the program once it became law. She promoted nationwide immunization against childhood illnesses and encouraged older women to seek a mammogram to detect breast cancer, with coverage provided by Medicare. She successfully sought to increase research funding for prostate cancer and childhood asthma at the National Institutes of Health. The First Lady worked to investigate reports of an illness that affected veterans of the Gulf War, which became known as the Gulf War syndrome. Together with Attorney General Janet Reno, Clinton helped create the Office on Violence Against Women at the Department of Justice. In 1997, she initiated and shepherded the Adoption and Safe Families Act, which she regarded as her greatest accomplishment as First Lady. In 1999, she was instrumental in the passage of the Foster Care Independence Act, which doubled federal monies for teenagers aging out of foster care. As First Lady, Clinton hosted numerous White House conferences, including ones on Child Care (1997), on Early Childhood Development and Learning (1997), and on Children and Adolescents (2000). She also hosted the first-ever White House Conference on Teenagers (2000) and the first-ever White House Conference on Philanthropy (1999).

Clinton traveled to 79 countries during this time, breaking the mark for most-traveled First Lady held by Pat Nixon. She did not hold a security clearance or attend National Security Council meetings, but played a role in U.S. diplomacy attaining its objectives. A March 1995 five-nation trip to South Asia, on behest of the U.S. State Department and without her husband, sought to improve relations with India and Pakistan. Clinton was troubled by the plight of women she encountered, but found a warm response from the people of the countries she visited and gained a better relationship with the American press corps. The trip was a transformative experience for her and presaged her eventual career in diplomacy. In a September 1995 speech before the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Clinton argued very forcefully against practices that abused women around the world and in the People's Republic of China itself, declaring "that it is no longer acceptable to discuss women's rights as separate from human rights". Delegates from over 180 countries heard her say: "If there is one message that echoes forth from this conference, let it be that human rights are women's rights and women's rights are human rights, once and for all." In doing so, she resisted both internal administration and Chinese pressure to soften her remarks. She was one of the most prominent international figures during the late 1990s to speak out against the treatment of Afghan women by the Islamist fundamentalist Taliban. She helped create Vital Voices, an international initiative sponsored by the United States to promote the participation of women in the political processes of their countries. It and Clinton's own visits encouraged women to make themselves heard in the Northern Ireland peace process.

Whitewater and other investigations

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First Lady Clinton was a subject of several investigations by the United States Office of the Independent Counsel, committees of the U.S. Congress, and the press.

The Whitewater controversy was the focus of media attention from the publication of a New York Times report during the 1992 presidential campaign and throughout her time as First Lady. The Clintons had lost their late-1970s investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation; at the same time, their partners in that investment, Jim and Susan McDougal, operated Madison Guaranty, a savings and loan institution that retained the legal services of Rose Law Firm and may have been improperly subsidizing Whitewater losses. Madison Guaranty later failed, and Clinton's work at Rose was scrutinized for a possible conflict of interest in representing the bank before state regulators that her husband had appointed. She claimed she had done minimal work for the bank. Independent counsels Robert Fiske and Kenneth Starr subpoenaed Clinton's legal billing records; she said she did not know where they were. The records were found in the First Lady's White House book room after a two-year search and delivered to investigators in early 1996. The delayed appearance of the records sparked intense interest and another investigation concerning how they surfaced and where they had been. Clinton's staff attributed the problem to continual changes in White House storage areas since the move from the Arkansas Governor's Mansion. On January 26, 1996, Clinton became the first First Lady to be subpoenaed to testify before a Federal grand jury. After several Independent Counsels had investigated, a final report was issued in 2000 that stated there was insufficient evidence that either Clinton had engaged in criminal wrongdoing.

Scrutiny of the May 1993 firings of the White House Travel Office employees, an affair that became known as "Travelgate", began with charges that the White House had used audited financial irregularities in the Travel Office operation as an excuse to replace the staff with friends from Arkansas. The 1996 discovery of a two-year-old White House memo caused the investigation to focus on whether Hillary Clinton had orchestrated the firings and whether the statements she made to investigators about her role in the firings were true. The 2000 final Independent Counsel report concluded she was involved in the firings and that she had made "factually false" statements, but that there was insufficient evidence that she knew the statements were false, or knew that her actions would lead to firings, to prosecute her.

Following deputy White House counsel Vince Foster's July 1993 suicide, allegations were made that Hillary Clinton had ordered the removal of potentially damaging files (related to Whitewater or other matters) from Foster's office on the night of his death. Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr investigated this, and by 1999, Starr was reported to be holding the investigation open, despite his staff having told him there was no case to be made. When Starr's successor Robert Ray issued his final Whitewater reports in 2000, no claims were made against Hillary Clinton regarding this.

An outgrowth of the Travelgate investigation was the June 1996 discovery of improper White House access to hundreds of FBI background reports on former Republican White House employees, an affair that some called "Filegate". Accusations were made that Hillary Clinton had requested these files and that she had recommended hiring an unqualified individual to head the White House Security Office. The 2000 final Independent Counsel report found no substantial or credible evidence that Hillary Clinton had any role or showed any misconduct in the matter.

In March 1994, newspaper reports revealed her spectacular profits from cattle futures trading in 1978–1979; allegations were made in the press of conflict of interest and disguised bribery, and several individuals analyzed her trading records, but no formal investigation was made and she was never charged with any wrongdoing.

Lewinsky scandal

In 1998, the Clintons' relationship became the subject of much speculation when investigations revealed that the President had had extramarital relations with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Events surrounding the Lewinsky scandal eventually led to the impeachment of Bill Clinton by the House of Representatives. When the allegations against her husband were first made public, Hillary Clinton stated that they were the result of a "vast right-wing conspiracy", characterizing the Lewinsky charges as the latest in a long, organized, collaborative series of charges by Bill Clinton's political enemies rather than any wrongdoing by her husband. She later said that she had been misled by her husband's initial claims that no affair had taken place. After the evidence of President Clinton's encounters with Lewinsky became incontrovertible, she issued a public statement reaffirming her commitment to their marriage, but privately was reported to be furious at him and was unsure if she wanted to stay in the marriage. The White House residence staff noticed a pronounced level of tension between the couple during this period.

Public reaction varied: some women admired her strength and poise in private matters made public, some sympathized with her as a victim of her husband's insensitive behavior, others criticized her as being an enabler to her husband's indiscretions, while still others accused her of cynically staying in a failed marriage as a way of keeping or even fostering her own political influence. Her public approval ratings in the wake of the revelations shot upward to around 70 percent, the highest they had ever been. In her 2003 memoir, she would attribute her decision to stay married to "a love that has persisted for decades" and add: "No one understands me better and no one can make me laugh the way Bill does. Even after all these years, he is still the most interesting, energizing and fully alive person I have ever met."

Traditional duties

Clinton initiated and was Founding Chair of the Save America's Treasures program, a national effort that matched federal funds to private donations to preserve and restore historic items and sites, including the flag that inspired "The Star-Spangled Banner" and the First Ladies Historic Site in Canton, Ohio. She was head of the White House Millennium Council and hosted Millennium Evenings, a series of lectures that discussed futures studies, one of which became the first live simultaneous webcast from the White House. Clinton also created the first White House Sculpture Garden, located in the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, which displayed large contemporary American works of art loaned from museums.

In the White House, Clinton placed donated handicrafts of contemporary American artisans, such as pottery and glassware, on rotating display in the state rooms. She oversaw the restoration of the Blue Room to be historically authentic to the period of James Monroe and the Map Room to how it looked during World War II. Working with Arkansas interior decorator Kaki Hockersmith over an eight-year period, she oversaw extensive, privately-funded redecoration efforts around the building, often trying to make it look brighter. These included changing the look of the Treaty Room, a presidential study, to along 19th century lines. Overall the redecoration brought mixed notices, with Victorian furnishings for the Lincoln Sitting Room being criticized the most. Clinton hosted many large-scale events at the White House, such as a Saint Patrick's Day reception, a state dinner for visiting Chinese dignitaries, a contemporary music concert that raised funds for music education in public schools, a New Year's Eve celebration at the turn of the 21st century, and a state dinner honoring the bicentennial of the White House in November 2000.

2000 U.S. Senate election

When New York's long-serving United States Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement in November 1998, several prominent Democratic figures, including Representative Charles B. Rangel of New York, urged Clinton to run for Moynihan's open seat in the United States Senate election of 2000. Once she decided to run, the Clintons purchased a home in Chappaqua, New York, north of New York City, in September 1999. She became the first First Lady of the United States to be a candidate for elected office. Initially, Clinton expected to face Rudy Giuliani, the Mayor of New York City, as her Republican opponent in the election. Giuliani withdrew from the race in May 2000 after he was diagnosed with prostate cancer and matters related to his failing marriage became public, and Clinton instead faced Rick Lazio, a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives representing New York's 2nd congressional district. Throughout the campaign, opponents accused Clinton of carpetbagging, as she had never resided in New York nor participated in the state's politics before this race. Clinton began her campaign by visiting every county in the state, in a "listening tour" of small-group settings. During the campaign, she devoted considerable time in traditionally Republican Upstate New York regions. Clinton vowed to improve the economic situation in those areas, promising to deliver 200,000 jobs to the state over her term. Her plan included tax credits to reward job creation and encourage business investment, especially in the high-tech sector. She called for personal tax cuts for college tuition and long-term care.

The contest drew national attention. Lazio blundered during a September debate by seeming to invade Clinton's personal space trying to get her to sign a fundraising agreement. The campaigns of Clinton and Lazio, along with Giuliani's initial effort, spent a record combined $90 million. Clinton won the election on November 7, 2000, with 55 percent of the vote to Lazio's 43 percent. She was sworn in as United States Senator on January 3, 2001.

United States Senate

First term

Upon entering the Senate, Clinton maintained a low public profile and built relationships with senators from both parties. She forged alliances with religiously inclined senators by becoming a regular participant in the Senate Prayer Breakfast. She served on five Senate committees: Committee on Budget (2001–2002), Committee on Armed Services (2003–2009), Committee on Environment and Public Works (2001–2009), Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (2001–2009) and Special Committee on Aging. She was also a member of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (2001–2009).

Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Clinton sought to obtain funding for the recovery efforts in New York City and security improvements in her state. Working with New York's senior senator, Charles Schumer, she was instrumental in securing $21 billion in funding for the World Trade Center site's redevelopment. She subsequently took a leading role in investigating the health issues faced by 9/11 first responders. Clinton voted for the USA Patriot Act in October 2001. In 2005, when the act was up for renewal, she worked to address some civil liberties concerns with it, before voting in favor of a compromise renewed act in March 2006 that gained large majority support.

Clinton strongly supported the 2001 U.S. military action in Afghanistan, saying it was a chance to combat terrorism while improving the lives of Afghan women who suffered under the Taliban government. Clinton voted in favor of the October 2002 Iraq War Resolution, which authorized President George W. Bush to use military force against Iraq.

After the Iraq War began, Clinton made trips to Iraq and Afghanistan to visit American troops stationed there. On a visit to Iraq in February 2005, Clinton noted that the insurgency had failed to disrupt the democratic elections held earlier and that parts of the country were functioning well. Observing that war deployments were draining regular and reserve forces, she co-introduced legislation to increase the size of the regular United States Army by 80,000 soldiers to ease the strain. In late 2005, Clinton said that while immediate withdrawal from Iraq would be a mistake, Bush's pledge to stay "until the job is done" was also misguided, as it gave Iraqis "an open-ended invitation not to take care of themselves". Her stance caused frustration among those in the Democratic Party who favored quick withdrawal. Clinton supported retaining and improving health benefits for veterans and lobbied against the closure of several military bases.

Senator Clinton voted against President Bush's two major tax cut packages, the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003. Clinton voted against the 2005 confirmation of John G. Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States and the 2006 confirmation of Samuel Alito to the United States Supreme Court.

In 2005, Clinton called for the Federal Trade Commission to investigate how hidden sex scenes showed up in the controversial video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. Along with Senators Joe Lieberman and Evan Bayh, she introduced the Family Entertainment Protection Act, intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games. In 2004 and 2006, Clinton voted against the Federal Marriage Amendment that sought to prohibit same-sex marriage.

