Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 13:36, 15 November 2006

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (Learn how and when to remove this message)

This is a sub-article to Criticism of Islam and Qur'an.

Template:QuranRelated

Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the literal word of God as recited to Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel. Criticism of the Qur'an generally consists of questioning traditional claims about the Qur'an's composition and content.

The origins of the Qur'an

Muhammad, according to tradition, recited perfectly what the angel Gabriel revealed to him for his companions to write down and memorize. Muslims hold that the wording of the Qur'anic text available today corresponds exactly to that revealed to Muhammad in the years 610–632.

Compilation

All, or most, of the Qur'an was apparently written down by Muhammad's secretaries while he was alive, but it was, then as now, primarily an orally related document, and the written compilation of the whole Qur'an in its definite form as we have it now was completed early after the death of Muhammad.

Many Muslims believe that Abu Bakr, the first Caliph (reigned 632-634), ordered the first compilation of the different fragments of the Qur’an from odd parchements, pieces of bone and the memories of Muhammad’s followers. Shi’as reject the theory of Abu Bakr’s compilation of the Qur'an, claiming it was Ali who made the compilation of Qur'an immediately after the death of Muhammad. Uthman (Caliph 644-656) ordered a new compilation of the Qur’an due to disputes arising about texts recited. The relationship of this compilation to that of Abu Bakr’s is not clear. If Abu Bakr’s compilation were in existence, it is not clear how disputes arose which required Uthman to recompile the Qur’an. Some traditions consider the first compilation to be the basis of the second (which requires the first to be incomplete), others that the first never existed, and others still that the two compilations were made independently but were found to be identical.The Qur’anic compilation of Uthman’s reign was completed between 650 & 656, about 20 years after Muhammad’s death, and about 40 years after the first revelations. Muslims consider the text of this compilation, known as the rasm, to be the same text as that of the Qur’an today.

Uthman ordered all alternative copies to be destroyed. The oldest generally accepted physical text of the Qur’an is found on inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock, built in 691. "Some Qur'anic fragments have been dated as far back the eighth, and possibly even the seventh century." The oldest fragments yet found are from Sana’a in the Yemen. The oldest existing copy of the full text is from the ninth century, around one and a half centuries after Muhammad’s death.

Some Muslims claim that the Samarkand manuscript is oldest text of the Qur’an (and is one of the original five copies of Uthman) however, many scholars, such as John Gilchrist, doubt that any of the Uthmanic originals remain. Having studied the early supposed Qur'an manuscripts very thoroughly John Gilchrist states: "The oldest manuscripts of the Qur'an still in existence date from not earlier than about one hundred years after Muhammdad's death".

Supporters of the Qur'an claim its initial circulation was as a spoken text which several hundred companions had perfectly memorized. Islamic sources suggest that Muhammad would recite the Qur'an in its entirety (that is, including both the earliest and the most recent elements) once every Ramadan (but twice in the year he died). They point out that the Qur'an was not only transmitted orally but was also written down by the four scribes selected by Muhammad.

Western modern academics generally reject the notion that the Qur'an of today is markedly different from the Qur'an recited at the time of Muhammad's death. In fact, the source of ambiguity in the quest for historical Muhammad is the lack of knowledge about the pre-Islamic Arabia.

Claim of Divine Origin

According to Muslim tradition Muhammad was recieved the Qur'an as a revelation from God through angel Gabriel. Modern Western historians have concluded that Muhammad was sincere in his claim of receiving revelation, "for this alone makes credible the development of a great religion." Modern historians generally decline to address the further question of whether the messages Muhammad reported being revealed to him were from "his unconscious, the collective unconscious functioning in him, or from some divine source", but they acknowledge that the material came from "beyond his conscious mind"

Muhammad is reported to have mysterious seizures at the moments of inspiration. Welch, an scholar of Islamic studies, in Encyclopedia of Islam states that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, since they are unlikely to have been invented by later Muslims. According to Welch, these seizures should have been the most convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations for people around him. Muhammad's enemies however accused him as one possessed, a soothsayer, or a magician since these experiences made an impression similar to those soothsayer figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch states it remains uncertain whether Muhammad had such experiences before he began to see himself as a prophet and if so how long did he have such experiences.

Muslims have traditionally claimed that the form and content of Qur'an shows its divine source. Regarding the form of the Qur'an, Issa Boullata, professor of Arabic literature and Islamic studies at McGill University states: "Whereas the scholars of Arabic are largely agreed that the Qur'an represents the standards by which other literary productions in Arabic are measured, believing Muslims maintain that the Qur'an in inimitable with respect to both content and style." Thus, Muslims claim that, in the Arabic original, Qur'an is miraculously perfect.

Jewish Encyclopedia writes that the oldest portions of Qur'an "reflect an extraordinary degree of excitement in their language—in their short, abrupt sentences and in their sudden transitions, but none the less they carefully maintain the rimed form, like the oracles and magic formulas of the pagan Arab priests". The later portions also preserve this form but also "in some of which the movement is calm and the style expository." Catholic Encyclopedia writes: "The language is universally acknowledged to be the most perfect form of Arab speech, and soon became the standard by which other Arabic literary compositions had to be judged, grammarians, lexirographers, and rhetoricians presuming that the Koran, being the word of God, could not be wrong or imperfect."

We know indeed that they say, 'It is a man that teaches him.' The tongue of him they wickedly point to is notably foreign, while this is Arabic, pure and clear. () But the misbelievers say: "Naught is this but a lie which he has forged, and others have helped him at it." In truth it is they who have put forward an iniquity and a falsehood. And they say: "Tales of the ancients, which he has caused to be written: and they are dictated before him morning and evening." Say: "The (Qur'an) was sent down by Him who knows the mystery (that is) in the heavens and the earth: verily He is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful." ().

Critics reject the idea that Qur'an is miraculously perfect and impossible to imitate. Jewish Encyclopedia for example writes: "The language of the Koran is held by the Mohammedans to be a peerless model of perfection. An impartial observer, however, finds many peculiarities in it. Especially noteworthy is the fact that a sentence in which something is said concerning Allah is sometimes followed immediately by another in which Allah is the speaker; examples of this are suras xvi. 81, xxvii. 61, xxxi. 9, and xliii. 10 (comp. also xvi. 70). However other scholars argue that this sudden shift in the pronoun of the speaker or the person spoken about is known as iltifāt(to turn/turn one's face to) in balāgha(Arabic Rheotoric). Many peculiarities in the positions of words are due to the necessities of rime (lxix. 31, lxxiv. 3), while the use of many rare words and new forms may be traced to the same cause (comp. especially xix. 8, 9, 11, 16)." .

