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| {{Afd-merge to|Academy|Academy (educational institution)|8 May 2018}} | |||
| {{about|academic or educational institution|Academy as a ]|Academy}} | |||
| {{distinguish-redirect|Academe|Academi|Academy}} | |||
| {{Outline}} | |||
| {{refimprove|date=July 2012}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}} | |||
| ], ]]] | |||
| '''Academy''' is a type of ] or ] institutions. | |||
| == Etymology == | |||
| The word comes from the '']'' in ], which derives from the ] ], '']''. Outside the city walls of ], the ] was made famous by ] as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, ], had formerly been an ] ], hence the expression "the groves of Academe."<ref>{{cite web|title=Academe, n.|website=OED Online|publisher=Oxford University Press|accessdate=18 February 2016}}</ref> | |||
| In these gardens, the philosopher ] conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, established what is known today as the ]. | |||
| By extension ''academia'' has come to mean the cultural accumulation of ], its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, ], ] and ] scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{see also|University#History{{!}}History of universities}} | |||
| ===Ancient world=== | |||
| {{main|Ancient higher-learning institutions}} | |||
| ====Greece and early Europe==== | |||
| {{Main|Academy}} | |||
| In ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, ]'s colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. ], a Greek student of Plato established the ]. ], another student, established the ]. In 335 BC, ] refined the method with his own theories and established the ] in another gymnasium. | |||
| ====Africa==== | |||
| The ] in ] was frequented by ]s from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. | |||
| The ] was a medieval university in ], present-day ], which comprised three schools: the Mosque of Djinguereber, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Sankore. During its zenith, the university had an average attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. | |||
| ====China==== | |||
| In China a higher education institution ] was founded by ] in the ] era before the 21st century BC. The Imperial Central Academy at ], founded in 258, was a result of the evolution of Shang Xiang and it became the first comprehensive institution combining education and research and was divided into five faculties in 470, which later became ]. | |||
| In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named ], which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times. The degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as ] and ] can be classified as higher institutions of learning. | |||
| ====India==== | |||
| ] or ], in ancient ], modern-day ], was an early Buddhist centre of learning, near present-day ] in the city of ]. It is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002): ''Education in Ancient India'', Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-12556-6}}, p. 141: {{quote|We have to be extremely cautious in dealing with the literary evidence, because much of the information offered in the secondary literature on Taxila is derived from the Jataka prose that was only fixed in Ceylon several hundred years after the events that it purports to describe, probably some time after Buddhaghosa, i.e. around A.D. 500.}}</ref> Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BC.<ref name="Britannica Education">"History of Education", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007.</ref> The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002): ''Education in Ancient India'', Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-12556-6}}, p. 141</ref> Takshashila is described in some detail in later ] tales, written in ] around the 5th century AD.<ref>Marshall 1975:81</ref> | |||
| It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the 5th century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous ] ] (] for The knowledge of ]) by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya),<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110120535/http://britannica.com/eb/article-9044882 |date=2008-01-10 }}. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> the ] Emperor ]<ref>Radhakumud Mookerji (1941; 1960; reprint 1989). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'' (p. 17). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-0405-8}}.</ref> and the ] healer ] studied at Taxila.<ref name=Mookerji>Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989). ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (p. 478-489). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-0423-6}}.</ref> | |||
| Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The ] and the ], which included skills such as ], ], and ] lore, were taught, in addition to its ], ], and school of ].<ref name=Mookerji/> | |||
| ], ancient center of higher learning in ], ]<ref name="Altekar1965">Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1965). ''Education in Ancient India'', Sixth, Varanasi: Nand Kishore & Bros.</ref><ref name="New York Times">"," Garten, Jeffrey E. New York Times, 9 December 2006.</ref> from 427 to 1197]] | |||
| ] was established in the 5th century AD in ], ].<ref>Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1965). Education in Ancient India, Sixth, Varanasi: Nand Kishore & Bros.</ref> It was founded in 427 in northeastern India, not far from what is today the southern border of Nepal. It survived until 1197 when it was set upon, destroyed and burnt by the marauding forces of ]. It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of war.<ref name="Nalanda University, as described by the dean of Yale school of management"></ref> | |||
| <!-- Deleted image removed: ], ], ] 1996]] -->The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university’s heyday and providing accommodation for 2,000 professors.<ref name="Nalanda"></ref> Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. | |||
| ====Islamic world==== | |||
| {{Unreferenced section|date=October 2014}} | |||
| {{Main|Islamic Golden Age#Education}} | |||