Looking to establish a "progressive infrastructure" to rival that of American conservatism, Clinton played a formative role in conversations that led to the 2003 founding of former Clinton administration chief of staff John Podesta's Center for American Progress, shared aides with Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington, founded in 2003, and advised the Clintons' former antagonist David Brock's Media Matters for America, created in 2004. Following the 2004 Senate elections, she successfully pushed new Democratic Senate leader Harry Reid to create a Senate war room to handle daily political messaging.

2006 re-election campaign

In November 2004, Clinton announced that she would seek a second Senate term. The early frontrunner for the Republican nomination, Westchester County District Attorney Jeanine Pirro, withdrew from the contest after several months of poor campaign performance. Clinton easily won the Democratic nomination over opposition from antiwar activist Jonathan Tasini. Clinton's eventual opponent in the general election was Republican candidate John Spencer, a former mayor of Yonkers. She won the election on November 7, 2006, with 67 percent of the vote to Spencer's 31 percent, carrying all but four of New York's sixty-two counties. Clinton spent $36 million for her re-election, more than any other candidate for Senate in the 2006 elections. Some Democrats criticized her for spending too much in a one-sided contest, while some supporters were concerned she did not leave more funds for a potential presidential bid in 2008. In the following months, she transferred $10 million of her Senate funds toward her presidential campaign.

Second term

Clinton opposed the Iraq War troop surge of 2007. In March of that year, she voted in favor of a war-spending bill that required President Bush to begin withdrawing troops from Iraq by a deadline; it passed almost completely along party lines but was subsequently vetoed by Bush. In May, a compromise war funding bill that removed withdrawal deadlines but tied funding to progress benchmarks for the Iraqi government passed the Senate by a vote of 80–14 and would be signed by Bush; Clinton was one of those who voted against it. Clinton responded to General David Petraeus's September 2007 Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq by saying, "I think that the reports that you provide to us really require a willing suspension of disbelief."

In March 2007, in response to the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy, Clinton called on Attorney General Alberto Gonzales to resign. Regarding the high-profile, hotly debated comprehensive immigration reform bill known as the Secure Borders, Economic Opportunity and Immigration Reform Act of 2007, Clinton cast several votes in support of the bill, which eventually failed to gain cloture.

As the financial crisis of 2007–2008 reached a peak with the liquidity crisis of September 2008, Clinton supported the proposed bailout of United States financial system, voting in favor of the $700 billion law that created the Troubled Asset Relief Program, saying that it represented the interests of the American people. It passed the Senate 74–25.

2008 presidential campaign

Clinton had been preparing for a potential candidacy for United States President since at least early 2003. On January 20, 2007, she announced via her website the formation of a presidential exploratory committee for the United States presidential election of 2008, stating "I'm in, and I'm in to win." No woman had ever been nominated by a major party for the presidency. When Bill Clinton became president in 1993, a blind trust was established; in April 2007 the Clintons liquidated the blind trust to avoid the possibility of ethical conflicts or political embarrassments as Hillary Clinton undertook her presidential race. Later disclosure statements revealed that the couple's worth was now upwards of $50 million, and that they had earned over $100 million since 2000, with most of it coming from Bill Clinton's books, speaking engagements, and other activities.

Throughout the first half of 2007, Clinton led candidates competing for the Democratic presidential nomination in opinion polls for the election. Senator Barack Obama of Illinois and former Senator John Edwards of North Carolina were her strongest competitors. The biggest threat to her campaign was her past support of the Iraq War, which Obama had opposed from the beginning. Clinton and Obama both set records for early fundraising, swapping the money lead each quarter.

By September 2007, polling in the first six states holding Democratic contests showed that Clinton was leading in all of them, with the races being closest in Iowa and South Carolina. By the following month, national polls showed Clinton far ahead of Democratic competitors. At the end of October, Clinton suffered a rare poor debate performance against Obama, Edwards, and her other opponents. Obama's message of change began to resonate with the Democratic electorate better than Clinton's message of experience. The race tightened considerably, especially in the early states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina, with Clinton losing her lead in some polls by December.

In the first vote of 2008, she placed third in the January 3 Iowa Democratic caucus behind Obama and Edwards. Obama gained ground in national polling in the next few days, with all polls predicting a victory for him in the New Hampshire primary. Clinton gained a surprise win there on January 8, defeating Obama narrowly. It was the first time a woman had won a major American party's presidential primary for the purposes of delegate selection. Explanations for Clinton's New Hampshire comeback varied but often centered on her being seen more sympathetically, especially by women, after her eyes welled with tears and her voice broke while responding to a voter's question the day before the election.

The nature of the contest fractured in the next few days. Several remarks by Bill Clinton and other surrogates, and a remark by Hillary Clinton concerning Martin Luther King, Jr. and Lyndon B. Johnson, were perceived by many as, accidentally or intentionally, limiting Obama as a racially oriented candidate or otherwise denying the post-racial significance and accomplishments of his campaign. Despite attempts by both Hillary Clinton and Obama to downplay the issue, Democratic voting became more polarized as a result, with Clinton losing much of her support among African Americans. She lost by a two-to-one margin to Obama in the January 26 South Carolina primary, setting up, with Edwards soon dropping out, an intense two-person contest for the twenty-two February 5 Super Tuesday states. Bill Clinton had made more statements attracting criticism for their perceived racial implications late in the South Carolina campaign, and his role was seen as damaging enough to her that a wave of supporters within and outside of the campaign said the former President "needs to stop". The South Carolina campaign had done lasting damage to Clinton, eroding her support among the Democratic establishment and leading to the prized endorsement of Obama by Ted Kennedy.

On Super Tuesday, Clinton won the largest states, such as California, New York, New Jersey and Massachusetts, while Obama won more states; they almost evenly split the total popular vote. But Obama was gaining more pledged delegates for his share of the popular vote due to better exploitation of the Democratic proportional allocation rules.

The Clinton campaign had counted on winning the nomination by Super Tuesday and was unprepared financially and logistically for a prolonged effort; lagging in Internet fundraising, Clinton began loaning money to her campaign. There was continuous turmoil within the campaign staff and she made several top-level personnel changes. Obama won the next eleven February contests across the country, often by large margins, and took a significant pledged delegate lead over Clinton. On March 4, Clinton broke the string of losses by winning in Ohio among other places, where her criticism of NAFTA, a major legacy of her husband's presidency, had been a key issue. Throughout the campaign, Obama dominated caucuses, for which the Clinton campaign largely ignored preparation. Obama did well in primaries where African Americans or younger, college-educated, or more affluent voters were heavily represented; Clinton did well in primaries where Hispanics or older, non-college-educated, or working-class white voters predominated. Behind in delegates, Clinton's best hope of winning the nomination came in persuading uncommitted, party-appointed superdelegates.

Clinton's admission in late March, that her repeated campaign statements about having been under hostile fire from snipers during a March 1996 visit to U.S. troops at Tuzla Air Base in Bosnia and Herzegovina were not true, attracted considerable media attention. On April 22, she won the Pennsylvania primary and kept her campaign alive. On May 6, a narrower-than-expected win in the Indiana primary, coupled with a large loss in the North Carolina primary, ended any realistic chance she had of winning the nomination. She vowed to stay on through the remaining primaries, but stopped attacks against Obama; as one advisor stated, "She could accept losing. She could not accept quitting." She won some of the remaining contests, and indeed over the last three months of the campaign won more delegates, states, and votes than Obama, but she failed to overcome Obama's lead.

Following the final primaries on June 3, 2008, Obama had gained enough delegates to become the presumptive nominee. In a speech before her supporters on June 7, Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama. By campaign's end, Clinton had won 1,640 pledged delegates to Obama's 1,763; at the time of the clinching, Clinton had 286 superdelegates to Obama's 395, with those numbers widening to 256 versus 438 once Obama was acknowledged the winner. Clinton and Obama each received over 17 million votes during the nomination process with both breaking the previous record. Clinton was the first woman to run in the primary or caucus of every state, and she eclipsed, by a very wide margin, Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm's 1972 marks for most votes garnered and delegates won by a woman. Clinton gave a passionate speech supporting Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention and campaigned frequently for him in Fall 2008, which concluded with his victory over McCain in the general election on November 4. Clinton's campaign ended up severely in debt; she owed millions of dollars to outside vendors and wrote off the $13 million that she lent it herself. The debt was eventually paid off by the beginning of 2013.

U.S. Secretary of State

Nomination and confirmation

In mid-November 2008, President-elect Obama and Clinton discussed the possibility of her serving as U.S. Secretary of State in his administration. She was initially quite reluctant, but on November 20, she told Obama she would accept the position. On December 1, President-elect Obama formally announced that Clinton would be his nominee for Secretary of State. Clinton said she did not want to leave the Senate, but that the new position represented a "difficult and exciting adventure". As part of the nomination and in order to relieve concerns of conflict of interest, Bill Clinton agreed to accept several conditions and restrictions regarding his ongoing activities and fundraising efforts for the William J. Clinton Foundation and Clinton Global Initiative.

The appointment required a Saxbe fix, passed and signed into law in December 2008. Confirmation hearings before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee began on January 13, 2009, a week before the Obama inauguration; two days later, the Committee voted 16–1 to approve Clinton. By this time, her public approval rating had reached 65 percent, the highest point since the Lewinsky scandal. On January 21, 2009, Clinton was confirmed in the full Senate by a vote of 94–2. Clinton took the oath of office of Secretary of State and resigned from the Senate that same day. She became the first former First Lady to serve in the United States Cabinet.

Initial efforts and events of 2009–10

Clinton spent her initial days as Secretary of State telephoning dozens of world leaders and indicating that U.S. foreign policy would change direction: "We have a lot of damage to repair." She advocated an expanded role in global economic issues for the State Department and cited the need for an increased U.S. diplomatic presence, especially in Iraq where the Defense Department had conducted diplomatic missions. Clinton announced the most ambitious of her departmental reforms, the Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review, which establishes specific objectives for the State Department's diplomatic missions abroad; it was modeled after a similar process in the Defense Department that she was familiar with from her time on the Senate Armed Services Committee. The first such review was issued in late 2010 and called for the U.S. leading through "civilian power" as a cost-effective way of responding to international challenges and defusing crises. It also sought to institutionalize goals of empowering women throughout the world. A cause Clinton advocated throughout her tenure was the adoption of cookstoves in the developing world, to foster cleaner and more environmentally sound food preparation and reduce smoke dangers to women.

In March 2009, Clinton prevailed over Vice President Joe Biden on an internal debate to send an additional 21,000 troops to the war in Afghanistan and supported Obama's plan to tie the surge to a timetable for eventual withdrawal. The same month, Clinton presented Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov with a "reset button" symbolizing U.S. attempts to rebuild ties with that country under its new president, Dmitry Medvedev. The photo op was remembered for a mistranslation into Russian; the policy led to improved cooperation in several areas during Medvedev's time in office, but relations would worsen considerably following Vladimir Putin's return to the position in 2012. In October 2009, on a trip to Switzerland, Clinton's intervention overcame last-minute snags and saved the signing of an historic Turkish–Armenian accord that established diplomatic relations and opened the border between the two long-hostile nations. In Pakistan, she engaged in several unusually blunt discussions with students, talk show hosts, and tribal elders, in an attempt to repair the Pakistani image of the U.S.

Clinton and Obama forged a good working relationship without power struggles; she was a team player within the administration and a defender of it to the outside, and was careful that neither she nor her husband would upstage the president. Clinton formed an alliance with Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and the Obama national security team as a whole featured much less discord than in previous administrations. Obama and Clinton both approached foreign policy as a largely non-ideological, pragmatic exercise. She met with him weekly but did not have the close, daily relationship that some of her predecessors had had with their presidents; moreover, certain key areas of policymaking were kept inside the White House or Pentagon. Nevertheless, the president had trust in her actions.

In a major speech in January 2010, Clinton drew analogies between the Iron Curtain and the free and unfree Internet. Chinese officials reacted negatively towards it and the speech garnered attention as the first time a senior American official had clearly defined the Internet as a key element of American foreign policy. In July 2010, Secretary Clinton visited Korea, Vietnam, Pakistan and Afghanistan, all the while preparing for the July 31 wedding of daughter Chelsea amid much media attention. In late November 2010, Clinton led the U.S. damage control effort after WikiLeaks released confidential State Department cables containing blunt statements and assessments by U.S. and foreign diplomats.

