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| {{Taxobox | name = ''Homo rhodesiensis'' | |||
| | fossil_range = ] {{fossilrange|0.6|0.2}} | |||
| | image = Rhodesian Man.jpg | |||
| | image_width = 220px | |||
| | image_caption = Kabwe skull (1922 photograph) | |||
| | regnum = ]ia | |||
| | phylum = ] | |||
| | classis = ]ia | |||
| | ordo = ]s | |||
| | familia = ] | |||
| | tribus = ] | |||
| | genus = '']'' | |||
| | species = '''''H. rhodesiensis''''' | |||
| | binomial = †''Homo rhodesiensis'' | |||
| | binomial_authority = ], 1921 | |||
| }} | |||
| '''''Homo rhodesiensis''''' is the species name proposed by ] (1921) to classifiy '''Kabwe 1''' (the "Kabwe skull" or "Broken Hill skull", also "Rhodesian Man"), a fossil recovered from a cave at Broken Hill, or ], ] (now ]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/787018738 |title= GBIF 787018738 Fossil of ''Homo rhodesiensis'' Woodward, 1921 | publisher= GBIF org |date= |accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| The fossil has been dated to the late-Middle Pleistocene, between roughly 300,000 and 125,000 years ago. | |||
| ''H. rhodesiensis'' is now mostly considered a synonym of '']'', or possibly an African subspecies of ''Homo heidelbergensis sensu lato'', understood as a polymorphic species dispersed throughout Africa and Eurasia with a range spanning the ] (c. 0.8–0.12 kya).<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0018821 |title= The Stem Species of Our Species: A Place for the Archaic Human Cranium from Ceprano, Italy |journal= PLoS ONE |volume= 6 |issue= 4 |pages= e18821 | publisher= PLOS ONE |date= April 20, 2011 |accessdate=December 10, 2015|doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0018821 |pmid= 21533096 |last1= Mounier |first1= Aurélien |last2= Condemi |first2= Silvana |last3= Manzi |first3= Giorgio |pmc=3080388}} | |||
| "Ceprano clusters in our analysis with other European, African and Asian Mid-Pleistocene specimens – such as Petralona, Dali, Kabwe, Jinniu Shan, Steinheim, and SH5 – furnishing a rather plesiomorphic phenetic link among them. | |||
| On the basis of this morphological affinity, it seems appropriate to group Ceprano with these fossils, and consider them as a single taxon. The available nomen for this putative species is ''H. heidelbergensis'', whose distinctiveness stands on the retention of a number of archaic traits combined with features that are more derived and independent from any Neandertal ancestry. | |||
| This result would suggest that ''H. ergaster'' survived as a distinct species until 1 Ma, and would discard the validity of the species ''H. cepranensis'' Thus we can include the so-called “Ante-Neandertals” from Europe in the same taxonomical unit with other Mid-Pleistocene samples from Africa and continental Asia. Combining the results of the two approaches of our phenetic analysis, Ceprano should be reasonably accommodated as part of a Mid-Pleistocene human taxon ''H. heidelbergensis'', which would include European, African, and Asian specimens. Moreover, the combination of archaic and derived features exhibited by the Italian specimen represents a “node” connecting the different poles of such a polymorphic humanity."</ref> | |||
| A number of ]-comparable fossil remains came to light in East Africa (Bodo, Ndutu, Eyasi, ]) and North Africa (Salé, Rabat, Dar-es-Soltane, Djbel Irhoud, Sidi Aberrahaman, Tighenif) during the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/99/3/1134.full.pdf |title= The evolution and development of cranial form in ''Homo'' | publisher= Department of Anthropology, Harvard University |date= |accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| The ], found in 1953 in South Africa was subject to at least three taxonomic revisions from 1955 to 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=440TmWXToLAC&pg=PT1354&lpg=PT1354&dq=Homo+rhodesiensis&source=bl&ots=jobjlx_b86&sig=WZdowP4tgdRNifcfwXjyeR8ghEw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjjr6Kyj8_JAhWm26YKHVbuCCw4PBDoAQhIMAg#v=onepage&q=Homo%20rhodesiensis&f=false |title= Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, 2 Volume Set | publisher= Google Books |date= |accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| Both '']'' and ] are derived from ''H. heidelbergensis'', or possibly from a transitional stage between ''H. antecessor'' and ''H. heidelbergensis'' near the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene.<ref>Matthias Meyer, Juan-Luis Arsuaga, Cesare de Filippo, Sarah Nagel, Ayinuer Aximu-Petri, Birgit Nickel, Ignacio Martínez, Ana Gracia, José María Bermúdez de Castro, Eudald Carbonell, Bence Viola, Janet Kelso, Kay Prüfer & Svante Pääbo, "Nuclear DNA sequences from the Middle Pleistocene Sima de los Huesos hominins", ''Nature'' 531, pages 504–507 (24 March 2016), doi:10.1038/nature17405. | |||
