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Bat Ye'or (meaning "daughter of the Nile" in Hebrew, a pseudonym) is an Egyptian-born British Jewish writer and researcher specialized in the Middle East, Islam, and in the study of Dhimmitude , the treatment of non-Muslims in Muslim lands.

Early life

Bat Ye'or was born in Cairo, but her Egyptian nationality was revoked in 1955 because she was Jewish; she and her parents left Egypt in 1957, arriving in London as stateless refugees. Beginning in 1958 she attended the Institute of Archeology at the University of London and in 1959 became a British citizen by marriage. She moved to Switzerland in 1960 to continue her studies at the University of Geneva.

She describes how her life experience influenced her research interests:

I had witnessed the destruction, in a few short years, of a vibrant Jewish community living in Egypt for over 2,600 years and which had existed from the time of Jeremiah the Prophet. I saw the disintegration and flight of families, dispossessed and humiliated, the destruction of their synagogues, the bombing of the Jewish quarters and the terrorizing of a peaceful population. I have personally experienced the hardships of exile, the misery of statelessness − and I wanted to get to the root cause of all this. I wanted to understand why the Jews from Arab countries, nearly a million, had shared my experience.

Research

Her first book, The Jews in Egypt, appeared in 1971. She published it, along with her next study on Copts in Egypt, under the pseudonym Yahudiya Masriya, meaning "Egyptian Jewess" in Arabic. Since then, Bat Ye'or focused predominantly on the history of non-Muslims under Muslim rule. She is known for promoting the use of the term dhimmitude, which she discusses in detail in Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide. She credits assassinated Lebanese president-elect and Phalangist militia leader Bachir Gemayel with coining the term.

Ye'or regards dhimmitude as the "specific social condition that resulted from jihad," and as the "state of fear and insecurity" of "infidels" who are required to "accept a condition of humiliation." She believes that "the dhimmi condition can only be understood in the context of Jihad," and studies the relationship between the theological tenets of Islam and the sufferings of the Christians and Jews who, in different geographical areas and periods of history, have lived in Islamic majority areas. The cause of jihad, she argues, "was fomented around the 8th century by Muslim theologians after the death of Muhammad and led to the conquest of large swathes of three continents over the course of a long history." . She says:

Dhimmitude is the direct consequence of jihad. It embodie all the Islamic laws and customs applied over a millennium on the vanquished population, Jews and Christians, living in the countries conquered by jihad and therefore Islamized. return of the jihad ideology since the 1960s, and of some dhimmitude practices in Muslim countries applying the sharia law, or inspired by it. I stress the incompatibility between the concept of tolerance as expressed by the jihad-dhimmitude ideology, and the concept of human rights based on the equality of all human beings and the inalienability of their rights.

Robert Spencer described Bat Ye’or on C-SPAN as :

Bat Ye’or is the pioneering scholar of dhimmitude, of the institutionalized discrimination and harassment of non-Muslims under Islamic law. She is the first person to study this as her field and to make it into a field of academic study. Her books are highly recommended and are full – most of them are almost half primary source documents so that one can see the veracity of what she is saying from very ancient texts. And so this is something that she has opened up that the Middle East studies establishment was afraid or indifferent or unwilling to look at. And she has opened up this study which is a very important field of study particularly in light of the ongoing Islamization (ph) of the societies of Europe nowadays.

Jacques Ellul attempts to summarize her views in the foreword to The Decline (see below), saying that Ye'or focuses on "jihad and dhimmitude ... as ... two complementary institutions... here are many interpretations . At times, the main emphasis is placed on the spiritual nature of this 'struggle'. Indeed, it would merely the struggle that the believer has to wage against his own evil inclinations.... his interpretation ... in no way covers the whole scope of jihad. At other times, one prefers to veil the facts and put them in parentheses. xpansion ... happened through war!" Though Ye'or acknowledges that it is not the case that all Muslims subscribe to so-called "militant jihad theories of society", she claims that the role of the sharia in the "1990 Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam" demonstrates that "a perpetual war against those infidels who refuse to submit" is still an "operative paradigm" in Islamic countries.