Events of 2011–13 and overall themes

The 2011 Egyptian protests posed the biggest foreign policy crisis for the administration yet. Clinton's public response quickly evolved from an early assessment that the government of Hosni Mubarak was "stable", to a stance that there needed to be an "orderly transition a democratic participatory government", to a condemnation of violence against the protesters. Obama came to rely upon Clinton's advice, organization, and personal connections in the behind-the-scenes response to developments. As Arab Spring protests spread throughout the region, Clinton was at the forefront of a U.S. response that she recognized was sometimes contradictory, backing some regimes while supporting protesters against others. As the Libyan Civil War took place, Clinton's shift in favor of military intervention aligned her with Ambassador to the U.N. Susan Rice and National Security Council figure Samantha Power and was a key turning point in overcoming internal administration opposition from Defense Secretary Gates, security advisor Thomas Donilon, and counterterrorism advisor John Brennan in gaining the backing for, and Arab and U.N. approval of, the 2011 military intervention in Libya. She later used U.S. allies and what she called "convening power" to help keep the Libyan rebels unified as they eventually overthrew the Gaddafi regime. During April 2011 internal deliberations of the president's innermost circle of advisors over whether to order U.S. special forces to conduct a raid into Pakistan against Osama bin Laden, Clinton was among those who argued in favor, saying the importance of getting bin Laden outweighed the risks to the U.S. relationship with Pakistan. Following completion of the mission on May 2, which resulted in bin Laden's death, Clinton played a key role in the administration's decision not to release photographs of the dead al-Qaeda leader.

In a December 2011 speech before the United Nations Human Rights Council, Clinton said that "Gay rights are human rights", and that the U.S. would advocate for gay rights and legal protections of gays abroad. The same period saw her overcome internal administration opposition with a direct appeal to Obama and stage the first visit to Burma by a U.S. secretary of state since 1955, as she met with Burmese leaders as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi and sought to support the 2011 Burmese democratic reforms. She also said that the 21st century would be "America's Pacific century", a declaration that was part of the Obama administration's "pivot to Asia".

During the Syrian Civil War, Clinton and the Obama administration initially sought to persuade Syrian President Bashir al-Assad to engage popular demonstrations with reform, then as government violence rose, in August 2011 called for him to relinquish power. The administration joined a number of allied countries in delivering non-lethal assistance to rebels opposed to the Assad government as well as to humanitarian groups working in Syria. During mid-2012, Clinton formed a plan with CIA Director David Petraeus to further strengthen the opposition by arming and training vetted groups of Syrian rebels, but the proposal was rejected by the White House, who were reluctant to become entangled in the conflict, particularly during an election year, and who feared that extremists hidden among the rebels might turn the weapons against other targets.

On September 11, 2012, the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi, Libya was attacked, resulting in the deaths of the U.S. Ambassador, J. Christopher Stevens, and three other Americans. The attack, and questions surrounding the security of the U.S. consulate and varying explanations afterward for what had happened, became politically controversial in the U.S. On October 15, Clinton said that regarding the question of security lapses, she took responsibility, while the differing explanations were due to the inevitable fog of war confusion after events like this. On December 19, a panel led by Thomas R. Pickering and Michael Mullen issued its report on the matter. It was sharply critical of State Department officials in Washington for ignoring requests for more guards and safety upgrades and for failing to adapt security procedures to a deteriorating security environment. It focused its criticism on the department's Bureau of Diplomatic Security and Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs; four State Department officials at the assistant secretary level and below were removed from their posts as a consequence. Clinton said she accepted the conclusions of the report and that changes were underway to implement its suggested recommendations. Clinton gave Congressional testimony on the Benghazi attack on January 23, 2013. She defended her actions in response to the incident and, while still accepting formal responsibility, said she had had no direct role in specific discussions beforehand regarding consulate security. Congressional Republicans challenged her on several points, to which she sometimes responded angrily or emotionally. In particular, after persistent questioning from Republican Senator Ron Johnson about allegations that UN Ambassador Susan Rice had intentionally misled the public several days after the attack with inaccurate "talking points", Clinton responded with the heated and much-quoted rejoinder, "With all due respect, the fact is we had four dead Americans. Was it because of a protest or was it because of guys out for a walk one night who decided that they'd they go kill some Americans? What difference at this point does it make? It is our job to figure out what happened and do everything we can to prevent it from ever happening again, Senator."

In December 2012, Clinton was hospitalized for a few days for treatment of a blood clot in her right transverse venous sinus. Her doctors had discovered the clot during a follow-up examination for a concussion she had sustained when she had fainted and fallen nearly three weeks earlier, after developing severe dehydration from a viral intestinal ailment acquired during a trip to Europe. The clot, which caused no immediate neurological injury, was treated with anticoagulant medication, and her doctors said she was expected to make a full recovery.

Throughout her time in office, and in her final speech concluding it, Clinton viewed "smart power" as the strategy for asserting U.S. leadership and values – in a world of varied threats, weakened central governments, and increasingly important nongovernmental entities – by combining military hard power with diplomacy and U.S. soft power capacities in global economics, development aid, technology, creativity, and human rights advocacy. As such, she became the first secretary of state to methodically implement the smart power approach. In debates over use of military force, she was generally one of the more hawkish voices in the administration. She greatly expanded the State Department's use of social media, including Facebook and Twitter, both to get its message out and to help empower people vis-à-vis their rulers. And in the Mideast turmoil, Clinton particularly saw an opportunity to advance one of the central themes of her tenure, the empowerment and welfare of women and girls worldwide. Moreover, she viewed women's rights and human rights as critical for U.S. security interests. In turn, there was a trend of women around the world finding more opportunities, and in some cases feeling safer, as the result of her actions and visibility.

Clinton visited 112 countries during her tenure, making her the most widely traveled secretary of state (Time magazine wrote that "Clinton's endurance is legendary"). The first secretary of state to visit countries such as Togo and Timor-Leste, she believed that in-person visits were more important than ever in the virtual age. As early as March 2011 she indicated she was not interested in serving a second term as Secretary of State should Obama be re-elected in 2012; in December 2012, following that re-election, Obama nominated Senator John Kerry to be Clinton's successor. Her last day as Secretary of State was February 1, 2013. On her departure, analysts commented that Clinton's tenure did not bring any signature diplomatic breakthroughs as other Secretaries of State, and highlighted her focus on goals that she thought were less tangible but would have more lasting effect.

Clinton Foundation and post-State activities

When Clinton left the State Department, it marked the first time she was a fully private citizen in thirty years. While she had no firm plans for the future other than rest, she soon began work on another volume of memoirs. In September 2014, she became a grandmother when daughter Chelsea gave birth to a baby girl named Charlotte.

She and her daughter joined her husband as named members of the Bill, Hillary & Chelsea Clinton Foundation in 2013. There she focused on early childhood development efforts, including an initiative called Too Small to Fail and a $600 million initiative to encourage the enrollment of girls in secondary schools worldwide, led by former Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard. She also led the No Ceilings: The Full Participation Project, a partnership with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to gather and study data on the progress of women and girls around the world since the Beijing conference in 1995; its March 2015 report said that while "There has never been a better time in history to be born a woman ... this data shows just how far we still have to go." The foundation began accepting new donations from foreign governments, which it had stopped doing while she was secretary. Clinton subsequently resigned from the foundation's board in April 2015 when she began her presidential campaign; the foundation said it would accept new foreign governmental donations from six western nations only.

She also began making appearances on the paid speaking circuit, receiving about $200,000 per engagement, as well as making some unpaid speeches on behalf of the foundation. For the fifteen months ending in March 2015, Clinton earned over $11 million from her speeches, a total that rose to over $25 million when her husband's speeches were included.

In March 2015, Clinton's practice of using her own private e-mail address and server throughout her time as Secretary of State, rather than departmental ones, gained widespread public attention due to concerns about the security of e-mails she sent and received, the availability and preservation of them for Freedom of Information Act requests and the archival historical record, and whether her actions had violated any federal laws, regulations, or guidelines. In response, Clinton said she had a few months earlier turned over all of her work-related e-mails to the State Department pursuant to their request and that she wanted them made public, but that she would not turn over any personal e-mails and had deleted them. The House Select Committee on Benghazi requested her e-mail server be independently examined to verify her assertion, but Clinton's lawyer said that all remaining e-mails had been removed and were no longer available. The State Department began releasing the e-mails she gave them in May, 2015.

2016 presidential campaign

While Clinton had long indicated that she had no interest in running for president again, she left the State Department with very high approval ratings, and polls have indicated her the overwhelming favorite among Democrats for the 2016 Democratic presidential nomination. By September 2013, amid continual political and media speculation, Clinton said she was considering a run but was in no hurry to decide. Meanwhile, a campaign-in-waiting came into place, including a large donor network, experienced operatives, the Ready for Hillary and Priorities USA Action political action committees, and other infrastructure.

On April 12, 2015, speculation ended as Clinton formally announced her candidacy via email and the release of a video saying, "Everyday Americans need a champion. And I want to be that champion." She began her campaign by making small-scale trips to early primary and caucus states and engaging in fundraising activities.

Political positions

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Several organizations attempted to measure Clinton's place on the political spectrum scientifically using her Senate votes. National Journal's 2004 study of roll-call votes assigned Clinton a rating of 30 in the political spectrum relative to the Senate at the time, with a rating of 1 being most liberal and 100 being most conservative. National Journal's subsequent rankings placed her as the 32nd-most liberal senator in 2006 and 16th-most liberal senator in 2007. A 2004 analysis by political scientists Joshua D. Clinton of Princeton University and Simon Jackman and Doug Rivers of Stanford University found her to be likely the sixth-to-eighth-most liberal Senator. The Almanac of American Politics, edited by Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen, rated her votes from 2003 through 2006 as liberal or conservative, with 100 as the highest rating, in three areas: Economic, Social, and Foreign. Averaged for the four years, the ratings are: Economic = 75 liberal, 23 conservative; Social = 83 liberal, 6 conservative; Foreign = 66 liberal, 30 conservative. Total average = 75 liberal, 20 conservative.

Interest groups also gave Clinton scores based on how well her Senate votes aligned with the positions of the group. Through 2008, she had an average lifetime 90 percent "Liberal Quotient" from Americans for Democratic Action and a lifetime 8 percent rating from the American Conservative Union.

In a Gallup poll conducted during May 2005, 54 percent of respondents considered Clinton a liberal, 30 percent considered her a moderate, and 9 percent considered her a conservative.

Writings and recordings

As First Lady of the United States, Clinton published a weekly syndicated newspaper column titled "Talking It Over" from 1995 to 2000, distributed by Creators Syndicate. It focused on her experiences and those of women, children and families she met during her travels around the world.

In 1996, Clinton presented a vision for the children of America in the book It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us. The book made the Best Seller list of The New York Times and Clinton received the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album in 1997 for the book's audio recording.

Other books published by Clinton when she was First Lady include Dear Socks, Dear Buddy: Kids' Letters to the First Pets (1998) and An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History (2000). In 2001, she wrote an afterword to the children's book Beatrice's Goat.

In 2003, Clinton released a 562-page autobiography, Living History, for which publisher Simon & Schuster paid Clinton a near-record advance of $8 million. The book set a first-week sales record for a nonfiction work, went on to sell more than one million copies in the first month following publication, and was translated into twelve foreign languages. Clinton's audio recording of the book earned her a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album.

In 2014, Clinton published a second memoir, Hard Choices, which focused on her time as secretary of state. It has sold about 250,000 copies.

Cultural and political image

Hillary Clinton has been featured in the media and popular culture from a wide spectrum of perspectives. In 1995, writer Todd Purdum of The New York Times characterized Clinton as a Rorschach test, an assessment echoed at the time by feminist writer and activist Betty Friedan, who said, "Coverage of Hillary Clinton is a massive Rorschach test of the evolution of women in our society."