| Founded in ], ] in the 9th century and in ], ] in the 10th century, and in ], the ] in about 1100. ] in ], Iraq was established in 1227 as a ] by the ] ]. Its library had an initial collection of 80,000 volumes, given by the Caliph. The collection was said to have grown to 400,000 volumes. | |||
| ===Medieval Europe=== | |||
| {{Main|Medieval university}} | |||
| In ], the academy dates to the ancient Greeks and Romans in the pre-Christian era. Newer universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the European institution of academia took shape. Monks and priests moved out of monasteries to ] and other towns where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study. | |||
| The most notable of these new schools were in ], ], ] and ], while others were opened throughout Europe. | |||
| The seven ] — the ] (], ], and ]), and the ] (], ], ], and ]) — had been codified in ]. This was the basis of the curriculum in Europe until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became more available in Europe in the 12th century. | |||
| It remained in place even after the new scholasticism of the ] and the encyclopedic work of ], until the humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences. | |||
| ===Academic societies=== | |||
| {{Main|Learned society}} | |||
| Academic societies or ] began as groups of academics who worked together or presented their work to each other. These informal groups later became organized and in many cases state-approved. Membership was restricted, usually requiring approval of the current members and often total membership was limited to a specific number. The ] founded in 1660 was the first such academy. The ] was begun in 1780 by many of the same people prominent in the ]. Academic societies served both as a forum to present and publish academic work, the role now served by academic publishing, and as a means to sponsor research and support academics, a role they still serve. Membership in academic societies is still a matter of prestige in modern academia. | |||
| ===United States=== | |||
| {{see also|History of higher education in the United States}} | |||
| Prior to the twentieth century, education was not as carefully structured in the United States as it is in the twenty-first. There was not a rigid division between high school and colleges. In many cases, educational records were not kept nor diplomas issued. | |||
| A reference to academia, in the United States, is to post-secondary education, especially the most elite or liberal arts part of it. However, an academy was what later became known as a high school. Some older high schools, such as ], retained the term in their names (Corning Free Academy, demoted to a ], closed in 2014). However, the ] is a college. A number of colleges began as (high school) academies. | |||
| Academia began to splinter from its ] roots in 18th-century colonial ]. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the Academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the College and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the ]. For the first time, academia was established as a ] institution. For the most part, church-based dogmatic points of view were no longer thrust upon students in the examination of their subjects of study. Points of view became more varied as students were free to wander in thought without having to add religious dimensions to their conclusions. | |||
| In 1819, Thomas Jefferson founded the ] and developed the standards used today in organizing colleges and universities across the globe. The curriculum was taken from the traditional liberal arts, classical ] and the values introduced with the ]. Jefferson offered his students something new: the freedom to chart their own courses of study rather than mandate a fixed curriculum for all students. Religious colleges and universities followed suit. | |||
| The Academy movement in the U.S. in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the ], in western ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Dozens of academies were founded in the area, supported by private donations. | |||
| ===Germany=== | |||
| During ] in 18th-century Europe, the academy started to change in Europe. In the beginning of the 19th century ] not only published his philosophical paper ''On the Limits of State Action'', but also directed the educational system in ] for a short time. He introduced an academic system that was much more accessible to the lower classes. ] was an education based on individuality, creativity, wholeness, and versatility. Many continental European universities are still rooted in these ideas (or at least pay lip-service to them). They are, however, in contradiction to today's massive trend of specialization in academia. | |||
| ==Academic personnel== | |||
| {{main|Faculty (academic staff)}} | |||
| {{main listing|Academic ranks}} | |||
| {{see also|Academic administration}} | |||
| An ''academic'' is a person who works as a teacher or researcher at a ] or other higher education institution. | |||
| An academic usually holds an ]. | |||
| The term ''scholar'' is sometimes used with equivalent meaning to that of ''academic'' and describes in general those who attain mastery in a research discipline. It has wider application, with it also being used to describe those whose occupation was researched prior to organized higher education. | |||
| Academic administrators such as ] are not typically included in this use of the term ''academic'', although many administrators hold advanced degrees and pursue scholarly research and writing while also tending to their administrative duties. | |||
| In the ], the term academic is approximately synonymous with that of the job title ] although in recent decades a growing number of institutions include ] in the category of "academic staff." | |||
| In the ], various titles of ] are used, typically ], ] (also senior research fellow and principal research fellow), ] (also senior lecturer and principal lecturer), ], and ]. The colloquial term ] is sometimes substituted for teaching staff at Oxford and Cambridge.{{or?|date=May 2018}} | |||
| ==Structure== | |||
