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| The '''McMahon Line''' is a line drawn on map attached to the ], a treaty between ] and ] concluded in 1914. It is named after Sir ], foreign secretary for India and the chief British negotiator of the convention. The line extends along the crest of the ]s for 550 miles from ] in |
The '''McMahon Line''' (]: 麦克马洪线, Màikèmǎhóng Xiàn), is a line drawn on map attached to the ], a treaty between ] and ] concluded in 1914. It is named after Sir ], foreign secretary for India and the chief British negotiator of the convention. The line extends along the crest of the ]s for 550 miles from ] in the west to the great bend of the ] in the east. It is approximately the same as the ], which marks the boundary between territory controlled by India and territory controlled by China. The McMahon Line is regarded by India as a permanent national border, but is considered only a temporary line of control by China. | ||
| China rejects the Simla Convention on the grounds that Tibet has been Chinese territory for centuries and that a local government does not have treaty-making powers. China also rejects Lhasa's unilateral declaration of independence in 1913 and claims some 56,000 square miles of territory located south of the line, referred to as ] by India and South Tibet by China. Chinese forces briefly occupied this area during the ] of 1962-63. | China rejects the Simla Convention on the grounds that Tibet has been Chinese territory for centuries and that a local government does not have treaty-making powers. China also rejects Lhasa's unilateral declaration of independence in 1913 and claims some 56,000 square miles of territory located south of the line, referred to as ] by India and South Tibet by China. Chinese forces briefly occupied this area during the ] of 1962-63. | ||
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| British interest in the borderlands was renewed when the ] government sent military forces to establish direct Chinese administration in Tibet (1910-12). A British military expedition was sent into what is now Arunachal Pradesh and the ] was created to administer the area (1912). In 1912-13, this agency reached agreements with the tribal leaders who ruled the bulk of the region. The Outer Line was moved north, but Tawang was left as Tibetan territory. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in China, Tibet expelled Chinese forces and declared itself independent (1913).<ref name="Dalai"></ref> In 1913, British convoked a conference at Simla, India to settle the issue of Tibet's status.<ref name="Maxwell">Maxwell, Neville, , New York, Pantheon, 1970.</ref> The conference was attended by representatives of Britain, China, and Tibet. It drew up an agreement which divides Tibet into "Outer Tibet," under the administration of the ]'s government, and "Inner Tibet," where Lhasa would have religious authority only. Both areas were considered to be under Chinese "suzerainty."<ref name="Conven1914"></ref> A suzerain is a state which has certain authority over a dependent state. All three representatives initialed the agreement in April, 1914.<ref name="Calvin"/> Beijing objected to the proposed boundary between Inner and Outer Tibet and repudiated both the agreement and the initialling by its delegate.<ref>Goldstein, 1989, p75</ref> | British interest in the borderlands was renewed when the ] government sent military forces to establish direct Chinese administration in Tibet (1910-12). A British military expedition was sent into what is now Arunachal Pradesh and the ] was created to administer the area (1912). In 1912-13, this agency reached agreements with the tribal leaders who ruled the bulk of the region. The Outer Line was moved north, but Tawang was left as Tibetan territory. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in China, Tibet expelled Chinese forces and declared itself independent (1913).<ref name="Dalai"></ref> In 1913, British convoked a conference at Simla, India to settle the issue of Tibet's status.<ref name="Maxwell">Maxwell, Neville, , New York, Pantheon, 1970.</ref> The conference was attended by representatives of Britain, China, and Tibet. It drew up an agreement which divides Tibet into "Outer Tibet," under the administration of the ]'s government, and "Inner Tibet," where Lhasa would have religious authority only. Both areas were considered to be under Chinese "suzerainty."<ref name="Conven1914"></ref> A suzerain is a state which has certain authority over a dependent state. All three representatives initialed the agreement in April, 1914.<ref name="Calvin"/> Beijing objected to the proposed boundary between Inner and Outer Tibet and repudiated both the agreement and the initialling by its delegate.<ref>Goldstein, 1989, p75</ref> | ||
| Simla was initially rejected by the Government of India as incompatible with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. However, this agreement was renounced by Russia and Britain jointly in 1921. The ] first published a map showing the McMahon Line as the official boundary in 1937.<ref name="Guruswamy">Guruswamy, Mohan, , ''Rediff.com'', June 23, 2003.</ref> In 1938, the British finally published the Simla Convention as a bilateral accord. In an attempt to revise history, the relevant volume of C.U. Aitchison's ''A Collection of Treaties,'' which had originally been published with a note stating that no binding agreement had been reached at Simla, was recalled from libraries.<ref name="Lin">Lin, Hsiao-Ting, , ''The Journal of Imperial & Commonwealth History,'' September 2004, '''32''', (3).</ref> It was replaced with a new volume that has a false 1929 publication date and includes Simla together with an editor's note stating that Tibet and Britain, but not China, accepted the agreement as binding. When the British demanded that the Tawang |