Criticism of the science in the Qur'an

Many critics of Islam claim the existence of scientific errors in the Qur'an, endeavoring to prove that the Qur'an is not compatible with contemporary scientific views, and therefore is not of divine origin.

Critics discuss statements the Qur'an makes regarding the sun. For example, they claim that S. 18:86 the Qur'an states that sun has a resting place, while it clearly does not. Here is Marmaduke Pickthall's translation:

Till, when he reached the setting-place of the sun, he found it setting in a muddy spring, and found a people thereabout. We said: O Dhu’l-Qarneyn! Either punish or show them kindness.()

Critics claim that this verse is in scientific error since the sun does not actually set in a spring of murky water. They argue that this statement traditionally attributed to Muhammad in the Sahih Bukhari collection of hadith supports their view, and that the Qur'anic verse seems to presuppose a flat earth. Muslims interpret this verse differently, claiming that this part of the Qur'an is describing Zul-Qarnain's point of view, and it appeared to Zul-Qarnain that the sun set in a spring of water.

Another verse that critics cite regarding the sun is the following:

It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit. ()

Critics suggest that this reflects the belief that the sun orbits the earth, when in fact it is the earth which orbits the sun, and suggest that this is based on the bare-eye observation of Muhammad .

More examples of verses critics claim contradict science deal with the origin of mankind.

The similitude of Jesus before Allah is as that of Adam; He created him from dust, then said to him: "Be". And he was. ()

And Allah did create you from dust; then from a sperm-drop; then He made you in pairs. And no female conceives, or lays down (her load), but with His knowledge. Nor is a man long-lived granted length of days, nor is a part cut off from his life, but is in a Decree (ordained). All this is easy to Allah. ()

Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood ()

From the (earth) did We create you, and into it shall We return you, and from it shall We bring you out once again. ()

It is We Who created you and gave you shape; then We bade the angels prostrate to Adam, and they prostrate; not so Iblis; He refused to be of those who prostrate. ()

But does not man call to mind that We created him before out of nothing? ()

Critics claim that these verses contradicts the scientific notion that man descended from a common ancestor with apes. Some Muslim scholars respond by stating that the verses are not referring to human evolution, but rather to the origin of life, similar to many other verses, for example:

He it is created you from clay, and then decreed a stated term (for you). And there is in His presence another determined term; yet ye doubt within yourselves!

()

We created man from sounding clay, from mud moulded into shape; ()

Verses and states that humans were created from clay (see clay theory of origin).

The Qur'an also states that God created every animal from/of water.

And Allah has created every animal from water: of them there are some that creep on their bellies; some that walk on two legs; and some that walk on four. Allah creates what He wills for verily Allah has power over all things. ()

The most common rebuttal by muslims is the denial of evolution being a fact.

A third claim that critics use is that the Qur'an says the moon gives off light (some key arabic words in brackets):

Blessed is He Who made constellations in the skies, and placed therein a Lamp and a Moon giving light

()

It is He Who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light (of beauty), and measured out stages for her; that ye might know the number of years and the count (of time). Nowise did Allah create this but in truth and righteousness. (Thus) doth He explain His Signs in detail, for those who understand. ()

See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another, and made the moon a light in their midst,

and made the sun as a lamp ? ()

Critics interpret these verses to say that the moon shines light. Muslims interpret these verses to be saying the moon reflects light from the sun, and not that it produces its own light.

A fourth scientific contradiction critics use is the claim that the quran says mountains were created to prevent earthquakes. In reality, mountians were created as a result of earthquakes, and mountains do not render the earth's crust stable.

And He has set up on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with you; and rivers and roads; that ye may guide yourselves; () And We have set on the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should shake with them, and We have made therein broad highways (between mountains) for them to pass through: that they may receive Guidance. ()

Critics say these verses show that the writer of the Qur'an did not know the reason for the creation of mountians. These verses say that mountians were created to prevent earthquakes, while modern geology tells us that mountians were created because of earthquakes and do not prevent them.

A fifth criticism of the Qur'an involves verses 5-7 of surah 86. They claim:

Now let man but think from what he is created! He is created from a drop emitted - proceeding between the backbone and the ribs. ()

This contradicts the scientific fact that semen is produced by the testicles, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles, none of which are between the backbone and the ribs. Critics note that Hippocrates, whose writings were widely available in the pre-Islamic Middle East, had taught that semen passes from the kidneys via the testicles into the penis, and that this is a plausible source for the idea in this verse. Muslim apologist Maurice Bucaille states that these verses are "hardly comprehensible" and finds his own translations of them using meanings not found in dictionaries.

Contradictions in the Qur'an

The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (Learn how and when to remove this message)

This article contains too many or overly lengthy quotations. Please help summarize the quotations. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote or excerpts to Wikisource.

Critics believe that there are many mutually contradictory passages in the Qur'an.

One contradiction has to do with the time it took to create the heavens and the earth.

Your Guardian-Lord is Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and is firmly established on the throne (of authority) ()

Verily your Lord is Allah, who created the heavens and the earth in six days, ()

Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the earth in two Days? And do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds. ()

So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge. ()

According to critics, Qur'anic verses and say the earth was created in 6 days, but Qur'anic verses and say the earth was created in 2 days, and 2 days does not equal 6 days.

The length of Allah's day is consitered a contradiction by critics

Yet they ask thee to hasten on the Punishment! But Allah will not fail in His Promise. Verily a Day in the sight of thy Lord is like a thousand years of your reckoning ()

He rules (all) affairs from the heavens to the earth: in the end will (all affairs) go up to Him, on a Day, the space whereof will be (as) a thousand years of your reckoning. ()

The angels and the spirit ascend unto him in a Day the measure whereof is (as) fifty thousand years: ()

Critics interprit this as a contradiction. Verses and says Allah's day is equal to 1000 years, while verse says Allah's day is 50,000 years.

A third contradiction is whether or not all Christians will go to hell according to the Qur'an.