Clinton has often been described in the popular media as a polarizing figure, with some arguing otherwise. James Madison University political science professor Valerie Sulfaro's 2007 study used the American National Election Studies' "feeling thermometer" polls, which measure the degree of opinion about a political figure, to find that such polls during Clinton's First Lady years confirm the "conventional wisdom that Hillary Clinton is a polarizing figure", with the added insight that "affect towards Mrs. Clinton as first lady tended to be very positive or very negative, with a fairly constant one fourth of respondents feeling ambivalent or neutral". University of California, San Diego political science professor Gary Jacobson's 2006 study of partisan polarization found that in a state-by-state survey of job approval ratings of the state's senators, Clinton had the fourth-largest partisan difference of any senator, with a 50 percentage point difference in approval between New York's Democrats and Republicans.

Northern Illinois University political science professor Barbara Burrell's 2000 study found that Clinton's Gallup poll favorability numbers broke sharply along partisan lines throughout her time as First Lady, with 70 to 90 percent of Democrats typically viewing her favorably while only 20 to 40 percent of Republicans did. University of Wisconsin–Madison political science professor Charles Franklin analyzed her record of favorable versus unfavorable ratings in public opinion polls, and found that there was more variation in them during her First Lady years than her Senate years. The Senate years showed favorable ratings around 50 percent and unfavorable ratings in the mid-40 percent range; Franklin noted that, "This sharp split is, of course, one of the more widely remarked aspects of Sen. Clinton's public image." McGill University professor of history Gil Troy titled his 2006 biography of her Hillary Rodham Clinton: Polarizing First Lady, and wrote that after the 1992 campaign, Clinton "was a polarizing figure, with 42 percent saying she came closer to their values and lifestyle than previous first ladies and 41 percent disagreeing." Troy further wrote that Hillary Clinton "has been uniquely controversial and contradictory since she first appeared on the national radar screen in 1992" and that she "has alternately fascinated, bedeviled, bewitched, and appalled Americans."

Burrell's study found women consistently rating Clinton more favorably than men by about ten percentage points during her First Lady years. Jacobson's study found a positive correlation across all senators between being women and receiving a partisan-polarized response. Colorado State University communication studies professor Karrin Vasby Anderson describes the First Lady position as a "site" for American womanhood, one ready made for the symbolic negotiation of female identity. In particular, Anderson states there has been a cultural bias towards traditional first ladies and a cultural prohibition against modern first ladies; by the time of Clinton, the First Lady position had become a site of heterogeneity and paradox. Burrell, as well as biographers Jeff Gerth and Don Van Natta, Jr., note that Clinton achieved her highest approval ratings as First Lady late in 1998, not for professional or political achievements of her own, but for being seen as the victim of her husband's very public infidelity. University of Pennsylvania communications professor Kathleen Hall Jamieson saw Hillary Clinton as an exemplar of the double bind, who though able to live in a "both-and" world of both career and family, nevertheless "became a surrogate on whom we projected our attitudes about attributes once thought incompatible", leading to her being placed in a variety of no-win situations. Quinnipiac University media studies professor Lisa Burns found press accounts frequently framing Clinton both as an exemplar of the modern professional working mother and as a political interloper interested in usurping power for herself. University of Indianapolis English professor Charlotte Templin found political cartoonists using a variety of stereotypes – such as gender reversal, radical feminist as emasculator, and the wife the husband wants to get rid of – to portray Hillary Clinton as violating gender norms.

Over fifty books and scholarly works have been written about Hillary Rodham Clinton, from many perspectives. A 2006 survey by The New York Observer found "a virtual cottage industry" of "anti-Clinton literature", put out by Regnery Publishing and other conservative imprints, with titles such as Madame Hillary: The Dark Road to the White House, Hillary's Scheme: Inside the Next Clinton's Ruthless Agenda to Take the White House, and Can She Be Stopped? : Hillary Clinton Will Be the Next President of the United States Unless .... Books praising Clinton did not sell nearly as well (other than the memoirs written by her and her husband). When she ran for Senate in 2000, a number of fundraising groups such as Save Our Senate and the Emergency Committee to Stop Hillary Rodham Clinton sprang up to oppose her. Van Natta, Jr., found that Republican and conservative groups viewed her as a reliable "bogeyman" to mention in fundraising letters, on a par with Ted Kennedy and the equivalent of Democratic and liberal appeals mentioning Newt Gingrich.

Going into the early stages of her presidential campaign for 2008, a Time magazine cover showed a large picture of her, with two checkboxes labeled "Love Her", "Hate Her", while Mother Jones titled its profile of her "Harpy, Hero, Heretic: Hillary". Democratic netroots activists consistently rated Clinton very low in polls of their desired candidates, while some conservative figures such as Bruce Bartlett and Christopher Ruddy were declaring a Hillary Clinton presidency not so bad after all. An October 2007 cover of The American Conservative magazine was titled "The Waning Power of Hillary Hate". By December 2007, communications professor Jamieson observed that there was a large amount of misogyny present about Clinton on the Internet, up to and including Facebook and other sites devoted to depictions reducing Clinton to sexual humiliation. She noted, in response to widespread comments on Clinton's laugh, that "We know that there's language to condemn female speech that doesn't exist for male speech. We call women's speech shrill and strident. And Hillary Clinton's laugh was being described as a cackle." The "bitch" epithet, which had been applied to Clinton going back to her First Lady days and had been seen by Karrin Vasby Anderson as a tool of containment against women in American politics, flourished during the campaign, especially on the Internet but via conventional media as well. Following Clinton's "choked up moment" and related incidents in the run-up to the January 2008 New Hampshire primary, both The New York Times and Newsweek found that discussion of gender's role in the campaign had moved into the national political discourse. Newsweek editor Jon Meacham summed the relationship between Clinton and the American public by saying that the New Hampshire events "brought an odd truth to light: though Hillary Rodham Clinton has been on the periphery or in the middle of national life for decades ... she is one of the most recognizable but least understood figures in American politics."

Once she became Secretary of State, Clinton's image seemed to improve dramatically among the American public and become one of a respected world figure. She gained consistently high approval ratings (by 2011, the highest of her career except during the Lewinsky scandal), and her favorable-unfavorable ratings during 2010 and 2011 were easily the highest of any active, nationally prominent American political figure. A 2012 Internet meme, "Texts from Hillary", was based around a photograph of Clinton sitting on a military plane wearing sunglasses and using a mobile phone and imagined the recipients and contents of her text messages. It achieved viral popularity among younger, technically adept followers of politics. Clinton sought to explain her popularity by saying in early 2012, "There's a certain consistency to who I am and what I do, and I think people have finally said, 'Well, you know, I kinda get her now.'" She continued to do well in Gallup's most admired man and woman poll; in 2014 she was named the most admired woman by Americans for the thirteenth straight time and the nineteenth time overall, although her favorability ratings dropped somewhat after she left office and became viewed in the context of partisan politics again.

Electoral history

Notes

1. ^ As of 1993, she had not legally changed her name from Hillary Rodham. Bill Clinton's advisers thought her use of her maiden name to be one of the reasons for his 1980 gubernatorial re-election loss. During the following winter, Vernon Jordan, Jr. suggested to Hillary Rodham that she start using the name Clinton, and she began to do so publicly with her husband's February 1982 campaign announcement to regain that office. She later wrote that "I learned the hard way that some voters in Arkansas were seriously offended by the fact that I kept my maiden name". Once he was elected again, she made a point of using "Hillary Rodham Clinton" in work she did as First Lady of the state. Once she became First Lady of the United States in 1993, she publicly stated that she wanted to be known as "Hillary Rodham Clinton". (This announcement was parodied by the May 1993 film spoof Hot Shots! Part Deux, in which all the female characters were given the middle name "Rodham"; see IMDB entry.) She has authored all of her books under that name. She continued to use that name on her website and elsewhere once she was a U.S. Senator. When she ran for president during 2007–08, she used the name "Hillary Clinton" or just "Hillary" in campaign materials. She used "Hillary Rodham Clinton" again in official materials as Secretary of State. As of the 2015 launch of her second presidential campaign, she has again switched to using "Hillary Clinton" in campaign materials.
2. In 1995, Hillary Clinton said her mother had named her after Sir Edmund Hillary, co-first mountaineer to scale Mount Everest, and that was the reason for the less-common "two L's" spelling of her name. However, the Everest climb did not take place until 1953, more than five years after she was born. In October 2006, a Clinton spokeswoman said she was not named after the mountain climber. Instead, this account of her name's origin "was a sweet family story her mother shared to inspire greatness in her daughter, to great results I might add."
3. Research by The New York Sun in 2007 found it unclear exactly which cases beyond child custody ones Rodham worked on at the Treuhaft firm. Anti-Clinton writers such as Barbara Olson would later charge Hillary Clinton with never repudiating Treuhaft's ideology, and for retaining social and political ties with his wife and fellow communist Jessica Mitford. Further Sun research revealed that Mitford and Hillary Clinton were not close, and had a falling out over a 1980 Arkansas prisoner case.
4. For the start date, see Brock 1996, p. 96. Secondary sources give inconsistent dates as to when her time as chair ended. Primary sources indicate that sometime between about April 1980 and September 1980, Rodham was replaced as chair by F. William McCalpin. See Departments of State, Justice, and Commerce, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1981, "House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Departments of State, Justice, Commerce, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriations", U.S. House of Representatives, 1980. Rodham is still chair after having given birth "a few weeks ago"; Chelsea Clinton was born on February 27, 1980. And see Background release, Legal Services Corporation, September 1980, "Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of Justice, of the Committee of the Judiciary, House of Representatives", September 21, 27, 1979, pp. 388–403, exact reference p. 398, which shows McCalpin as chair in September 1980.
5. During the political damage control over the Gennifer Flowers episode during the 1992 campaign, Clinton said in the joint 60 Minutes interview, "I'm not sitting here as some little woman 'standing by my man' like Tammy Wynette. I'm sitting here because I love him and I respect him, and I honor what he's been through and what we've been through together." The seemingly sneering reference to country music provoked immediate criticism that Clinton was culturally tone-deaf, and Tammy Wynette herself did not like the remark because her classic song "Stand by Your Man" is not written in the first person. Wynette added that Clinton had "offended every true country music fan and every person who has 'made it on their own' with no one to take them to a White House." A few days later, on Primetime Live, Hillary Clinton apologized to Wynette. Clinton would later write that she had been careless in her choice of words and that "the fallout from my reference to Tammy Wynette was instant – as it deserved to be – and brutal." The two women later resolved their differences, with Wynette appearing at a Clinton fund raiser.
6. Less than two months after the Tammy Wynette remarks, Clinton was facing questions about whether she could have avoided possible conflicts of interest between her governor husband and work given to the Rose Law Firm, when she remarked, "I've done the best I can to lead my life ... You know, I suppose I could have stayed home and baked cookies and had teas, but what I decided to do was fulfill my profession, which I entered before my husband was in public life." The "cookies and teas" part of this statement prompted even more culture-based criticism of Clinton's apparent distaste for women who had chosen to be homemakers; the remark became a recurring campaign liability. Clinton subsequently offered up some cookie recipes as a way of making amends, and would later write of her chagrin: "Besides, I've done quite a lot of cookie baking in my life, and tea-pouring too!"
7. The Eleanor Roosevelt "discussions" were first reported in 1996 by Washington Post writer Bob Woodward; they had begun from the start of Hillary Clinton's time as First Lady. Following the Democrats' loss of congressional control in the 1994 elections, Clinton had engaged the services of Human Potential Movement proponent Jean Houston. Houston encouraged Clinton to pursue the Roosevelt connection, and while no psychic techniques were used with Clinton, critics and comics immediately suggested that Clinton was holding séances with Eleanor Roosevelt. The White House stated that this was merely a brainstorming exercise, and a private poll later indicated that most of the public believed these were indeed just imaginary conversations, with the remainder believing that communication with the dead was actually possible. In her 2003 autobiography, Clinton titled an entire chapter "Conversations with Eleanor", and stated that holding "imaginary conversations actually a useful mental exercise to help analyze problems, provided you choose the right person to visualize. Eleanor Roosevelt was ideal ."
8. Clinton was referring to the Arkansas Project and its funder Richard Mellon Scaife, Kenneth Starr's connections to Scaife, Regnery Publishing and its connections to Lucianne Goldberg and Linda Tripp, Jerry Falwell, and others.
9. In 2014, Secretary of Defense Gates related that after Clinton had left the Senate and become Secretary of State, she told President Obama that her opposition to the 2007 Iraq surge had been political, due to her facing a strong challenge from the anti-Iraq War Obama in the upcoming Democratic presidential primary.
10. When asked for her reaction to an Obama remark about the possibility that his campaign represented false hope, Clinton responded: "I would point to the fact that Dr. King's dream began to be realized when President Johnson passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, when he was able to get through Congress something that President Kennedy was hopeful to do, the President before had not even tried, but it took a president to get it done. That dream became a reality, the power of that dream became real in people's lives because we had a president who said we are going to do it, and actually got it accomplished."
11. "2008 Democratic Popular Vote". RealClearPolitics. Retrieved July 8, 2008. The popular vote count for a nomination process is unofficial, and meaningless in determining the nominee. It is difficult to come up with precise totals due to some caucus states not reporting popular vote totals and thus having to be estimated. It is further difficult to compare Clinton and Obama's totals, due to only her name having been on the ballot in the Michigan primary.
12. These efforts were not immediately rewarded, largely due to the unpopularity of drone attacks in Pakistan and other anti-terrorism U.S. actions. Polls in Pakistan and other Muslim countries showed approval of the U.S. declined among its citizens between 2009 and 2012 and confidence that Clinton was doing the right thing in world affairs was also low. The confidence ratings for Clinton were high in most European countries and generally mixed in the BRIC countries.
13. While generally experiencing good health in her life, Clinton had previously had a potentially serious blood clot in her knee while First Lady in 1998, for which she had required anticoagulant treatment. An elbow fracture and subsequent painful recuperation had caused Clinton to miss two foreign trips as Secretary of State in 2009. The 2012 concussion and clot episode caused Clinton to postpone her Congressional testimony on the Benghazi attack and also to miss any foreign trips planned for the rest of her tenure. After returning to public activity, she wore special glasses (rather than her usual contact lenses) to deal with lingering effects of the concussion.
14. Clinton's 112 countries visited broke Madeleine Albright's previous mark of 96. Clinton's sum of 956,733 air miles traveled, however, fell short of Condoleezza Rice's record for mileage. That total, 1,059,207, was bolstered late in Rice's tenure by repeated trips to the Middle East.
15. ^ During Clinton's tenure there were several cases where foreign governments continued making donations to the Clinton Foundation at the same level they had before Clinton became secretary, which was permissible under the agreement forged before she took office, and also one instance of a new donation, $500,000 from Algeria for earthquake relief in Haiti, that was outside the bounds of the continuation provision and should have received a special State Department ethics review but did not. The foundation's new stance as of April 2015 and Clinton's presidential candidacy was to accept foreign donations only from the governments of Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway and the United Kingdom.
16. See Barone, Michael; Cohen, Richard E. (2008). The Almanac of American Politics. National Journal. p. 1126. And 2006 edition of same, 1152. The scores for individual years are : 2003: Economic = 90 (7), Social = 85 (0), Foreign = 79 (14). Average = 85 (7). 2004: Economic = 63 (36), Social = 82 (0), Foreign = 58 (41). Average = 68 (26). 2005: Economic = 84 (15), Social = 83 (10), Foreign = 66 (29). Average = 78 (18). 2006: Economic = 63 (35), Social = 80 (14), Foreign = 62 (35). Average = 68 (28).