| Ewen Callaway, , ''Nature News'', 14 March 2016.</ref> | |||
| The derivation of ''Homo sapiens'' from ''Homo rhodesiensis'' has often been proposed, but is obscured by a fossil gap during 400–260 kya.<ref>Hublin, J.-J. (2013), "The Middle Pleistocene Record. On the Origin of Neandertals, Modern Humans and Others" in: R. David Begun (ed.), ''A Companion to Paleoanthropology'', John Wiley, pp. 517-537 (summary 529–531). | |||
| "Most, if not all, of the African specimens assigned to ''H. rhodesiensis (''cf heidelbergensis'') seem to predate the divergence between ''H. neanderthalensis'' and ''H. sapiens'' . However, a gap in the fossil record, possibly between 400 and 260 ka, blurs the transition or punctuation event that separated ''H. rhodesiensis'' and ''H. sapiens''." (p. 532).</ref> | |||
| == Kabwe skull == | |||
| ] | |||
| Kabwe 1, also called the Broken Hill skull, was assigned by ] in 1921 as the type specimen for ''Homo rhodesiensis''; most contemporary scientists forego the taxon "rhodesiensis" altogether and assign it to ''Homo heidelbergensis''.<ref name=Hublin>Hublin, J.-J. (2013), "The Middle Pleistocene Record. On the Origin of Neandertals, Modern Humans and Others" in: R. David Begun (ed.), ''A Companion to Paleoanthropology'', John Wiley, pp. 517-537 ().</ref> The ] was discovered in Mutwe Wa Nsofu Area in a ] and ] mine in Broken Hill, ] (now ], ]) on June 17, 1921<ref>https://www.daily-mail.co.zm/zambia-resolute-recovering-broken-hill-man-britain/</ref> by Tom Zwiglaar, a Swiss ]. In addition to the cranium, an upper ] from another individual, a ], a ], and two ] fragments were also found. The skull was dubbed "Rhodesian Man" at the time of the find, but is now commonly referred to as the Broken Hill skull or the Kabwe cranium. | |||
| The association between the bones is unclear, but the tibia and femur fossils are usually associated with the skull. Rhodesian Man is dated to be between 300,000 and 125,000 years old.{{cn|date=May 2018}} | |||
| ] of the Broken Hill skull has been estimated at 1,230 cm³.<ref>Rightmire, G. Philip. Cambridge University Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-521-44998-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44998-4}}.</ref> Bada, & al., (1974) published the direct date of 110 ka for this specimen measured by ] ].<ref>Bada, Jeffrey L., Roy A. Schroeder, Reiner Protsch, and Rainer Berger. PNAS abstract URL.</ref><ref></ref> The destruction of the paleoanthropological site has made layered dating impossible. | |||
| The ''Homo rhodesiensis'' type fossil's massive skull suggests an extremely robust individual with the comparatively largest ] of any known hominin. It was described as having a broad face similar to that of '']'' (i.e. large nasal bones and thick protruding brow ridges). Consequently, researchers came up with interpretations such as "African Neanderthal".{{cn|date=May 2018}} | |||
| However, with regard to the skull's extreme ], recent research{{cn|date=May 2018}} has highlighted several intermediate features between modern '']'' and Neanderthal. | |||
| The skull has cavities in ten of the upper teeth and is considered one of the oldest known occurrences of cavities. Pitting indicates significant infection before death and implies that the cause of death may have been due to dental disease infection or possibly chronic ear infection.{{cn|date=May 2018}} | |||
| The skull is kept in the Natural History Museum, London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/collections-at-the-museum/museum-treasures/broken-hill-skull/index.html|title=Collections - Natural History Museum|website=www.nhm.ac.uk}}</ref> There is a replica in the Museum in Livingstone, Zambia. | |||
| === Classification === | |||
| ] (1922)]] | |||
| "Rhodesian Man" is now mostly classified as '']'', though other designations such as ''Homo sapiens arcaicus''<ref name="Birx2010">{{cite book|author=H. James Birx|title=21st Century Anthropology: A Reference Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsF1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48|date=10 June 2010|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6630-5|page=48}}</ref> and ''Homo sapiens rhodesiensis''<ref name="Wood2011">{{cite book|author=Bernard Wood|title=Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, 2 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=440TmWXToLAC&pg=PT761|date=31 March 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-4247-5|pages=761–762}}</ref> have also been proposed. | |||