If anyone desires a religion other than Islam (submission to Allah), never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter He will be in the ranks of those who have lost (All spiritual good). ()

They do blaspheme who say: "Allah is Christ the son of Mary." But said Christ: "O Children of Israel! worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord." Whoever joins other gods with Allah,- Allah will forbid him the garden, and the Fire will be his abode. There will for the wrong-doers be no one to help. ()

Those who believe (in the Qur'an), and those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Christians and the Sabians,- any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. ()

Those who believe (in the Qur'an), those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Sabians and the Christians,- any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness,- on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. ()

Verses and say that all christians will go to hell. Verses and say that some christians will have a chance to get into heaven. Since if all christians go to hell, and some don't, critics interprit this as a contradiction.

A forth contradiction refers to the disbelievers, and how they should be treated.

Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error: whoever rejects evil and believes in Allah hath grasped the most trustworthy hand-hold, that never breaks. And Allah heareth and knoweth all things. ()

If anyone desires a religion other than Islam (submission to Allah), never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter He will be in the ranks of those who have lost (All spiritual good). ()

Unto you your religion, and unto me my religion. ()

They long that ye should disbelieve even as they disbelieve, that ye may be upon a level (with them). So choose not friends from them till they forsake their homes in the way of Allah; if they turn back (to enmity) then take them and kill them wherever ye find them, and choose no friend nor helper from among them, ()

Fight those who do not believe in Allah, nor in the latter day, nor do they prohibit what Allah and His Messenger have prohibited, nor follow the religion of truth, out of those who have been given the Book, until they pay the tax in acknowledgment of superiority and they are in a state of subjection()

Critics interprit verses and as a contradiction, because verse allows freedom of religion to be tolereated, while verse says that there is no freedom of religion. Critics also believe verse contradicts verses and , because says to be tolerent of other religous beliefs, while says to kill disbelievers whenever you find them and not to befriend them.

A fifth contradiction has to do with what man was created from.

Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: ()

We created man from sounding clay, from mud moulded into shape; ()

The similitude of Jesus before Allah is as that of Adam; He created him from dust, then said to him: "Be". And he was. ()

But does not man call to mind that We created him before out of nothing? ()

Were they created of nothing, or were they themselves the creators? ()

He has created man from a sperm-drop; and behold this same (man) becomes an open disputer! ()

Critics view these verses as a contradiction, as they all give different materials for the creation of mankind. In response, Zakir Naik says these verses are describing the many ways in which man was created.

Satanic verses

Some early Islamic histories recount how Satan fooled Muhammad into adding two lines to Sura 53 of the Qur'an, lines that implore followers to hope for intercession by three pagan goddesses. These histories then say that these 'Satanic Verses' were shortly afterward repudiated by Muhammad at the behest of the angel Gabriel. William Montgomery Watt says that "the story is so strange that it must be true in essentials."

The incident of the satanic verses is put forward by some critics as evidence of the Qur'an's origins as a human work of Muhammad. Maxime Rodinson discusses the satanic verses as a conscious attempt to achieve a consensus with pagan Arabs, which was then consciously rejected as incompatible with Muhammad's attempts to answer the criticism of contemporary Arab Jews and Christians linking it with the moment at which Muhammad felt able to adopt a "hostile attitude" towards the pagan Arabs. Rodinson writes that the story of the satanic verses is unlikely to be false because it was "one incident, in fact, which may be reasonably accepted as true because the makers of Muslim tradition would not have invented a story with such damaging implications for the revelation as a whole".

Fischer and Abedi state that the story is rejected by almost all Muslim exegetes. Ibn Kathir in his commentary points out the weakness of the various isnāds by which the story was transmitted, almost all of them mursal- i.e. without a companion of Muhammad in their chain. This argument is supported by some academics such as J. Burton who believe the story is a forgery. Some claim that the authenticity of the 'Satanic Verses' is implausible because of the long period of time (many years) between when the verses were revealed and when they were corrected. They think that such avocation of idolatry would not have been tolerated by the fledging Muslim community for so long. They also point out that the standard hadith collections do not mention this incident at all.

The morality of the Qur'an

Muslims claim that God sent prophets to all groups of mankind across the globe, Jesus and Moses being two who were sent to the House of Israel, but that the Jews and Christians corrupted the teachings of the prophets. Islam claims to be a final revelation and a correction of Judaism and Christianity, as well as their holy texts. Islam, as a clear uncorrupted representation of God’s will, is therefore expected to be morally superior to Judaism and Christianity. However, according to some critics, the morality of the Qur’an (like the life story of Muhammad) appears to be a moral regression, by the standards of these two moral traditions it claims to build upon, or simply by the standards of the conscience. Catholic encyclopedia, for example, states that "the ethics of Islam are far inferior to those of Judaism and even more inferior to those of the New Testament" and "that in the ethics of Islam there is a great deal to admire and to approve, is beyond dispute; but of originality or superiority, there is none." William Montgomery Watt however states that: "In his day and generation Muhammad was a social reformer, indeed a reformer even in the sphere of morals. He created a new system of social security and a new family structure, both of which were a vast improvement on what went before. In this way he adapted for settled communities all that was best in the morality of the nomad, and established a religious and a social framework for the life of a sixth of the human race today. That is not the work of a traitor or a lecher."

Domestic behaviour

Verse of the Qur'an reads (some original Arabic words are indicated in square brackets):

Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because God has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what God would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct , admonish them (first), (Next), refuse to share their beds, (And last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them Means (of annoyance): For God is Most High, great (above you all).

The above verse thus instructs beating in certain situations. According to Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Ibn Kathir, the consensus of Islamic scholars is that the above verse describes a light beating. Abdullah Yusuf Ali in his Qur'anic commentary states that: "In case of family jars four steps are mentioned, to be taken in that order. (1) Perhaps verbal advice or admonition may be sufficient; (2) if not, sex relations may be suspended; (3) if this is not sufficient, some slight physical correction may be administered; but Imam Shafi'i considers this inadvisable, though permissible, and all authorities are unanimous in deprecating any sort of cruelty, even of the nagging kind, as mentioned in the next clause; (4) if all this fails, a family council is recommended in 4:35 below." And Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi comments that "Whenever the Prophet (peace be on him) permitted a man to administer corporal punishment to his wife, he did so with reluctance, and continued to express his distaste for it. And even in cases where it is necessary, the Prophet (peace be on him) directed men not to hit across the face, nor to beat severely nor to use anything that might leave marks on the body."

It is also argued that this verse has exactly the reverse functionality, since domestic violence is usually the result of "temporary" anger and that in 4:34, men are asked to first admonish their wives, then refuse to share their beds. They argue that the intermediate steps provide the necessary time for both parties to cool off and reason. (Light) beating is only prescribed as a last resort.