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281. Balz and Johnson 2009, p. 196.
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295. ^ Myers, Steven Lee (July 1, 2012). "Last Tour of the Rock-Star Diplomat". The New York Times Magazine. pp. 18–23, 49.
296. Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 58–60.
297. ^ "Obama Confirms Hillary In Top Job". Sky News. December 1, 2008.
298. Allen and Parnes 2014, p. 81.
299. Falcone, Michael (December 19, 2008). "Bush Approves Bill Reducing Secretary of State's Pay". The New York Times.
300. "Senate panel backs Clinton as secretary of state". NBC News. Associated Press. January 15, 2009.
301. Jones, Jeffrey M. (January 13, 2009). "As Senate Hearings Begin, Hillary Clinton's Image Soars". Gallup Organization.
302. Phillips, Kate (January 21, 2009). "Senate Confirms Clinton as Secretary of State". The New York Times.
303. Tumulty, Brian (January 21, 2009). "Clinton sworn in at State Dept. and then resigns Senate". The Journal News.
304. Rudin, Ken (December 1, 2008). "Obama Brings Hillary to Cabinet, GOP to Ariz. State House". NPR.
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306. Landler, Mark; Cooper, Helene (December 22, 2008). "Clinton Moves to Widen Role of State Dept". The New York Times.
307. Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 150–151.
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310. ^ Baker, Peter (March 23, 2014). "3 Presidents and a Riddle Named Putin". The New York Times.
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312. Lee, Matthew (October 10, 2009). "Turkey, Armenia sign historic accord". The Guardian. London. Associated Press.
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315. ^ Landler, Mark; Cooper, Helene (March 19, 2010). "From Bitter Campaign to Strong Alliance". The New York Times.
316. ^ Combe, Rachael (April 5, 2012). "At the Pinnacle of Hillary Clinton's Career". Elle.
317. ^ Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 117–121.
318. ^ Richter, Paul (January 28, 2013). "Hillary Clinton's legacy at State: Splendid but not spectacular". Los Angeles Times.
319. ^ Packer, George (February 11, 2013). "Long Engagements". The New Yorker.
320. Richter, Paul; Pierson, David (January 23, 2010). "Sino-U.S. ties hit new snag over Internet issues". Los Angeles Times.
321. Landler, Mark; Wong, Edward (January 22, 2010). "China Rebuffs Clinton on Internet Warning". The New York Times.
322. Noveck, Jocelyn (July 24, 2010). "New role for Clintons: parents of the bride". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on July 28, 2010.
323. Ghattas 2013, pp. 198–205.
324. ^ Thrush, Glenn (February 2, 2011). "Hillary Clinton plays key role in dance with Hosni Mubarak". Politico.
325. "Factbox – Evolution of U.S. stance on Egypt". Reuters. February 2, 2011.
326. "Hillary urges probe into new Cairo violence". The Nation. Lahore. February 4, 2011.
327. ^ Cooper, Helene; Myers, Steven Lee (March 18, 2011). "Obama Takes Hard Line With Libya After Shift by Clinton". The New York Times.
328. ^ Thrush, Glenn (March 17, 2011). "Day after saying no second term, a big win for Hillary Clinton". Politico.
329. ^ Calabresi, Massimo (November 7, 2011). "Hillary Clinton and the Rise of Smart Power". Time. pp. 26–31. See also "TIME magazine editor explains Hillary Clinton's 'smart power'". CNN. October 28, 2011.
330. Bowden, Mark (2012). The Finish: The Killing of Osama Bin Laden. Atlantic Monthly Press. pp. 198–204. ISBN 0-8021-2034-2.
331. Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 233–237.
332. Ambinder, Marc; Cooper, Matthew (May 4, 2011). "Why Obama Nixed the Photo Release". National Journal. Washington, DC.
333. Allen and Parnes 2014, p. 372.
334. ^ Gordon, Michael R.; Landler, Mark (February 3, 2013). "Backstage Glimpses of Clinton as Dogged Diplomat, Win or Lose". The New York Times.
335. Ghattas 2013, pp. 294–304.
336. Clinton, Hillary (November 2011). "America's Pacific Century". Foreign Policy (189): 56–63.
337. Ghattas 2013, p. 187.
338. Ghattas 2013, pp. 282–285.
339. Myers, Steven Lee (April 1, 2012). "U.S. joins effort to equip and pay rebels in Syria". The New York Times.
340. Allen and Parnes 2014, p. 340.
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342. Gordon, Michael (October 15, 2012). "Clinton Takes Responsibility for Security Failure in Libya". The New York Times.
343. ^ "Three in State Dept. resign after report". United Press International. December 19, 2012.
344. Gordon, Michael R.; Schmitt, Eric (December 19, 2012). "4 Are Out at State Dept. After Scathing Report on Benghazi Attack". The New York Times.
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346. "In Context: Hillary Clinton's 'What difference does it make' comment". PolitiFact. May 8, 2013.
347. ^ Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 339–342, 360–362.
348. ^ Cooper, Helene (December 31, 2012). "Clinton's Blood Clot Is Located Near Her Brain, Doctors Say". The New York Times.
349. Evans, Heidi (October 25, 2007). "Hillary Clinton: My life at 60". Daily News. New York.
350. Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 139–141.
351. Hughes, Dana; Childs, Dan (January 25, 2013). "Hillary Clinton's Glasses Are For Concussion, Not Fashion". ABC News.
352. Madison, Lucy (January 31, 2013). "In farewell speech, Clinton calls for 'smart power' on global stage". CBS News.
353. Ghattas 2013, pp. 11, 334.
354. Crowley, Michael (January 14, 2014). "Hillary Clinton's Unapologetically Hawkish Record Faces 2016 Test". Time.
355. Hudson, Valerie M.; Leidl, Patricia (2015). The Hillary Doctrine: Sex and American Foreign Policy. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 57–60. ISBN 0-231-16492-0.
356. ^ Landler, Mark (January 4, 2013). "Scare Adds to Fears That Clinton's Work Has Taken Toll". The New York Times.
357. Lee, Matthew (June 28, 2012). "Frequent flier Hillary Clinton hits 100-country mark". Yahoo! News. Associated Press.
358. Jackson, David (June 18, 2012). "Clinton, Rice vie for most traveled secretary of State". USA Today.
359. Parnass, Sarah; Hughes, Dana (December 23, 2012). "Departing Secretary of State Hillary Clinton Leaves Behind a Legacy of Firsts". ABC News.
360. ^ Miller, Jake (January 29, 2013). "Is Hillary Clinton closing the door on politics?". CBS News.
361. Ghattas 2013, pp. 216, 225.
362. ^ Holland, Steve (January 16, 2013). "Hillary Clinton leaving world stage, but for how long?". Reuters.
363. Merica, Dan (September 27, 2014). "Chelsea Clinton gives birth to a daughter". CNN.
364. ^ Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 374–375, 382–385.
365. "Hillary Clinton unveils $600m global female education plan". The Guardian. Associated Press. September 25, 2014.
366. Rucker, Philip (February 13, 2014). "Hillary Clinton launches global data project on women and girls". The Washington Post.
367. Fleming, Olivia (March 10, 2015). "Unpacking Hillary Clinton's 'No Ceilings' Report". Elle.
368. Helderman, Rosalind S.; Hamburger, Tom (February 25, 2015). "Foreign governments gave millions to foundation while Clinton was at State Dept". The Washington Post.
369. Braun, Stephen (April 16, 2015). "Clinton Foundation only allowing six foreign countries to donate". Boston Globe. Associated Press.
370. Chozick, Amy (July 11, 2013). "Hillary Clinton Taps Speechmaking Gold Mine". The New York Times.
371. Gold, Matea; Helderman, Rosalind S.; Gearan, Anne (May 15, 2015). "Clintons have made more than $25 million for speaking since January 2014". The Washington Post.
372. Schmidt, Michael S.; Chozick, Amy (March 3, 2015). "Using Private Email, Hillary Clinton Thwarted Record Requests". The New York Times.
373. ^ Leonnig, Carol D.; Helderman, Rosalind S.; Gearan, Anne (March 6, 2015). "Clinton e-mail review could find security issues". The Washington Post.
374. ^ French, Lauren (March 27, 2015). "Trey Gowdy: Hillary Clinton wiped her server clean". Politico.
375. Jaffe, Alexandra (May 22, 2015). "First round of Hillary Clinton State Department emails released". CNN.
376. Barr, Andy (October 14, 2009). "Hillary Clinton: I'd have hired Barack Obama". Politico.
377. O'Connor, Patrick (January 17, 2013). "Hillary Clinton Exits With 69% Approval Rating". The Wall Street Journal.
378. ^ Carter, Chelsea J. (September 23, 2013). "Hillary Clinton on possible presidency: 'I'm realistic'". CNN.
379. Von Drehle, David (January 27, 2014). "Can Anyone Stop Hillary?". Time.
380. Chozick, Amy (April 12, 2015). "Hillary Clinton Announces 2016 Presidential Bid". The New York Times.
381. Gearan, Anne (May 14, 2015). "It's back to Iowa and New Hampshire for Hillary Clinton". The Washington Post.
382. Curry, Tom (July 14, 2005). "Clinton burnishes hawkish image". NBC News.
383. Montopoli, Brian (January 31, 2008). "National Journal: Obama Most Liberal Senator In 2007". CBS News.
384. Clinton, Joshua D.; Jackman, Simon; Rivers, Doug (October 2004). ""The Most Liberal Senator"? Analyzing and Interpreting Congressional Roll Calls" (PDF). Political Science & Politics: 805–811. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
385. "Voting Records". Americans for Democratic Action. Retrieved March 21, 2009. Average consists of a 95 in 2001 through 2004 and 2006, a 100 in 2005, a 75 in 2007, and a 70 in 2008 (the decline in the final two years was due to missed votes while campaigning for president).
386. "2008 U.S. Senate Votes". American Conservative Union. Retrieved April 15, 2014. Lifetime rating is given.
387. "Poll: Mixed messages for Hillary Clinton". CNN. May 26, 2005.
388. "Hillary Rodham Clinton – Talking It Over". Creators Syndicate. Retrieved August 24, 2007.
389. Bernstein 2007, p. 446.
390. Apuzzo, Matt (November 16, 2005). "Read a Book, Buy a Goat". The Day.
391. Bernstein 2007, p. 544.
392. Donahue, Deirdre (June 17, 2003). "Clinton memoir tops Best-Selling Books list". USA Today.
393. "Clinton's Book Sales Top 1 Million". Associated Press. July 9, 2003.
394. "Hillary Rodham Clinton". William J. Clinton Presidential Center. Archived from the original on July 8, 2009. Retrieved May 9, 2009.
395. "Gorbachev and Clinton win Grammy". BBC News. February 9, 2004.
396. Haberman, Maggie (July 31, 2014). "Books test market for Hillary Clinton hostility". Politico.
397. Purdum, Todd S (July 24, 1995). "The First Lady's Newest Role: Newspaper Columnist". The New York Times.
398. ^ Jamieson, Kathleen Hall (1995). "Hillary Clinton as Rorschach Test". Beyond the Double Bind: Women and Leadership. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–25. ISBN 0-19-508940-5.
399. For sources describing her as a polarizing figure, see Purdum, "The First Lady's Newest Role", op. cit.; Dowd, Maureen (May 18, 1992). "Hillary Clinton as Aspiring First Lady: Role Model, or a 'Hall Monitor' Type?". The New York Times.; Sullivan, Amy (July–August 2005). "Hillary in 2008?". Washington Monthly.; Daniel Schorr (July 16, 2006). Hillary Clinton's Polarizing Force as a Candidate (audio). NPR.; Cox, Ana Marie (August 19, 2006). "How Americans View Hillary: Popular but Polarizing". Time.; and those referenced in Davis, Lanny (October 10, 2007). "Hillary Clinton: Not Polarizing and Highly Electable". The Hill.. For sources arguing against the notion, see the same Davis piece; and Estrich, Susan (2005). The Case for Hillary Clinton. HarperCollins. pp. 66–68. ISBN 0-06-083988-0..
400. Sulfaro, Valerie A. (September 2007). "Affective evaluations of first ladies: a comparison of Hillary Clinton and Laura Bush". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 37 (3): 486–514. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2007.02608.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
401. ^ Jacobson, Gary (August 2006). "Partisan Differences in Job Approval Ratings of George W. Bush and U.S. Senators in the States: An Exploration". Proceedings of the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association.
402. ^ Burrell, Barbara (October 2000). "Hillary Rodham Clinton as first lady: the people's perspective". The Social Science Journal. 37 (4): 529–546. doi:10.1016/S0362-3319(00)00094-X. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
403. ^ Franklin, Charles (January 21, 2007). "Hillary Clinton, Favorable/Unfavorable, 1993–2007". Political Arithmetik. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
404. Troy 2006, p. 60.
405. ^ Troy 2006, p. 4.
406. Data for table is from "Favorability: People in the News: Hillary Clinton". Gallup Organization. Retrieved May 14, 2015. Other polls have shown a similar pattern, see for example Franklin, op. cit.
407. Montopoli, Brian (May 8, 2012). "Hillary Clinton: From divisive to (mostly) beloved". CBS News. and McCarthy, Justin (June 11, 2014). "Smaller Majority of Americans View Hillary Clinton Favorably". Gallup Organization.
408. ^ Anderson, Karrin Vasby (2003). "The First Lady: A Site of 'American Womanhood'". In Molly Meijer Wertheimer (ed.). Inventing a Voice: The Rhetoric of American First Ladies of the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 21. ISBN 0-7425-2971-1.
409. Burns 2008, pp. 135–136, 140–141.
410. Templin, Charlotte (1999). "Hillary Clinton as Threat to Gender Norms: Cartoon Images of the First Lady". Journal of Communication Inquiry. 23 (1): 20–36. doi:10.1177/0196859999023001002. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
411. ^ Smith, Ben (March 12, 2006). "Da Hillary Code". The New York Observer.
412. Levy, Clifford J. (October 27, 2000). "Clinton Rivals Raise Little Besides Rage". The New York Times.
413. ^ Van Natta Jr., Don (July 10, 1999). "Hillary Clinton's Campaign Spurs A Wave of G.O.P. Fund-Raising". The New York Times.
414. "The Presidential Ambitions of Hillary Clinton". Time. August 26, 2006. Retrieved September 27, 2007.
415. Hitt, Jack (January–February 2007). "Harpy, Hero, Heretic: Hillary". Mother Jones. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
416. Brooks, David (September 25, 2007). "The Center Holds". The New York Times.
417. Bartlett, Bruce (May 1, 2007). "Get Ready for Hillary". Creators Syndicate.
418. Kirkpatrick, David D. (February 19, 2007). "As Clinton Runs, Some Old Foes Stay on Sideline". The New York Times.
419. "Contents: October 22, 2007 Issue". The American Conservative. October 22, 2007. Archived from the original on October 26, 2007. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
420. ^ "Transcript: December 7, 2007". Bill Moyers Journal. PBS. December 7, 2007.
421. Kurtz, Howard (October 3, 2007). "Hillary Chuckles; Pundits Snort". The Washington Post.
422. Anderson, Karrin Vasby (1999). "'Rhymes with rich': 'Bitch' as a tool of containment in contemporary American politics". Rhetoric & Public Affairs. 2 (4): 599–623. doi:10.1353/rap.2010.0082. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
423. Falk, Erika (2007). Women for President: Media Bias in Eight Campaigns. University of Illinois Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-252-07511-0.
424. Kantor, Jodi (January 10, 2008). "Women's Support for Clinton Rises in Wake of Perceived Sexism". The New York Times.
425. ^ Meacham, Jon (January 21, 2008). "Letting Hillary Be Hillary". Newsweek.
426. ^ Torregrossa, Luisita Lopez (October 12, 2010). "Hillary Clinton Leads the Pack in Bloomberg Popularity Poll". Politics Daily.
427. Saad, Lydia (March 30, 2011). "Hillary Clinton Favorable Near Her All-Time High". Gallup Organization.
428. Bailey, Holly (September 16, 2011). "Poll: A third of Americans believe Clinton would've been a better president". Yahoo! News.
429. Allen and Parnes 2014, pp. 257–259; Ghattas 2013, plates following p. 150.
430. "Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton Extend Run as Most Admired" (Press release). Gallup Organization. December 29, 2014.