Bat Ye'or has focused on the rapid conversion of Eastern Christian lands to Islam, concluding that corruption and division among Christians contributed and may even have afforded Islam certain models of legal control of subjugated populations; she suggests that Yugoslavia is an example of the long-term scars of dhimmitude, where Christians were under that status for centuries.

Usage of the term "dhimmitude" has increased in recent years: some scholars have used it both by itself and in association with Bat Ye'or's work, e.g. in undergraduate courses relating to the relationship Muslims have had historically with other peoples.

Other issues Bat Ye'or has written on include:

• The existence or lack thereof of pluralism in Islamic culture, with a focus on Eastern Europe
• Violations of human rights in Islamic cultures
• The theological rules that govern jihad
• How Muslims interpret the history of the dhimmi peoples
• How the Muslim interpretation of religious scripture influences Islamic interpretation of history and modern-day events
• The "dialog of civilizations" and the "negation of the other"

"Eurabia"

In Bat Ye'or's most recent book, 2005's Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis, she explores the history of the relationship between the European Union (previously the European Economic Community) and the Arab states, beginning in the 1970s, and traces what she sees as connections between radical Arabs and Muslims, on the one hand, and fascists and Nazis, on the other hand, in the origins and growing influence, as she sees it, of Islam over European culture and politics. She herself can take some credit for the term "Eurabia" in this context; though the term was first used as a title of a journal initiated in the mid-1970s by the European Committee for Coordination of Friendship Associations with the Arab world, she popularized it as a term for Arab/Islamic influence over Europe. She explains the term's origins in the book:

Eurabia is a geo-political reality envisaged in 1973 through a system of informal alliances between, on the one hand, the nine countries of the European Community (EC) which, enlarged, became the European Union (EU) in 1992 and on the other hand, the Mediterranean Arab countries. The alliances and agreements were elaborated at the top political level of each EC country with the representative of the European Commission, and their Arab homologues with the Arab League's delegate. This system was synchronised under the roof of an association called the Euro-Arab Dialogue (EAD) created in July 1974 in Paris. A working body composed of committees and always presided jointly by a European and an Arab delegate planned the agendas, and organized and monitored the application of the decisions.

Public appearances

Testimony before governing bodies:

• (1997) "Past is Prologue: The Challenge of Islamism Today. An Historical Overview of the Persecutions of Christians under Islam". Congressional Testimony at United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Subcommittee on Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs. Hearing on Religious Persecution in the Middle East. (Congressional Records Testimony on May 1, 1997)
• (1997) Similar testimony delivered to a U.S. Congressional Human Rights Caucus (CHRC) Briefing on Capitol Hill (April 29, 1997)
• (2001) A Culture of Hate: Analysis to the Association of World Education
• (2002) "Human Rights and the Concept of Jihad". Congressional Human Rights Caucus (CHRC) Briefing on Capitol Hill (February 8, 2002)

She has appeared on U.S. television station C-SPAN.

Controversy

John Esposito, director of Georgetown University's Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, criticized Bat Ye'or for lacking academic credentials.

Historian Victor Davis Hanson states:

She is not a conspiracist at all, but an empiricist, whose work is based on observation, facts, and logic: look at the demography of Europe; look at the history of Christians living under Muslims (going to Church in Saudi Arabia is not the same as worshipping in a mosque in Madrid); and read not what Western elites say about Muslim clerics, but what Muslim clerics themselves say. So, yes, she is a scholar and should not be dismissed because her views bother us because they are largely insightful. Europe has a gut-check time coming very soon as it ponders Islamic populations in its own borders, the admission of Turkey into the EU (in some ways very good for the US, a disaster for Europe), and nuclear missile capability of Iran. We shall see whether it reawakens or not.

Student Julia Segall, president of the Georgetown Israel Alliance, and student Daniel Spector, president of the Jewish Student Alliance, after a lecture given by her in Georgetown university stated that she has "made no effort to make a clear distinction between pure, harmonious Islam and the acts of a few who falsely claim to act in the name of Islam".