Some Muslim scholars hold that the above verse can be explained in two ways. The Arabic word used in 4:34, 'idribuhunna', is derived from 'daraba' which literally means 'beat', 'go abroad', or 'give' in the sense of giving or providing an example. Thus according to them, the word 'idribuhunna' could very well mean to 'leave' them, "like telling someone to 'beat it' or 'drop it' in English". Critics, however, maintain that the verb 'darb' can only mean 'to beat' or 'to strike', and as support cite not only the wealth of translations supporting this view, but the comparative use of the verb in other contexts.

A second issue relating to the validity of these criticisms is the Arabic word "nashooz", translated as "disloyalty and ill-conduct" by Yusuf Ali, "rebellion" by Pickthall and "desertion" by Shakir. As can be expected, there are different interpretations of this word's use in verse within the Muslim community itself. For example, some Muslims believe that: "The expression Nashooz نُشُوز occurring in the above Ayaah آيه means disobedience of the husband. The word is derived from 'Nashaz', which signifies rising. In other words, if the wife rises above the limit that God has laid down for obedience to the husband, she will be treated as disobedient." However, others believe that the word's true definition is "an unrighteous, wicked and rebellious act", thereby concluding that the verse does not necessarily prescribe the beating of disobedient wives.

Islamic scholars claim that there are verses of the Qur'an and several quotes attributed to Muhammad (Hadith wise), that bid believers to act kindly towards women and to not beat them. Critics claim that "the command to beat disobedient wives" that they believe to exist within the Qur'an "is founded upon a woman’s subservient / secondary status in Islam."

War and violence

Some critics believe that it is not only extremist Islam that preaches violence but Islam itself, a violence implicit in the Qur'anic text.They argue that although Islam does not explicitly preach armed jihad, moderate Muslims cannot justify their denial that the violence practiced by extremists is based on the Qur'an. For instance, verse reads:

Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.

It is followed by verse :

And the Jews say: Uzair is the son of Allah; and the Christians say: The Messiah is the son of Allah; these are the words of their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved before; may Allah destroy them; how they are turned away!

Another verse critics use is :

Then, when the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever ye find them, and take them (captive), and besiege them, and prepare for them each ambush. But if they repent and establish worship and pay the poor-due, then leave their way free. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.

Critics argue that the example of Muhammad, and injunctions such as and promote religious violence by Muslims. However muslim scholars say that 9:29 was about a specfic incident. , while about 9:5, Muslim scholars claim that the verse is explained if the chapter is read from the beginning.

Freedom from (all) obligations (is declared) from Allâh and His Messenger to those of the Mushrikûn with whom you made a treaty.So travel freely for four months throughout the land, but know that you cannot escape (from the Punishment of) Allâh, and Allâh will disgrace the disbelievers.And a declaration from Allâh and His Messenger to mankind on the greatest day (the 10th of Dhul-Hijjah - the 12th month of Islâmic calendar) that Allâh is free from (all) obligations to the Mushrikûn and so is His Messenger. So if you (Mushrikûn) repent, it is better for you, but if you turn away, then know that you cannot escape (from the Punishment of) Allâh. And give tidings (O Muhammad ) of a painful torment to those who disbelieve. Except those of the Mushrikûn with whom you have a treaty, and who have not subsequently failed you in aught, nor have supported anyone against you. So fulfill their treaty to them to the end of their term. Surely Allâh loves Al- Mattaqûn :

In response to the criticism regarding jihad and the Qur'an's alleged promotion of violence, some Muslims argue that the real purpose of armed jihad is to remove injustice and aggression. However, Ali Sina has stated that the Islamic concept of "injustice and aggression" is simply the refusal to join or submit to Islam.

Islam teaches that injustice and oppression should not be tolerated:

And why should you not fight in the cause of God and of those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? Men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Your side one who will protect; and raise for us from Your side one who will help! ()

According to an article by BBC, Islam rejects the idea of a total and unrestricted conflict:

Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors. ()

War in Islam, according to the BBC, is only permitted in the cases of "self defence", "when other nations have attacked an Islamic state" and "if another state is oppressing its own Muslims"

Muslims stress that armed jihad is only one of the five kinds of jihad (see Jihad). Karen Armstrong in her book "Muhammad," writes that:

Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle. A well-known tradition (hadith) has Muhammad say on returning from a battle, 'We return from the little jihad to the greater jihad,' the more difficult and crucial effort to conquer the forces of evil in oneself and in one's own society in all the details of daily life.

In response, critics refer to some Islamic commentators, such as Hanbali scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya and Abu Fadl, who have analyzed the hadith and believe it is a forgery. The latter states that:

This hadith has no source, nobody whomsoever in the field of Islamic Knowledge has narrated it. Jihad against the disbelievers is the most noble of actions, and moreover it is the most important action for the sake of mankind... the evidence used as proof or the basis for establishing that Jihad against disbelievers on the battlefield is Jihad Asghar and Jihad against the desires and Shaitaan is Jihad Akbar , are weak if not false Hadith."

However, the above quotation attributed to Muhammad has been very influential in some Muslim communities, particularly Sufis. To this day, most Muslims believe that the non-violent jihad is the "greater jihad" and the violent jihad is the "lesser jihad". Sunni scholars consider a number of hadith supporting non-violent jihad to be authentic.

Arab-American psychologist Wafa Sultan has pointed out that the prophet of Islam said: "I was ordered to fight the people until they believe in Allah and his Messenger." Sultan has called on Islamic teachers to review their writings and teachings and remove every call to fight people who do not believe as Muslims. Dr. Sultan is now in hiding, fearing for her life and the safety of her family after appearing on the al-Jazeera TV show. Muslims for a Safe America have opened a dialogue on some of the issues raised by Dr. Sultan.

Here is a partial list of Qur'anic verses that, according to JihadWatch deal with war, violence, and terrorism.

:"Warfare is ordained for you, though it is hateful unto you; but it may happen that ye hate a thing which is good for you, and it may happen that ye love a thing which is bad for you. Allah knoweth, ye know not." ()

"Soon shall We cast terror into the hearts of the Unbelievers, for that they joined companions with Allah, for which He had sent no authority: their abode will be the Fire: And evil is the home of the wrong-doers!" ()

"How many a township have We destroyed! As a raid by night, or while they slept at noon, Our terror came unto them. No plea had they, when Our terror came unto them, save that they said: Lo! We were wrong-doers." ()

"Remember thy Lord inspired the angels (with the message): 'I am with you: give firmness to the Believers: I will instil terror into the hearts of the Unbelievers: smite ye above their necks and smite all their finger-tips off them.'" ()

Muslim scholars claim that these verses have been taken out of context, that once read with the whole surah they give different meanings/interpretations. Regarding the issue of context, Robert Spencer writes that the Qur'an itself provides little context for understanding verses , and notes that the surahs in the Qur'an are not ordered chronologically, but by length.