| Academia is usually conceived of as divided into '']'' or ''fields'' of study. These have their roots in the subjects of the medieval ] and ], which provided the model for scholastic thought in the first ]. | |||
| The disciplines have been much revised, and many new disciplines have become more specialized, researching smaller and smaller areas. Because of this, '']'' research is often prized in today's academy, though it can also be made difficult both by practical matters of administration and funding and by differing research methods of different disciplines. In fact, many new fields of study have initially been conceived as interdisciplinary, and later become specialized disciplines in their own right - a recent example is ]. | |||
| Most academic institutions reflect the divide of the disciplines in their ] structure, being divided internally into ''departments'' or ''programs'' in various fields of study. Each department is typically administered and funded separately by the academic institution, though there may be some overlap and ] members, research and administrative staff may in some cases be shared among departments. In addition, academic institutions generally have an overall administrative structure (usually including a ] and several ]) which is controlled by no single department, discipline, or field of thought. Also, the ] system, a major component of academic employment and research in the US, serves to ensure that academia is relatively protected from political and financial pressures on thought. | |||
| ===Qualifications=== | |||
| {{Main|Academic degree}} | |||
| The degree awarded for completed study is the primary academic qualification. Typically these are, in order of completion, ], ] (awarded for completion of ] study), ], and ] (awarded after ] or ] study). These are only currently being standardized in Europe as part of the ], as many different degrees and standards of time to reach each are currently awarded in different countries in Europe. In most fields the majority of academic researchers and teachers have doctorates or other terminal degrees, though in some ] and creative fields it is common for scholars and teachers to have only master's degrees. | |||
| ===Academic conferences=== | |||
| {{Main|Academic conference}} | |||
| Closely related to academic publishing is the practice of bringing a number of intellectuals in a field to give talks on their research at an academic conference, often allowing for a wider audience to be exposed to their ideas. | |||
| ===Conflicting goals=== | |||
| Within academia, diverse constituent groups have diverse, and sometimes conflicting, goals. In the contemporary academy several of these conflicts are widely distributed and common. A salient example of conflict is that between the goal to improve teaching quality and the goal to reduce costs. The conflicting goals of professional education programs and general education advocates currently are playing out in the negotiation over accreditation standards. | |||
| ====Practice and theory==== | |||
| Putting theory into practice can result in a gap between what is learned in academic settings and how that learning is manifested in practical settings. This is addressed in a number of professional schools such as ] and ], which require students to participate in practica for credit. Students are taught to bridge the gap between theory and practice. | |||
| Not everyone agrees on the value of theory as opposed to practice. Academics are sometimes criticized as lacking practical experience and thus too insulated from the 'real world.' Academic insularity is colloquially criticized as being "]"; when used pejoratively, this term is criticized as ]. | |||
| To address this split, there is a growing body of ], such as the ] (PBRN) within clinical ]. ] and ] departments debate how to define this emerging research phenomenon. There are a variety of contested models of practice research (practice-as-research, practice-based and practice through research), for example, ]. | |||
| ====Town and gown==== | |||
| {{Main|Town and gown}} | |||
| Universities are often culturally distinct from the towns or cities where they reside. In some cases this leads to discomfort or outright conflict between local residents and members of the university over political, economic, or other issues. Some localities in the Northeastern United States, for instance, have tried to block students from registering to vote as local residents—instead encouraging them to vote by absentee ballot at their primary residence—in order to retain control of local politics.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} Other issues can include deep cultural and class divisions between local residents and university students. The film '']'' dramatizes such a conflict. | |||
| ====Commerce and scholarship==== | |||
| The goals of research for profit and for the sake of knowledge often conflict to some degree.{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} | |||
| ==Academic publishing== | |||
| {{Main|Academic publishing}} | |||
| ===History of academic journals=== | |||
| Among the earliest ]s were the Proceedings of Meetings of the ] in the 17th Century. At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial, and widely ridiculed. It was not at all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an ], reserving priority for the discoverer, but indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both ] and ] used this approach. However, this method did not work well. ], a sociologist, found that 92 percent of cases of simultaneous discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number of disputes dropped to 72 percent in the 18th century, 59 percent by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33 percent by the first half of the 20th century. The decline in contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers in modern academic journals. | |||