Bat Yeor replied

This is pure nonsense,When one studies the Inquisition or the Crusades, one does not feel obliged to make a clear distinction between 'pure' Christianity and those historical events. In a university, the examination of several analyses of history should be encouraged. The Muslim view is exclusively religion-based, and proceeds from the assumption that there is only one valid interpretation of history: the Islamic one. No criticism of jihad is accepted because it is a just war according to Muslim dogma.

This attitude imposes the worst law of dhimmitude on non-Muslims: the refusal of their evidence. The historical testimony of the millions of human victims of jihad is rejected on its face by this doctrinal attitude."

Esther Benbassa, Director of Religious Studies in Modern Judaism at the Sorbonne, said in an interview for the French weekly Le Point that Bat Ye'or is not a professional historian and that, though restrictions on Jews in Arab countries existed, they were more symbolic than practical, with non-Muslim minorities enjoying protection, autonomy and freedom. Bat Ye'or sued Le Point and won the right to respond to Benbassa on the pages of Le Point and EUR 2,000 in damages.

Sidney H. Griffith in the International Journal of Middle East Studies writes of The Decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam: "The problems one has with the book are basically twofold: the theoretical inadequacy of the interpretive concepts jihad and dhimmitude, as they are employed here; and the want of historical method in the deployment of the documents which serve as evidence for the conclusions reached in the study. There is also an unfortunate polemical tone in the work."

Bernard Lewis, in his book The Jews of Islam cites Bat Ye'or's book "Le Dhimmi: Profil de l'oprimé en Orient et en Afrique du nord depuis la conquête arabe (Paris, 1980) noting that it is emphasize the negative aspects of the Muslim record.

Bibliography

• Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis, 2005, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 083864077X.
• Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide, 2001, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 0838639437.
• "The Dhimmi Factor in the Exodus of Jews from Arab Countries" (pp. 33-51), in Coll. work (ed.) Malka Hillel Shulewitz, The Forgotten Millions. The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands (London/New York: Cassell, 1999; Continuum, 2000)
• The Decline of Eastern Christianity: From Jihad to Dhimmitude, 1996, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 0838636888.
• The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam, 1985, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 0838632629.
• A Christian Minority. The Copts in Egypt. Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. A World Survey. 4 vols. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976
• Les Juifs en Egypte (Jews in Egypt: French) (Geneva: Editions de l'Avenir, 1971)
• Bibliography of Bat Ye'or

Aticles and Interviews

• 2004 Interview with Bat Ye'or Full transcript
• Myths And Politics The Tolerant Pluralistic Islamic Society: Origin Of A Myth
• PDF Jews and Christians under Islam
• Arafat’s Legacy for Europe
• How Europe Became Eurabia
• The Suffering of Assyrians Under Islam
• European Fears of the Gathering Jihad
• Eurabia and Euro-Arab Antisemitism

Documentaries

• Islam: What the West Needs to Know

See also

• Ali Sina
• Daniel Pipes
• Ayaan Hirsi Ali
• Ibn Warraq
• Oriana Fallaci
• Victor Davis Hanson
• Bernard Lewis
• Robert Spencer
• Steven Emerson

External links

• Dhimmi.org and Dhimmitude.org, websites maintained by Bat Ye'or
• Her Curriculum Vitae
• "How to concoct a conspiracy theory" by Thomas Jones (London Review of Books)
• "Captive Continent" (a review of Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis) by David Pryce-Jones, Senior Editor of National Review
• Collection of material about Bat Ye'or and others by Dewi Sudarsono and The Coyote

2. Reported in "State of 'dhimmitude' seen as threat to Christians, Jews" by Jula Duin appeared in "Washington Times," October 30, 2002
3. Reported in "State of 'dhimmitude' seen as threat to Christians, Jews" by Jula Duin appeared in "Washington Times," October 30, 2002

• British writers
• Living people
• Formerly stateless people
• British Jews
• Egyptian Jews
• Islam and controversy