Severe punishments

Islam has been criticised for allegedly endorsing cruel and unusual punishments for certain crimes. William Montgomery Watt believes that "such penalties may have been suitable for the age in which Muhammad lived. However, as societies have since progressed and become more peaceful and ordered, they are not suitable any longer." But in fairness, he notes that "similar punishments are found in the Old Testament - including, for example, the cutting off of women’s hands in Deuteronomy 25." Gerhard Endress, professor of Islamic Studies at Ruhr University, states that at the time of advent of Islam, several social reforms happened in which a new system of marriage and family, including legal restrictions such as restriction of the practice of polygamy, was built up. Endress says that "it was only by this provision (backed up by severe punishment for adultery), that the family, the core of any sedentary society could be placed on a firm footing."

Some have spoken against sentences of stoning to death which have been handed down by Islamic courts in some modern countries, most notably in Nigeria. The punishment of adulterers via this method is not mentioned in the Qur'an but "derives its authority from hadith literature references which are imputed by many," according to Kemal A. Faruki.

The woman and the man guilty of adultery or fornication,- flog each of them with a hundred stripes: Let not compassion move you in their case, in a matter prescribed by Allah, if ye believe in Allah and the Last Day: and let a party of the Believers witness their punishment. ()

According to Daniel Madigan, although verse mandates one hundred lashes as punishment for adultery, the majority of the Islamic schools of thought do prescribe stoning. He says that Islamic theologians found support for the stoning punishment in a verse that was not in the official text of the Qur'an but one that "still carries the weight of Qur'anic authority." There are certain standards for proof that must be met in Islamic law for this punishment to apply. In the Shafii, Hanbali, Hanafi and the Shia law schools the stoning is imposed for the married adulterer and his partner only if the crime is proven either by four male adult eye witnessing the actual sexual intercourse at the same time or by self confession. In Maliki law school, however, the evidence of pregnancy also constitutes a sufficient proof. Scholars such as Fazel Lankarani and Ayatollah Sanei hold that stoning penalty is imposed only if adulterer have had sexual access to his or her mate. Ayatollah Shirazi states that the proof for adultery is very hard to be established since nobody does adultery in public unless the person is irreverent.

The sentence of amputation of the limbs of thieves by Shari'ah courts has been very controversial. The relevant verse in the Qur'an is -

As to the thief, Male or female, cut off his or her hands: a punishment by way of example, from Allah, for their crime: and Allah is Exalted in power. ()

Commenting on this verse, Yusuf Ali claims that most Islamic jurists believe that "petty thefts are exempt from this punishment" and that "only one hand should be cut off for the first theft." Maududi also agrees that petty theft is exempt, although he admits that jurists disagree as to the exact dividing line. In Shi'a law, the penalty for the first theft is interpreted as the severing of the four fingers of the right hand based on hadith authentic to them, and this penalty will be applied only if the thief is adult, sane, has stolen from a secure place, was not under compulsion or misery, and does not repent before the crime is proved, among other conditions.

Cases of the death penalty being applied for homosexuality or sodomy in Muslim countries have been condemned by human rights groups and others: "Human rights groups have documented numerous cases in which Iran has executed its citizens on charges of sodomy and adultery." Homosexuality is forbidden by the Qur'an, notably in the story of Lot found in verses .

We also (sent) Lut: He said to his people: "Do ye commit lewdness such as no people in creation (ever) committed before you? "For ye practise your lusts on men in preference to women : ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds." And his people gave no answer but this: they said, "Drive them out of your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!" But we saved him and his family, except his wife: she was of those who legged behind.And we rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): Then see what was the end of those who indulged in sin and crime! ()

Commenting on these verses, Maududi writes that "here and at other places the Qur'an merely declares that sodomy is such a heinous sin... that it is the duty of the Islamic State to eradicate this crime and... punish those who are guilty of it." He claims that a majority of Islamic authorities advocated the death penalty as punishment.

John Esposito explains that some Muslims justify these punishments in general terms because they punish crimes that are "against God and a threat to the moral fabric of the Muslim community." He observes that Islamic law provides strict regulations regarding evidence in cases involving these crimes, and that false accusations are seriously punished.

There is a movement among some modern liberal Muslims to "re-interpret Islamic verses about ancient punishments," in the words of Professor Ali A. Mazrui. He claims that the punishments laid down fourteen centuries "had to be truly severe enough to be a deterrent" in their day, but "since then God has taught us more about crime, its causes, the methods of its investigation, the limits of guilt, and the much wider range of possible punishments." Esposito also observers that Muslim reformers have argued that "these punishment were appropriate within the historical and social contexts in which they originated but are inappropriate today and that the underlying religious principles and values need to find new expression in modernizing societies."

Apostasy in Islam

Apostasy is defined as the rejection of one's religion. According to Islamic Law, apostasy is punishable by death.

Here are some relevant verses:

Make ye no excuses: ye have rejected Faith after ye had accepted it. If We pardon some of you, We will punish others amongst you, for that they are in sin.

Those who turn back as apostates after Guidance was clearly shown to them,- the Evil One has instigated them and busied them up with false hopes.This, because they said to those who hate what Allah has revealed, "We will obey you in part of (this) matter"; but Allah knows their (inner) secrets.

They ask thee concerning fighting in the Prohibited Month. Say: "Fighting therein is a grave (offence); but graver is it in the sight of Allah to prevent access to the path of Allah, to deny Him, to prevent access to the Sacred Mosque, and drive out its members." Tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter. Nor will they cease fighting you until they turn you back from your faith if they can. And if any of you Turn back from their faith and die in unbelief, their works will bear no fruit in this life and in the Hereafter; they will be companions of the Fire and will abide therein."

Those who believe, then reject faith, then believe (again) and (again) reject faith, and go on increasing in unbelief,- Allah will not forgive them nor guide them nor guide them on the way.

Slavery

Islam has come under criticism for permitting slavery, a practice that was a common feature of pre-Islamic pagan Arabia.