| The Royal Society was steadfast in its unpopular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence. Many of the experiments were ones that we would not recognize as scientific today—nor were the questions they answered. For example, when the ] was admitted as a ] on June 5, 1661, he presented the Society with a vial of powdered "] horn". It was a well-accepted 'fact' that a circle of unicorn's horn would act as an invisible cage for any ]. ], the chief experimenter of the Royal Society, emptied the Duke's vial into a circle on a table and dropped a spider in the centre of the circle. The spider promptly walked out of the circle and off the table. In its day, this was cutting-edge research. | |||
| ===Current status and development=== | |||
| Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "]". Except for generalist journals such as '']'' or '']'', the topics covered in any single journal have tended to be narrow, and readership and citation have declined. A variety of methods for reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, ] by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and ]. | |||
| ], an ] with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to ] forums over the coming decade, by extending the interactivity of current Internet ]s. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive. | |||
| ==Academic dress== | |||
| {{Main|Academic dress}} | |||
| Gowns have been associated with academia since the birth of the university in the 14th and 15th centuries, perhaps because most early scholars were ]s or church officials. Over time, the gowns worn by degree-holders have become standardized to some extent, although traditions in individual countries and even institutions have established a diverse range of gown styles, and some have ended the custom entirely, even for graduation ceremonies. | |||
| At some universities, such as the Universities of ] and ], undergraduates may be required to wear gowns on formal occasions and on graduation. Undergraduate gowns are usually a shortened version of a bachelor's gown. At other universities, for example, outside the UK or U.S., the custom is entirely absent. Students at the University of Trinity College at the University of Toronto wear gowns to formal dinner, debates, to student government, and to many other places. | |||
| In general, in the U.S. and UK recipients of a bachelor's degree are entitled to wear a simple full-length robe without adornment and a ] cap with a tassel. In addition, holders of a bachelor's degree may be entitled to wear a ceremonial hood at some schools. In the U.S., bachelor's hoods are rarely seen. Bachelor's hoods are generally smaller versions of those worn by recipients of master's and doctoral degrees. | |||
| Recipients of a master's degree in the U.S. or UK wear a similar cap and gown but closed sleeves with slits, and usually receive a ceremonial hood that hangs down the back of the gown. In the U.S. the hood is traditionally edged with a silk or velvet strip displaying the disciplinary color, and is lined with the university's colors. | |||
| According to The American Council on Education “six-year specialist degrees (], etc.) and other degrees that are intermediate between the master's and the doctor's degree may have hoods specially designed (1) intermediate in length between the master's and doctor's hood, (2) with a four-inch velvet border (also intermediate between the widths of the borders of master's and doctor's hoods), and (3) with color distributed in the usual fashion and according to the usual rules. Cap tassels should be uniformly black.”<ref name="ACE">{{cite web|url=http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=10625#6-year |title=Six-Year Specialist Degrees |accessdate=2006-12-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206113630/http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=%2FCM%2FHTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=10625 |archivedate=6 December 2006 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> | |||
| Recipients of a doctoral degree tend to have the most elaborate academic dress, and hence there is the greatest diversity at this level. In the U.S., doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of velvet stripes across the sleeves and running down the front of the gown which may be tinted with the disciplinary color for the degree received. Holders of a doctoral degree may be entitled or obliged to wear ''scarlet'' (a special gown in scarlet) on high days and special occasions. While some doctoral graduates wear the mortarboard cap traditional to the lower degree levels, most wear a cap or ''Tudor bonnet'' that resembles a ], from which a colored tassel is suspended. | |||
| In modern times in the U.S. and UK, gowns are normally only worn at graduation ceremonies, although some colleges still demand the wearing of academic dress on formal occasions (official banquets and other similar affairs). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was more common to see the dress worn in the classroom, a practice which has now all but disappeared. Two notable exceptions are ] and a society at ], where students are required to wear formal academic dress in the examination room. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|2}} | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| * A. Leight DeNeef and Craufurd D. Goodwin, eds. ''The Academic's Handbook''. 2nd ed. Durham and London: ], 1995. | |||
| * Christopher J. Lucas and John W. Murry, Jr. ''New Faculty A practical Guide for Academic Beginners''. New York: Modern Language Association, 1992. | |||
| * John A. Goldsmith, John Komlosk and Penny Schine Gold. ''The Chicago Guide to Your Academic Career''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. | |||
| * William Germano. ''Getting it Published: A Guide for Scholars (And Anyone Else)Serious about Serious Books''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. | |||
| * Kemp, Roger L. "Town and Gown Relations: A Handbook of Best Practices," McFarland and Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, USA, and London, England, UK (2013). ({{ISBN|978-0-7864-6399-2}}). | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Sister project links|Academia}} | |||
| * - Online community of academic scholars | |||
| * | |||
| * and web 2.0 | |||
| * | |||
| * , provided by , a web site from the ] | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
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