| WHite et al. (2003) suggested Rhodesian Man as ancestral to '']'' (Herto Man).<ref name="White03">{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Tim D. |authorlink=Tim White (anthropologist) |last2=Asfaw |first2=B. |last3=DeGusta |first3=D. |last4=Gilbert |first4=H. |last5=Richards |first5=G. D. |last6=Suwa |first6=G. |last7=Howell |first7=F. C. |year=2003 |title=Pleistocene ''Homo sapiens'' from Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=] |volume=423 |issue=6491 |pages=742–747 |doi=10.1038/nature01669|pmid=12802332 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref> | |||
| ==Related fossils== | |||
| === Bodo Cranium === | |||
| The 600,000 year old <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fossilized.org/Human_paleontology/_sites_expanded.php?primy_key=245 |title= Bodo – Paleoanthropology site information | publisher= Fossilized org |date= |accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> ] was found in 1976 by members of an expedition led by Jon Kalb at Bodo D'ar in the ] valley of ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.skullsunlimited.com/record_species.php?id=3910 |title= Bodo Skull and Jaw | publisher= Skulls Unlimited |date= | accessdate= December 9, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| Although the skull is most similar to those of Kabwe, Woodward's nomenclature was discontinued and its discoverers attributed it to ''H. heidelbergensis''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1233764/Bodo?anchor=ref892244 |title= Bodo fossil | publisher= Britannica Encyclopedia |date= |accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| It has features, that represent a transition between ''Homo ergaster''/''erectus'' and ''Homo sapiens''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nutcrackerman.com/2015/04/07/meet-bodo-and-herto/ |title= Meet Bodo and Herto There is some discussion around the species assigned to Bodo: | publisher= Nutcracker Man |date=April 7, 2015 |accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| === Ndutu cranium === | |||
| ] | |||
| Another specimen,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rightmire, G. Philip|year= 2005|title=The Lake Ndutu cranium and early ''Homo sapiens'' in Africa|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=61 |issue=2|pages=245–254|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610214|pmid=6410925}}</ref> "the hominid from ]" in northern Tanzania, around 400,000 years old. In 1976 R.J.Clarke classified it as '']'' and it has generally been viewed as such since, although points of similarity to ''H. sapiens'' have also been recognized. After comparative studies with similar finds in Africa allocation to an African subspecies of ''H. sapiens'' seems most appropriate.<ref>{{cite journal |title= The Lake Ndutu cranium and early ''Homo sapiens'' in Africa |date= June 3, 1983 |pmid=6410925 | doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610214 |volume=61 |issue= 2 |journal=Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. |pages=245–54 |author=Rightmire GP}}</ref> An indirect cranial capacity estimate suggests 1100 ml. Its supratoral sulcus morphology and the presence of protuberance as suggested by Philip Rightmire "give the Nudutu occiput an appearance which is also unlike that of ''Homo erectus''", but Stinger (1986) pointed out that a ''thickened iliac pillar'' is typical for ''Homo erectus''.<ref>The Evolution of ''Homo erectus'': Comparative Anatomical Studies of an Extinct Human Species By G. Philip Rightmire Published by Cambridge University Press, 1993 | |||
| {{ISBN|0-521-44998-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-44998-4}} </ref> In a 1989 publication Clarke concludes: "It is assigned to archaic ''Homo sapiens'' on the basis of its expanded parietal and occipital regions of the brain".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Clarke-1990-JHE-Ndutu.pdf |title= The Ndutu cranium and the origin of ''Homo sapiens'' – R. J. Clarke | publisher= American Museum of Natural History |date= November 27, 1989 |accessdate=December 9, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| == Literature == | == Literature == | ||
| * {{cite journal|author=Woodward, Arthur Smith|year=1921|title=A New Cave Man from Rhodesia, South Africa|journal=Nature|volume=108|pages=371–372|doi=10.1038/108371a0|issue=2716}} | * {{cite journal|author=Woodward, Arthur Smith|year=1921|title=A New Cave Man from Rhodesia, South Africa|journal=Nature|volume=108|pages=371–372|doi=10.1038/108371a0|issue=2716}} | ||
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