The Qur’an, like the Old and the New Testaments, assumes the existence of slavery, Bernard Lewis states. The Qur'an regulates the practice of the institution and thus implicitly accepts it (He also notes that slavery was a feature of the ancient times and for example both the Old and New Testaments recognize and accept the institution of slavery). Lewis notes that Muhammad himself owned slaves. He also points out that the Islamic legislation "brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching effects: 'the presumption of freedom' and 'the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances'. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi comments that verses of the Qur'an explicitly allow sex with slave girls outside of marriage.

The believers must (eventually) win through,- Those who humble themselves in their prayers; Who avoid vain talk; Who are active in deeds of charity; Who abstain from sex, Except with those joined to them in the marriage bond, or (the captives) whom their right hands possess,- for (in their case) they are free from blame, ()

In defense, Yusuf al-Qaradawi states that the slave girls would automatically become free if they got pregnant, and that the child would also become free.) Maududi also says that women captured in war may be kept as slave girls in his commentary to verse .

It is not lawful for thee (to marry more) women after this, nor to change them for (other) wives, even though their beauty attract thee, except any thy right hand should possess (as handmaidens): and Allah doth watch over all things. ()

Maria al-Qibtiyya (Arabic: مارية القبطية) (alternatively, especially in non-Arabic traditions, "Maria Qupthiya"), or Maria the Copt, was a Coptic Christian slave who was sent as a gift from Muqawqis, a Byzantine official to Muhammad. According to most Islamic accounts, she was Muhammad's wife. However, some scholars have claimed that she stayed as a concubine, either way she was the mother of Muhammad's son Ibrahim, who died in infancy.

No Muslim state banned slavery until the Regency of Algiers was compelled to do so by the Bombardment of Algiers in 1816 . According to Lewis, the abolition movement got started in the Muslim world primarily because of European pressure, and for a long time continued only because of that pressure. He claims that these reforms were strongly resisted by religious conservatives who saw themselves as upholding an institution that was "authorized and regulated by the holy law." CASMAS (Coalition Against Slavery in Mauritania And Sudan), a human rights group, accuses Arab Muslims in Northern Sudan of enslaving Black Christians and animists in the south, and says that as much as half of Mauritania's population is "enslaved or in slave-like relationships."

Those scholars sympathetic to Islam generally respond by pointing out that while Islam regulates slavery, the good treatment and manumission of slaves are seen as ideals. John Esposito points out that the "Qur'an command(s) the just and humane treatment of slaves, and regard(s) their emancipation as a meritorious act," referencing verses , , and . He goes on to note that slave owners were encouraged to permit their slaves to earn their freedom, and claims that forcing female slaves into prostitution was condemned. Yusuf Ali concurs. He comments that verse enjoins believers to do all they can to give or buy the freedom of slaves.

Allah has bestowed His gifts of sustenance more freely on some of you than on others: those more favoured are not going to throw back their gifts to those whom their right hands possess, so as to be equal in that respect. Will they then deny the favours of Allah? ()

(It is) the setting free of a slave, ()

But those who divorce their wives by Zihar, then wish to go back on the words they uttered,- (It is ordained that such a one) should free a slave before they touch each other: Thus are ye admonished to perform: and Allah is well-acquainted with (all) that ye do. ()

Writing about verse , he says that "Islam made the slave's lot as easy as possible." He goes on to outline how this verse guarantees a slave's right to enter into an agreement to earn money by lawful means and to "earn their freedom for a certain sum." Yusuf Ali also points to this specific verse as outlawing the practice of forcing one's slave girls into prostitution.

Let those who find not the wherewithal for marriage keep themselves chaste, until Allah gives them means out of His grace. And if any of your slaves ask for a deed in writing (to enable them to earn their freedom for a certain sum), give them such a deed if ye know any good in them: yea, give them something yourselves out of the means which Allah has given to you. But force not your maids to prostitution when they desire chastity, in order that ye may make a gain in the goods of this life. But if anyone compels them, yet, after such compulsion, is Allah, Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful (to them), ()

According to some, slaves were not considered inferior to their masters in theological terms. Muhammad Qutb writes about a hadith where the Prophet Muhammad is claimed to have said that:

Your slaves are your brothers and God has put them under your command. So whoever has a brother under his command should feed him of what he eats and dress him of what he wears. Do not ask them (slaves) to do things beyond their capacity (power) and if you do so, then help them. (Bukhari, Template:Bukhari-usc).

Slavery in Islam did not have an intrinsically racial component. Azizah Y. al-Hibri quotes the medieval jurist al-Ghazali who while discussing the story of Satan in Qur'an, notes that believing that a white man is better than a black one is basically adopting the same hierarchical principles adopted by Satan in his ignorance, and thus falling into polytheism(shirk). Lewis states that it is clear that "the Qur'an expresses no racial or color prejudice" (although he also notes that this ideal was not always put into practice). Nevertheless black slaves could rise to important positions in Muslim nations.

Alleged incompatibility with Christian and Jewish scriptures

You must add a |reason= parameter to this Cleanup template – replace it with {{Cleanup|June 2006|reason=<Fill reason here>}}, or remove the Cleanup template.

Religious differences between believers of Christianity and Islam have lead to criticisms and debate back and forth over the legitimacy and authenticity of both the Bible and the Qur'an. Christians have argued that the Qur'anic accounts of past events differ from the Bible, characterizing that difference as 'misquoting'.

The response that Muslims commonly make to this criticism is that is that they believe some parts of the Bible have been distorted by human interference, and that therefore the Qur'an need not agree with it. Any difference between the Bible and Qur'an is therefore explained as Biblical error, either intentional or unintentional. See Tahrif for further information about the Muslim doctorine of distortion of the text. At least one critic, Jochen Katz, has objected that this is a form of circular reasoning which is only valid for those who already believe in the validity of the Qur'an, and therefore only acceptable for Muslims, as it is entirely based on their trust in what they believe that God has revealed.

Scholars such as Ahmed Deedat have defended the Qur'an by arguing that the Bible is in fact a collection of books by 'anonymous hands' and that the Qur'anic assumptions about the authenticity of the Bible (particularly the 4 gospel) and the Torah are in fact truths. He makes his case by using secular sources and studies that suggests the Bible has changed over time, and argues that such changes in fact prove the Islamic view that the Jewish and Christian scriptures have deviated from their original state. See also Internal consistency and the Bible.