Cited bibliography

Allen, Jonathan; Parnes, Amie (2014). HRC: State Secrets and the Rebirth of Hillary Clinton. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 0-8041-3675-0.

Balz, Dan; Johnson, Haynes (2009). The Battle for America, 2008: The Story of an Extraordinary Election. New York: Viking Penguin. ISBN 0-670-02111-3.

Bernstein, Carl (2007). A Woman in Charge: The Life of Hillary Rodham Clinton. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40766-9.

Brock, David (1996). The Seduction of Hillary Rodham. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-83451-0.

Brower, Kate Andersen (2015). The Residence: Inside the Private World of The White House. New York: Harper. ISBN 0-06-230519-0.

Burns, Lisa M. (2008). First Ladies and the Fourth Estate: Press Framing of Presidential Wives. DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-87580-391-1.

Clinton, Hillary Rodham (2003). Living History. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2224-5.

Gerth, Jeff; Van Natta, Don, Jr. (2007). Her Way: The Hopes and Ambitions of Hillary Rodham Clinton. New York: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-01742-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Ghattas, Kim (2013). The Secretary: A Journey with Hillary Clinton from Beirut to the Heart of American Power. New York: Times Books. ISBN 0-8050-9511-X.

Heilemann, John; Halperin, Mark (2010). Game Change: Obama and the Clintons, McCain and Palin, and the Race of a Lifetime. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-173363-6.

Kornblut, Anne E. (2009). Notes from the Cracked Ceiling: Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and What It Will Take for a Woman to Win. New York: Crown Books. ISBN 0-307-46425-3.

Maraniss, David (1995). First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-87109-9.

Morris, Roger (1996). Partners in Power: The Clintons and Their America. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-2804-8.

Olson, Barbara (1999). Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton. Washington: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0-89526-197-9.

Troy, Gil (2006). Hillary Rodham Clinton: Polarizing First Lady. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1488-5.

External links

2. Part 2

• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• Online books
• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

Official

• Campaign website
• Office of Hillary Rodham Clinton
• Former Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton: 2009 to 2013 – Department of State
• White House biography of former First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton

Organizations

• Clinton Foundation

Media coverage

• Hillary Clinton collected news and commentary at The New York Times
• Appearances on C-SPAN

Other

• Template:Dmoz
• Official Presidential Launch Speech (45:40) - (June 13, 2015; Roosevelt Island, NYC, NY). on YouTube

v t e Hillary Clinton
11th Chancellor of Queen's University Belfast (2020–present) 67th United States Secretary of State (2009–2013) US Senator from New York (2001–2009) First Lady of the United States (1993–2001) First Lady of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992)
Secretary of State	Tenure as Secretary Foreign trips Quadrennial Diplomacy and Development Review Foreign policy of the Obama administration Hillary Doctrine Email controversy UN Security Council Resolution 1888 UN Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict
US senator	Senate career Family Entertainment Protection Act Flag Protection Act of 2005
First Lady	Tenure as First Lady 1993 health care reform Hillaryland Travel office controversy FBI files controversy "Vast right-wing conspiracy" Vital Voices Save America's Treasures State Children's Health Insurance Program Adoption and Safe Families Act Foster Care Independence Act White House Millennium Council
Arkansas	Legal career Career in corporate governance Tenures as First Lady of Arkansas Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families Rose Law Firm Legal Services Corporation Whitewater controversy Cattle futures controversy
Philanthropic	Clinton Foundation State Department controversy Onward Together
Speeches and policies	Political positions "Women's Rights Are Human Rights" (1995) "Basket of deplorables" (2016)
Writings	Bibliography Senior thesis (1969) It Takes a Village (1996) Dear Socks, Dear Buddy (1998) An Invitation to the White House (2000) Living History (2003) Hard Choices (2014) Stronger Together (2016) What Happened (2017) The Book of Gutsy Women (2019) State of Terror (2021)
Electoral history	Senatorial elections 2000 US Senate election in New York 2006 US Senate election in New York 2008 Democratic presidential primaries Campaign Endorsements Debates Convention 2016 US presidential election Campaign Endorsements political non-political screen and stage performers other celebrities Democratic primaries debates running mate selection convention Democratic opposition General election debates Hillary Victory Fund
Legacy	Awards and honors Books about Public image Clinton National Airport
Popular culture	Hillary 1984 Saturday Night Live parodies Hillary Clinton: The Power of Women (2015 documentary) Hillary and Clinton (2016 play) Hillary (2020 documentary)
Family	Bill Clinton (husband presidency) Chelsea Clinton (daughter) Hugh E. Rodham (father) Dorothy Howell Rodham (mother) Hugh Rodham (brother) Tony Rodham (brother) Socks (cat) Buddy (dog) Whitehaven (residence)
Other	Situation Room (2011 photograph) Activities after 2016

Offices and distinctions

Legal offices Preceded byWilliam McCalpin Chairperson of the Legal Services Corporation 1978–1980 Succeeded byWilliam McCalpin Honorary titles Preceded byBarbara Pryor First Lady of Arkansas 1979–1981 Succeeded byGay Daniels White Preceded byGay Daniels White First Lady of Arkansas 1983–1992 Succeeded byBetty Tucker Preceded byBarbara Bush First Lady of the United States 1993–2001 Succeeded byLaura Bush Honorary Chairperson of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities 1993–2001 Party political offices Preceded byDaniel Patrick Moynihan Democratic nominee for U.S. Senator from New York (Class 1) 2000, 2006 Succeeded byKirsten Gillibrand New office Chairperson of the Senate Democratic Steering and Outreach Committee 2005–2007 Succeeded byDebbie Stabenow U.S. Senate Preceded byDaniel Patrick Moynihan United States Senator (Class 1) from New York 2001–2009 Served alongside: Charles Schumer Succeeded byKirsten Gillibrand Preceded byJohn Thune Chairperson of the Senate Superfund and Environmental Health Subcommittee 2007–2009 Succeeded byFrank Lautenberg Political offices Preceded byCondoleezza Rice United States Secretary of State 2009–2013 Succeeded byJohn Kerry v t e First ladies of the United States Martha Washington Abigail Adams Martha Jefferson Randolph Dolley Madison Elizabeth Monroe Louisa Adams Emily Donelson Sarah Jackson Angelica Van Buren Anna Harrison Jane Harrison Letitia Tyler Priscilla Tyler Julia Tyler Sarah Polk Margaret Taylor Abigail Fillmore Jane Pierce Harriet Lane Mary Todd Lincoln Eliza Johnson Julia Grant Lucy Hayes Lucretia Garfield Mary McElroy Rose Cleveland Frances Cleveland Caroline Harrison Mary Harrison Frances Cleveland Ida McKinley Edith Roosevelt Helen Taft Ellen Wilson Margaret Wilson Edith Wilson Florence Harding Grace Coolidge Lou Hoover Eleanor Roosevelt Bess Truman Mamie Eisenhower Jacqueline Kennedy Lady Bird Johnson Pat Nixon Betty Ford Rosalynn Carter Nancy Reagan Barbara Bush Hillary Clinton tenure Laura Bush Michelle Obama Melania Trump Jill Biden First Lady of the United States bibliographies families firsts memoirs National Historic Site Category v t e United States secretaries of state Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1781–1789 R. Livingston Jay Secretary of State 1789–present Jefferson Randolph Pickering J. Marshall Madison Smith Monroe Adams Clay Van Buren E. Livingston McLane Forsyth Webster Upshur Calhoun Buchanan Clayton Webster Everett Marcy Cass Black Seward Washburne Fish Evarts Blaine Frelinghuysen Bayard Blaine Foster Gresham Olney Sherman Day Hay Root Bacon Knox Bryan Lansing Colby Hughes Kellogg Stimson Hull Stettinius Byrnes G. Marshall Acheson Dulles Herter Rusk Rogers Kissinger Vance Muskie Haig Shultz Baker Eagleburger Christopher trips Albright trips Powell trips Rice tenure trips Clinton tenure trips Kerry trips Tillerson trips Pompeo trips Blinken trips List of international trips made by secretaries of state of the United States v t e Cabinet of President Barack Obama (2009–2017) Cabinet Vice President Joe Biden (2009–2017) Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (2009–2013) tenure John Kerry (2013–2017) Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner (2009–2013) Jack Lew (2013–2017) Secretary of Defense Robert Gates (2009–2011) Leon Panetta (2011–2013) Chuck Hagel (2013–2015) Ash Carter (2015–2017) Attorney General Eric Holder (2009–2015) Loretta Lynch (2015–2017) Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar (2009–2013) Sally Jewell (2013–2017) Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack (2009–2017) Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke (2009–2011) John Bryson (2011–2012) Penny Pritzker (2013–2017) Secretary of Labor Hilda Solis (2009–2013) Tom Perez (2013–2017) Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius (2009–2014) Sylvia Mathews Burwell (2014–2017) Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Shaun Donovan (2009–2014) Julian Castro (2014–2017) Secretary of Transportation Ray LaHood (2009–2013) Anthony Foxx (2013–2017) Secretary of Energy Steven Chu (2009–2013) Ernest Moniz (2013–2017) Secretary of Education Arne Duncan (2009–2016) John King Jr. (2016–2017) Secretary of Veterans Affairs Eric Shinseki (2009–2014) Bob McDonald (2014–2017) Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano (2009–2013) Jeh Johnson (2013–2017) Cabinet-level Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency Lisa P. Jackson (2009–2013) Gina McCarthy (2013–2017) Director of the Office of Management and Budget Peter R. Orszag (2009–2010) Jack Lew (2010–2012) Sylvia Mathews Burwell (2013–2014) Shaun Donovan (2014–2017) Trade Representative Ron Kirk (2009–2013) Michael Froman (2013–2017) Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice (2009–2013) Samantha Power (2013–2017) Chair of the Council of Economic Advisers Christina Romer (2009–2010) Austan Goolsbee (2010–2011) Alan Krueger (2011–2013) Jason Furman (2013–2017) Administrator of the Small Business Administration Karen Mills (2012–2013)* Maria Contreras-Sweet (2014–2017) White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel (2009–2010) William M. Daley (2011–2012) Jack Lew (2012–2013) Denis McDonough (2013–2017) * took office in 2009, raised to cabinet-rank in 2012 See also: Confirmations of Barack Obama's Cabinet v t e United States senators from New York Class 1 Schuyler Burr Schuyler Hobart North Watson Morris Bailey Armstrong Mitchill German Sanford Van Buren Dudley Tallmadge Dickinson Fish P. King Morgan Fenton Kernan Platt Miller Hiscock Murphy Depew O'Gorman Calder Copeland Mead Ives Keating Kennedy Goodell Buckley Moynihan H. Clinton Gillibrand Class 3 R. King Laurance Armstrong D. Clinton Armstrong Smith R. King Sanford Marcy Wright Foster Dix Seward Harris Conkling Lapham Evarts Hill Platt Root Wadsworth Wagner Dulles Lehman Javits D'Amato Schumer v t e Legal Services Corporation Affiliates Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation Colorado Legal Services Texas RioGrande Legal Aid, Inc. Wyoming Legal Services, Inc. Legal Aid Society of Louisville National chairs F. William McCalpin Hillary Rodham William F. Harvey Other Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez v t e Rose Law Firm Founders Robert Crittenden Chester Ashley Prominent partners Hillary Rodham Clinton Webster Hubbell Vince Foster William H. Kennedy, III George C. Watkins U. M. Rose Prominent clients Walmart Tyson Foods Arkansas Democrat-Gazette Bank of America WEHCO Media Stephens Inc. v t e Bill Clinton 42nd President of the United States (1993–2001) 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992) Presidency (timeline) Transition 1st inauguration 2nd inauguration Timeline 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 January 2001 Economic policy AmeriCorps Health care plan North American Free Trade Agreement Balanced Budget Foreign policy International trips Clinton Doctrine Oslo I Accord Israel–Jordan peace treaty Dayton Agreement 2000 Camp David Summit Cruise missile strikes on Iraq 1993 1996 Operation Infinite Reach Bombing of Yugoslavia Bombing of Iraq (1998) National Highway System Designation Act of 1995 Transportation Equity Act One America Initiative Riegle-Neal Act Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act Lead-Based Paint Disclosure Regulation Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 Telecommunications Act of 1996 Communications Decency Act Section 230 Nannygate Lincoln Bedroom for contributors controversy Commerce Department trade mission controversy 1996 United States campaign finance controversy Clinton–Lewinsky scandal Starr Report Impeachment efforts inquiry trial White House Millennium Council Pardons list Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court controversies Executive Orders Presidential Proclamations Presidential transition of George W. Bush Life and legacy Childhood home Early life and career Governorships of Arkansas Presidential Library Post-presidency Clinton Foundation Clinton School of Public Service Clinton Bush Haiti Fund Chairman, National Constitution Center Honors and awards Public image Troopergate Sexual misconduct allegations Whitewater controversy Speeches Joint session of Congress (1993) Joint session of Congress (health care reform) (1993) State of the Union addresses 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Elections U.S. House 1974 Gubernatorial 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1990 Presidential 1992 campaign "Make America Great Again" primaries running mate selection convention debates election theme song 1996 campaign primaries convention debates election Books Between Hope and History (1996) My Life (2004) Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World (2007) Back to Work (2011) The President Is Missing (2018) The President's Daughter (2021) Citizen: My Life After the White House (2024) Namesakes William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building Bill Clinton Boulevard Clinton National Airport Popular culture Saturday Night Live parodies of Bill Clinton The War Room (1993 documentary) The Silence of the Hams (1994 film) Primary Colors (1998 film) The Final Days (2000 short film) The Hunting of the President (2004 film) The Special Relationship (2010 film) Clinton (2012 film) Hillary and Clinton (2016 play) Impeachment: American Crime Story (2021 miniseries) The American Presidency with Bill Clinton (2022 documentary series) Family Hillary Rodham Clinton (wife) Chelsea Clinton (daughter) William Jefferson Blythe Jr. (father) Virginia Clinton Kelley (mother) Roger Clinton Sr. (first stepfather) Roger Clinton Jr. (brother) Jeff Dwire (second stepfather) Socks (cat) Buddy (dog) Whitehaven (residence) ← George H. W. Bush George W. Bush → Category v t e (← 2004) 2008 United States presidential election (2012 →) 2008 United States elections Candidates Comparison Debates Congressional endorsements Fundraising Ballot access Timeline Super Tuesday Potomac primary Super Tuesday II Polls national statewide international Democratic Party ▌WFP Convention superdelegates Polls statewide national Debates Primaries Primary results VP candidate selection Candidates Nominee: Barack Obama campaign positions endorsements cross-party VP nominee: Joe Biden positions Other candidates: Evan Bayh campaign Joe Biden campaign positions Hillary Clinton campaign positions endorsements Chris Dodd campaign John Edwards campaign positions Mike Gravel campaign Dennis Kucinich campaign Bill Richardson campaign Tom Vilsack campaign Republican Party ▌CPNY · ▌IPNY Convention Polls statewide national Debates Political positions Primaries Primary results VP candidate selection Candidates Nominee: John McCain campaign positions endorsements cross-party VP nominee: Sarah Palin candidacy positions Other candidates: Sam Brownback campaign John H. Cox Jim Gilmore campaign Rudy Giuliani campaign positions Mike Huckabee campaign positions Duncan L. Hunter campaign Alan Keyes campaign Ray McKinney Ron Paul campaign positions Mitt Romney campaign positions Tom Tancredo campaign Fred Thompson campaign Tommy Thompson campaign Draft movements Democratic: Al Gore Mark Warner movement Republican: Newt Gingrich Condoleezza Rice movement Independent: Michael Bloomberg movement Third party and independent candidates