The Qur'an repeatedly cites the Injil and Tawrat as examples of divine guidance, and urges both Jews and Christians to judge by, and stand fast to (the uncorrupted versions of) their respective scriptures. It also states that if God had so willed, He would have made of humanity a single people — but that His plan is to test various peoples by means of what He has given them:

It was We who revealed the law (to Moses): therein was guidance and light. By its standard have been judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed to God's will, by the rabbis and the doctors of law: for to them was entrusted the protection of God's book, and they were witnesses thereto: therefore fear not men, but fear me, and sell not my signs for a miserable price. If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what God hath revealed, they are (no better than) Unbelievers. ()

Let the people of the Gospel judge by what God hath revealed therein. If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what God hath revealed, they are (no better than) those who rebel. () To thee We sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture that came before it, and guarding it in safety: so judge between them by what God hath revealed, and follow not their vain desires, diverging from the Truth that hath come to thee. To each among you have we prescribed a law and an open way. If God had so willed, He would have made you a single people, but (His plan is) to test you in what He hath given you: so strive as in a race in all virtues. The goal of you all is to God. it is He that will show you the truth of the matters in which ye dispute. ()

When We substitute one revelation for another,- and God knows best what He reveals (in stages),- they say, "Thou art but a forger": but most of them understand not. ()

The Jewish Encyclopedia claims that, in Islam: The Torah is confused with the Tables of the Law, and the latter are increased in number. Again, the Torah is enormously increased in bulk: it is alleged to contain a varying number of parts, up to 1,000, and to make seventy camel-loads. Each single part takes a year to read through. Only four men — Moses, Joshua, Ezra, and Jesus — have studied it all. Clear statements, all imaginative, are given as to how it begins and ends.

According to Thomas McElwain, the foremost body of Biblical texts disagreeing with the Qur'an are those referring to the crucifixion of Jesus. Muslims deny the crucifixion of Jesus because the Qur'an says that Jesus was not actually crucified by the Jews. They presume that the Gospel writers were mistaken or their texts were later altered. See Historicity of Jesus.

There are several references to the death or removal of Jesus in the Qur'an. Verse reads:

And for their (Jews) saying (in boast) 'Verily we have slain the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the Apostle of God;' But they slew him not, and they crucified him not, but (it) became dubious unto them; and indeed those who differ therein are only in doubt about it, they have no knowledge about the (real) matter, pursuing (only) a conjecture; and certainly, they slew him not.

The text on the crucifixion is generally interpreted to deny the crucifixion of Jesus, and deny his death at the hands of the Jews. Muslims believe that Jesus was lifted to the heavens by God and will return to earth in physical form before the day of judgement. See Islamic view of Jesus' death.

See also

• Qur'an
• Criticism of Islam
• Islam
• Evolution
• Creation-evolution controversy
• The relation between Islam and Science
• Islamic extremist terrorism
• Islam and slavery
• Apostasy in Islam
• Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons

References

1. The Cambridge History of Islam, p.32
2. BBC religion and ethics, Qur'an
3. BBC religion and ethics, Qur'an
5. Gilchrist, "Jam' Al-Qur'an" p 153)
6. F.E. Peters, The Quest for Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies (1991) p.291-315
7. ^ The Cambridge History of Islam (1970), Cambrdige University Press, p.30
8. Encyclopedia of Islam online, Muhammad article
9. Issa Boullata, Literary Structure of Qur'an, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, vol.3 p.192, 204
14. Faithfreedom.org article that claims the Qur'an says the sun rests in murky water
17. Faithfreedom.org article that claims the Qur'an says the sun rests in murky water
18. Faithfreedom.org article that claims the Qur'an says the sun rests in murky water
19. article that says Islam and evolution are incompatable
20. article on evolution and the quran
21. article by a muslim who denys evolution
22. a muslim scholar who calls the accuray of evolution "questionable"
23. This article says that the moon produces its own light according to the Qur'an
24. Qur'an and Science: does the moon reflect light according to the quran?
25. Schwietering, Joseph F. mountians. West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey. An explaination on how mountians were created.
26. Geologist Dr. David A. Young of Calvin College, Michigan, quoted on page 171 of The Qur'an and the Bible in the light of history and science by Dr. William Campbell.
27. why mountians were created according to the Qur'an is explained within this article.
28. The Qur'an and mountians discussed
29. Geologist Dr. David A. Young of Calvin College, Michigan, quoted on page 171 of The Qur'an and the Bible in the light of history and science by Dr. William Campbell.
30. http://www.answering-islam.org/Quran/Science/embryo.html
31. Basim Musallam, Sex and Society in Islam. Cambridge University Press.
32. Maurice Bucaille, The Bible, the Qur'an, and Science, quote on page 208.
33. Campbell, page 184.
39. http://www.carm.org/islam/Koran_contradictions.htm
42. "The Life of Muhammad", Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume (translator), 2002, p.166 ISBN 0-19-636033-1
43. Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. p. 61. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.
44. Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad (Tauris Parke, London, 2002)(ISBN 1-86064-827-4) ps. 107-8
45. Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad (Tauris Parke, London, 2002)(ISBN 1-86064-827-4) p. 113
46. Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad (Tauris Parke, London, 2002)(ISBN 1-86064-827-4) p. 106
47. M. M. J. Fischer & M. Abedi, "Bombay Talkies, The Word And The World: Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses", Cultural Anthropology, 1990, Washington, Volume 5, No. 2, p. 127.
48. Tafsir Ibn Khatir on Sura 22 Google cache, retrieved on Apr 21 2006
49. J. Burton, "Those Are The High-Flying Cranes", Journal Of Semitic Studies, 1970, Volume 15, No. 2, p. 265.
50. "Those Are The High Flying Claims"
51. Cite error: The named reference Oussani was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
52. W Montgomery Watt, Op.Cit, p. 332.
53. "The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary", Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Amana Corporation, Brentwood, MD, 1989. ISBN 0-915957-03-5, passage was quoted from commentary on 4:34
54. Kathir, Ibn, “Tafsir of Ibn Kathir”, Al-Firdous Ltd., London, 2000, 50-53
55. "The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary", Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Amana Corporation, Brentwood, MD, 1989. ISBN 0-915957-03-5, passage was quoted from commentary on 4:34
56. "Towards Understanding the Qur'an" Translation by Zafar I. Ansari from "Tafheem Al-Qur'an" by Syed Abul-A'ala Mawdudi, Islamic Foundation, Leicester, England. Passage was quoted from commentary on 4:34
57. like Yusuf al-Qaradawi at Islam-online.net, What does Islam say about wives beating?
58. What does Islam say about wives beating?
59. Beat your wives or “separate from them”?, by Arab Christian (pseudonym), FaithFreedom.org, retrieved April 16, 2006
60. How women are treated in Bible and Qur’aan!, by Shahid Bin Waheed, Islam Is The Only Solution, October 21, 2004, retrieved April 16, 2006.
61. Qur'anic Perspective on Wife beating and Abuse, by Fatimah Khaldoon, Submission, 2003, retrieved April 16, 2006
63. Wife Beating in Islam, by Silas (pseudonym), Answering Islam, August 25, 2001, retrieved April 16, 2006
68. The Spirit of Tolerance in Islam
69. You Quote the Quran Out of Context, by Ali Sina, FaithFreedom.org, retrieved April 16, 2006
70. and the ethics of war
71. Islam and the ethics of war
72. The concept of Jihad ("struggle") in Islam, by B.A. Robinson, Religious Tolerance.org, March 28, 2003, retrieved April 16, 2006
73. Jihad in the Hadith, Peace with Realism, April 16, 2006
74. The internal Jihad, BBC, religion and ethics
75. The Concept and Practice of Jihad in Islam, by Michael G. Knapp
76. Jihad al-Nafs: Striving for Self-Perfection, Sidi Gibril Haddad, Sunni Path, retrieved April 16, 2006
80. [http://www.jihadwatch.org/archives/011397.php JihadWatch.org: "Letters from a mujahid "]
81. Robert Spencer, Onward Muslim Soldiers, pages 126-127.
82. "Interview: William Montgomery Watt". Retrieved 2006-7-03. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
83. Gerhard Endress, Islam: An Introduction to Islam, Columbia University Press, 1988, p.31
84. Koinange, Jeff (February 23, 2004). "Woman sentenced to stoning freed". CNN.
85. "Nigeria: Death by stoning upheld in the case of Amina Lawal". Amnesty International. August 19, 2002.
86. Faruki, Kemal A. (1983). Voices of Resurgent Islam (ed. John Esposito). Oxford University Press. p. 286. ISBN 0-19-503340-X.
87. Madigan, Daniel (2001). The Qur'an's Self-Image: Writing and Authority in Islam's Scripture. Princeton University Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-691-05950-0.
88. Buba Iman. "Safiyatu's conviction untenable under sharia". Jenda: A Journal of Culture and African Women Studies, Vol. 1.2 (2001). ISSN 1530-5686.
89. "On Capital Punishments". Official website of Grand Ayatollah Fazel Lankarani.
90. "Resaleye Touzih al-Masayel". Grand Ayatollah Saneyi.
91. "Shamime Rahmat". Official website of Grand Ayatollah Shirazi.
92. Olukoya, Sam (December 19, 2002). "Eyewitness: Nigeria's Sharia amputees". BBC.
93. Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (2004). The Meaning Of The Holy Qur'an (11th Edition). Amana Publications. p. 259. ISBN 1-59008-025-4.
94. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi (2000). The Meaning of the Qur'an, Volume 2. Islamic Publications. p. 451.
95. Selection of Tafsir Nemooneh, Grand Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, p. 28, volume 1, on verse 5:38
96. "On Capital Punishments". Official website of Grand Ayatollah Fazel Lankarani.
97. "Noor Malakoote Quran". Ayatollah Haj seyyed Muhammad Hussein Tehrani.
98. Kim, Richard (August 7, 2005). "Witnesses to an Execution". The Nation.
99. Trifkovic, Serge (January 24, 2003). "Islam's Love-Hate Relationship with Homosexuality (book except)". FrontPageMagazine.com.
100. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi (2000). The Meaning of the Qur'an, Volume 2. Islamic Publications. pp. 48–52.
101. Esposito, John L. (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 150, 151. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
102. Mazrui, Ali A. "Liberal Islam versus Moderate Islam: Elusive Moderation and the Siege Mentality". Retrieved 2006-7-03. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
103. Esposito, John L. (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 151. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
104. W. Heffening, in Encyclopedia of Islam
105. Robert Spencer, "Islam Unveiled", p. 63, 2003, Encounter Books, ISBN 1-893554-77-5
106. Jonathan Bloom, Sheila Blair, "Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power", p. 47, 2002, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-09422-1
107. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, "The Meaning of the Qur'an, Volume 3", note 7-1, p. 241, 2000, Islamic Publications
108. in islamonline.net,
109. Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, "The Meaning of the Qur'an, Volume 4", note 94, p. 131, 2000, Islamic Publications
110. Bernard Lewis, "Race and Slavery in the Middle East", p. 79, 1992, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
111. Bernard Lewis, "Race and Slavery in the Middle East", pp. 78-79, 1992, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
112. "Sudan Q&A",
113. "Mauritania Q&A",
114. John Esposito, "Islam: The Straight Path", p. 79, 1998, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-511234-2
115. Yusuf Ali, "The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an", (11th Edition), p. 655, Amana Publications, 1989, ISBN 0-915957-76-0
116. Yusuf Ali, "The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an", (11th Edition), p. 875, Amana Publications, 1989, ISBN 0-915957-76-0
117. Muhammad Qutb, "Unveiling Islam", p. 70, 1992, Islamic Texts Society, ISBN 0-8254-2400-3
118. , by Azizah Y. al-Hibri
119. Bernard Lewis, "Race and Slavery in the Middle East", p. 19, 1992, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
120. Bernard Lewis, "Race and Slavery in the Middle East", p. 74, 1992, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505326-5
121. Can we argue from a corrupted source?, by Jochen Katz, Answering Islam, retrieved April 16, 2006
122. Deedat, Ahmed. Is The Bible God's Words?.
123. Bible in Mohammedian Literature., by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald , Jewish Encyclopedia, retrieved April 22, 2006
124. Islam In The Bible, Chapter 12, Thomas McElwain, Printed In Great Britain for Minerva Press, 1998, ISBN 0-7541-0217-3

External links

• English translation Of The Qur'an

Critical sites

• faithfreedom.org
• answering-Islam.org
• letters from a mujahid- a Qur'anic justification for terrorism
• The Skeptics Annotated Qur'an
• Faithfreedom.org list of Qur'anic verses that teach intolerence

Muslim responses to criticism

• faithfreedom.com
• answering-christianity.com
• Five Common Myths About Islam
• Muslim-answers.org
• Misconceptions about Islam
• Islamic-Awareness.org
• Bismika Allahuma.org
• Tolerance in Islam

• Qur'an
• Criticism of religion
• Islam-related controversies