Constitution Party (convention) Nominee: Chuck Baldwin campaign VP nominee: Darrell Castle Other candidates: Daniel Imperato Alan Keyes campaign Green Party (convention) Nominee: Cynthia McKinney campaign positions VP nominee: Rosa Clemente Other candidates: Elaine Brown Libertarian Party (convention) Nominee: Bob Barr campaign positions VP nominee: Wayne Allyn Root Other candidates: Mike Gravel campaign Steve Kubby Wayne Allyn Root Mary Ruwart Doug Stanhope America's Independent Party Nominee: Alan Keyes campaign VP nominee: Brian Rohrbough Boston Tea Party Nominee: Charles Jay Objectivist Party Nominee: Tom Stevens Peace and Freedom Party Nominee: Ralph Nader campaign VP nominee: Matt Gonzalez Other candidates: Gloria La Riva Cynthia McKinney campaign Brian Moore campaign Prohibition Party Nominee: Gene Amondson Reform Party Nominee: Ted Weill VP nominee: Frank McEnulty Socialism and Liberation Party Nominee: Gloria La Riva VP nominee: Eugene Puryear Socialist Party Nominee: Brian Moore campaign VP nominee: Stewart Alexander Other candidates: Eric Chester Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Róger Calero Alternate nominee: James Harris VP nominee: Alyson Kennedy Independent / Other Jeff Boss Stephen Colbert campaign Earl Dodge Bradford Lyttle Frank Moore Joe Schriner Jonathon Sharkey Other 2008 elections: House Senate Gubernatorial v t e Inductees to the National Women's Hall of Fame 1970–1979 1973 Jane Addams Marian Anderson Susan B. Anthony Clara Barton Mary McLeod Bethune Elizabeth Blackwell Pearl S. Buck Rachel Carson Mary Cassatt Emily Dickinson Amelia Earhart Alice Hamilton Helen Hayes Helen Keller Eleanor Roosevelt Florence Sabin Margaret Chase Smith Elizabeth Cady Stanton Helen Brooke Taussig Harriet Tubman 1976 Abigail Adams Margaret Mead Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias 1979 Dorothea Dix Juliette Gordon Low Alice Paul Elizabeth Bayley Seton 1980–1989 1981 Margaret Sanger Sojourner Truth 1982 Carrie Chapman Catt Frances Perkins 1983 Belva Lockwood Lucretia Mott 1984 Mary "Mother" Harris Jones Bessie Smith 1986 Barbara McClintock Lucy Stone Harriet Beecher Stowe 1988 Gwendolyn Brooks Willa Cather Sally Ride Mary Risteau Ida B. Wells-Barnett 1990–1999 1990 Margaret Bourke-White Barbara Jordan Billie Jean King Florence B. Seibert 1991 Gertrude Belle Elion 1993 Ethel Percy Andrus Antoinette Blackwell Emily Blackwell Shirley Chisholm Jacqueline Cochran Ruth Colvin Marian Wright Edelman Alice Evans Betty Friedan Ella Grasso Martha Wright Griffiths Fannie Lou Hamer Dorothy Height Dolores Huerta Mary Putnam Jacobi Mae Jemison Mary Lyon Mary Mahoney Wilma Mankiller Constance Baker Motley Georgia O'Keeffe Annie Oakley Rosa Parks Esther Peterson Jeannette Rankin Ellen Swallow Richards Elaine Roulet Katherine Siva Saubel Gloria Steinem Helen Stephens Lillian Wald Madam C. J. Walker Faye Wattleton Rosalyn S. Yalow Gloria Yerkovich 1994 Bella Abzug Ella Baker Myra Bradwell Annie Jump Cannon Jane Cunningham Croly Catherine East Geraldine Ferraro Charlotte Perkins Gilman Grace Hopper Helen LaKelly Hunt Zora Neale Hurston Anne Hutchinson Frances Wisebart Jacobs Susette La Flesche Louise McManus Maria Mitchell Antonia Novello Linda Richards Wilma Rudolph Betty Bone Schiess Muriel Siebert Nettie Stevens Oprah Winfrey Sarah Winnemucca Fanny Wright 1995 Virginia Apgar Ann Bancroft Amelia Bloomer Mary Breckinridge Eileen Collins Elizabeth Hanford Dole Anne Dallas Dudley Mary Baker Eddy Ella Fitzgerald Margaret Fuller Matilda Joslyn Gage Lillian Moller Gilbreth Nannerl O. Keohane Maggie Kuhn Sandra Day O'Connor Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin Pat Schroeder Hannah Greenebaum Solomon 1996 Louisa May Alcott Charlotte Anne Bunch Frances Xavier Cabrini Mary A. Hallaren Oveta Culp Hobby Wilhelmina Cole Holladay Anne Morrow Lindbergh Maria Goeppert Mayer Ernestine Louise Potowski Rose Maria Tallchief Edith Wharton 1998 Madeleine Albright Maya Angelou Nellie Bly Lydia Moss Bradley Mary Steichen Calderone Mary Ann Shadd Cary Joan Ganz Cooney Gerty Cori Sarah Grimké Julia Ward Howe Shirley Ann Jackson Shannon Lucid Katharine Dexter McCormick Rozanne L. Ridgway Edith Nourse Rogers Felice Schwartz Eunice Kennedy Shriver Beverly Sills Florence Wald Angelina Grimké Weld Chien-Shiung Wu 2000–2009 2000 Faye Glenn Abdellah Emma Smith DeVoe Marjory Stoneman Douglas Mary Dyer Sylvia A. Earle Crystal Eastman Jeanne Holm Leontine T. Kelly Frances Oldham Kelsey Kate Mullany Janet Reno Anna Howard Shaw Sophia Smith Ida Tarbell Wilma L. Vaught Mary Edwards Walker Annie Dodge Wauneka Eudora Welty Frances E. Willard 2001 Dorothy H. Andersen Lucille Ball Rosalynn Carter Lydia Maria Child Bessie Coleman Dorothy Day Marian de Forest Althea Gibson Beatrice A. Hicks Barbara Holdridge Harriet Williams Russell Strong Emily Howell Warner Victoria Woodhull 2002 Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis Ruth Bader Ginsburg Katharine Graham Bertha Holt Mary Engle Pennington Mercy Otis Warren 2003 Linda G. Alvarado Donna de Varona Gertrude Ederle Martha Matilda Harper Patricia Roberts Harris Stephanie L. Kwolek Dorothea Lange Mildred Robbins Leet Patsy Takemoto Mink Sacagawea Anne Sullivan Sheila E. Widnall 2005 Florence E. Allen Ruth Fulton Benedict Betty Bumpers Hillary Clinton Rita Rossi Colwell Mother Marianne Cope Maya Y. Lin Patricia A. Locke Blanche Stuart Scott Mary Burnett Talbert 2007 Eleanor K. Baum Julia Child Martha Coffin Pelham Wright Swanee Hunt Winona LaDuke Elisabeth Kübler-Ross Judith L. Pipher Catherine Filene Shouse Henrietta Szold 2009 Louise Bourgeois Mildred Cohn Karen DeCrow Susan Kelly-Dreiss Allie B. Latimer Emma Lazarus Ruth Patrick Rebecca Talbot Perkins Susan Solomon Kate Stoneman 2010–2019 2011 St. Katharine Drexel Dorothy Harrison Eustis Loretta C. Ford Abby Kelley Foster Helen Murray Free Billie Holiday Coretta Scott King Lilly Ledbetter Barbara A. Mikulski Donna E. Shalala Kathrine Switzer 2013 Betty Ford Ina May Gaskin Julie Krone Kate Millett Nancy Pelosi Mary Joseph Rogers Bernice Sandler Anna Schwartz Emma Willard 2015 Tenley Albright Nancy Brinker Martha Graham Marcia Greenberger Barbara Iglewski Jean Kilbourne Carlotta Walls LaNier Philippa Marrack Mary Harriman Rumsey Eleanor Smeal 2017 Matilda Cuomo Temple Grandin Lorraine Hansberry Victoria Jackson Sherry Lansing Clare Boothe Luce Aimee Mullins Carol Mutter Janet Rowley Alice Waters 2019 Gloria Allred Angela Davis Sarah Deer Jane Fonda Nicole Malachowski Rose O'Neill Louise Slaughter Sonia Sotomayor Laurie Spiegel Flossie Wong-Staal 2020–2029 2020 Aretha Franklin Barbara Hillary Barbara Rose Johns Henrietta Lacks Toni Morrison Mary Church Terrell 2022 Octavia E. Butler Judy Chicago Rebecca S. Halstead Mia Hamm Joy Harjo Emily Howland Katherine Johnson Indra Nooyi Michelle Obama 2024 Patricia Bath Ruby Bridges Elouise P. Cobell Kimberlé Crenshaw Peggy McIntosh Judith Plaskow Loretta Ross Sandy Stone Anna Wessels Williams Serena Williams v t e Grammy Award for Best Audio Book, Narration & Storytelling Recording 1950s The Best of the Stan Freberg Shows – Stan Freberg (1958) Lincoln Portrait – Carl Sandburg (1959) 1960s FDR Speaks – Robert Bialek (producer) (1960) Humor in Music – Leonard Bernstein (1961) The Story-Teller: A Session with Charles Laughton – Charles Laughton (1962) Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? – Edward Albee (playwright) (1963) BBC Tribute to John F. Kennedy – That Was the Week That Was (1964) John F. Kennedy: As We Remember Him – Goddard Lieberson (producer) (1965) Edward R. Murrow - A Reporter Remembers, Vol. I: The War Years – Edward R. Murrow (1966) Gallant Men – Everett Dirksen (1967) Lonesome Cities – Rod McKuen (1968) We Love You Call Collect – Art Linkletter & Diane Linkletter (1969) 1970s Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam – Martin Luther King Jr. (1970) Desiderata – Les Crane (1971) Lenny – Bruce Botnick (producer) & the Original Broadway Cast (1972) Jonathan Livingston Seagull – Richard Harris (1973) Good Evening – Peter Cook and Dudley Moore (1974) Give 'em Hell, Harry! – James Whitmore (1975) Great American Documents – Henry Fonda, Helen Hayes, James Earl Jones, and Orson Welles (1976) The Belle of Amherst – Julie Harris (1977) Citizen Kane (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) – Orson Welles (1978) Ages of Man: Readings from Shakespeare – John Gielgud (1979) 1980s Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein – Pat Carroll (1980) Donovan's Brain – Orson Welles (1981) Raiders of the Lost Ark: The Movie on Record – Tom Voegeli (producer) and Various Artists (1982) Lincoln Portrait – William Warfield (1983) The Words of Gandhi – Ben Kingsley (1984) Ma Rainey's Black Bottom – Mike Berniker (producer) & the Original Broadway Cast (1985) Interviews from the Class of '55 Recording Sessions – Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chips Moman, Ricky Nelson, Roy Orbison, Carl Perkins, and Sam Phillips (1986) Lake Wobegon Days – Garrison Keillor (1987) Speech by Rev. Jesse Jackson – Jesse Jackson (1988) It's Always Something – Gilda Radner (1989) 1990s Gracie: A Love Story – George Burns (1990) The Civil War – Ken Burns (1991) What You Can Do to Avoid AIDS – Earvin "Magic" Johnson and Robert O'Keefe (1992) On the Pulse of Morning – Maya Angelou (1993) Get in the Van – Henry Rollins (1994) Phenomenal Woman – Maya Angelou (1995) It Takes a Village – Hillary Clinton (1996) Charles Kuralt's Spring – Charles Kuralt (1997) Still Me – Christopher Reeve (1998) The Autobiography of Martin Luther King Jr. – LeVar Burton (1999) 2000s The Measure of a Man: A Spiritual Autobiography – Sidney Poitier, Rick Harris, and John Runnette (producers) (2000) Q: The Autobiography of Quincy Jones – Quincy Jones, Jeffrey S. Thomas, Steven Strassman (engineers), and Elisa Shokoff (producer) (2001) A Song Flung Up to Heaven – Maya Angelou and Charles B. Potter (producer) (2002) Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them – Al Franken and Paul Ruben (producer) (2003) My Life – Bill Clinton (2004) Dreams from My Father – Barack Obama (2005) Our Endangered Values: America's Moral Crisis – Jimmy Carter / With Ossie and Ruby – Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee (2006) The Audacity of Hope – Barack Obama and Jacob Bronstein (producer) (2007) An Inconvenient Truth by Al Gore – Beau Bridges, Cynthia Nixon, and Blair Underwood (2008) Always Looking Up – Michael J. Fox (2009) 2010s The Daily Show with Jon Stewart Presents Earth (The Audiobook) – Jon Stewart (2010) If You Ask Me (And of Course You Won't) – Betty White (2011) Society's Child – Janis Ian (2012) America Again: Re-becoming the Greatness We Never Weren't – Stephen Colbert (2013) Diary of a Mad Diva – Joan Rivers (2014) A Full Life: Reflections at 90 – Jimmy Carter (2015) In Such Good Company: Eleven Years of Laughter, Mayhem, and Fun in the Sandbox – Carol Burnett (2016) The Princess Diarist – Carrie Fisher (2017) Faith: A Journey for All – Jimmy Carter (2018) Becoming – Michelle Obama (2019) 2020s Blowout: Corrupted Democracy, Rogue State Russia, and the Richest, Most Destructive Industry on Earth – Rachel Maddow (2020) Carry On: Reflections for a New Generation from John Lewis − Don Cheadle (2021) Finding Me – Viola Davis (2022) The Light We Carry: Overcoming in Uncertain Times – Michelle Obama (2023)