Simla was initially rejected by the Government of India as incompatible with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. However, this agreement was renounced by Russia and Britain jointly in 1921. The ] first published a map showing the McMahon Line as the official boundary in 1937.<ref>British/Indian maps published in 1904-1914 shows the Tibeto-Assamese boundary lying on the foothill, which is in conformity with China's claim. See ''North East Frontier of India'' (1910 & 1911 editions)</ref><ref name="Guruswamy">Guruswamy, Mohan, , ''Rediff.com'', June 23, 2003.</ref> In 1938, the British finally published the Simla Convention as a bilateral accord. In an attempt to revise history, the relevant volume of C.U. Aitchison's ''A Collection of Treaties,'' which had originally been published with a note stating that no binding agreement had been reached at Simla, was recalled from libraries.<ref name="Lin">Lin, Hsiao-Ting, , ''The Journal of Imperial & Commonwealth History,'' September 2004, '''32''', (3).</ref> It was replaced with a new volume that has a false 1929 publication date and includes Simla together with an editor's note stating that Tibet and Britain, but not China, accepted the agreement as binding.<ref></ref> When the British demanded that the Tawang monastery, located south of the McMahon Line, cease paying taxes to ], Tibet protested. However, Lhasa raised no objection to British activity in other sectors of the McMahon Line. In 1944, NEFT established direct administrative control for the entire area it was assigned, although Tibet soon regained authority in Tawang. In Beijing, the Communist Party came to power in 1949 and declared its intention to "liberate" Tibet. India, which had become independent in 1947, responded by declaring the McMahon Line to be its boundary and by decisively asserting control of the Tawang area (1950-51).<ref name="Maxwell"/> Following a battle between Tibetan and the Chinese Communist forces near ], Tibet and Beijing concluded the ] affirming Chinese sovereignty over Tibet (1951).<ref>Goldstein, 1989, pp812-813</ref> | ||
| In 1954, India renamed the disputed area the ].In the 1950s, India-China relations were cordial and the boundary dispute quiet. Indian Prime Minister ] promoted the slogan ''Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai'' (India and China are brothers). Because India was a Soviet ally, the ] of 1959-60 ignited tension with China. Chinese leader ] wanted a successful war to boost the prestige of War Minister ], his favored successor. Chinese troops captured an Indian outpost at Longju, just south of the line, on August 26, 1959, but pulled back in 1961. On September 8, 1962, a Chinese unit launched a surprise attack on an Indian posts at ] on the ], three kilometers north of the McMahon Line |
In 1954, India renamed the disputed area the ]. It also accepted Chinese sovereignty over Tibet at this time<ref> identifies Tibet as "''Region of China''"</ref>. In the 1950s, India-China relations were cordial and the boundary dispute quiet. Indian Prime Minister ] promoted the slogan ''Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai'' (India and China are brothers). Because India was a Soviet ally, the ] of 1959-60 ignited tension with China. Chinese leader ] wanted a successful war to boost the prestige of War Minister ], his favored successor. Chinese troops captured an Indian outpost at Longju, just south of the line, on August 26, 1959, but pulled back in 1961. On September 8, 1962, a Chinese unit launched a surprise attack on an Indian posts at ] on the ], three kilometers north of the McMahon Line, which is deep in Chinese territory by even India's own claim <ref name="Maxwell"/> McMahon intended his line to follow the Himalayan crest, but in this sector the line is mistakenly drawn south of the crest. On October 20, China launched a major attack across the McMahon as well as another attack further north. The ] which followed was a national humiliation for India. By November 20, 1962, there was no organized Indian resistance left in NEFA or in the territories claimed by China in the western sector.<ref name="Maxwell"/> The Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain all pledged military aid to the Indians. China then withdrew to the McMahon Line and returned Indian ] (1963). ] attributes the retreat to the superiority of the ] and to China's logistical problems. | ||
| NEFA was renamed Arunachal Pradesh in 1972 and became an Indian state in 1987. In 1985 |
NEFA was renamed Arunachal Pradesh in 1972 and became an Indian state in 1987. In 1985, agents of India's Intelligence Bureau began camping in the ], located in the disputed Thagla Ridge sector and just north of the McMahon Line. The IB has long contended that the Himalayan crest is the true Sino-Indian boundary.<ref>, by Sultan Shahin</ref> An IB patrol in 1986 discovered Chinese soldiers camped in the valley. This information was leaked to the Indian press, creating a national uproar. In October 1986, Chinese leader ] threatened to "teach India a lesson" and both sides poured troops into the valley. The confrontation was defused in May 1987 and the armies have since withdrawn.<ref name=Natarajan>Natarajan, V., , ''Bharat Rakshak Monitor,'' Nov.-Dec. 2000, '''3''' (3) | ||
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| <references/> | <references/> | ||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| *Lamb, Alastair, ''The McMahon line: a study in the relations between India, China and Tibet, 1904 to 1914'', London, 1966 | |||
| ] | ] | ||
Revision as of 05:20, 30 November 2006
The McMahon Line (Chinese: 麦克马洪线, Màikèmǎhóng Xiàn), is a line drawn on map attached to the Simla Convention, a treaty between Great Britain and Tibet concluded in 1914. It is named after Sir Henry McMahon, foreign secretary for India and the chief British negotiator of the convention. The line extends along the crest of the Himalayas for 550 miles from Bhutan in the west to the great bend of the Brahmaputra River in the east. It is approximately the same as the Line of Actual Control, which marks the boundary between territory controlled by India and territory controlled by China. The McMahon Line is regarded by India as a permanent national border, but is considered only a temporary line of control by China.
China rejects the Simla Convention on the grounds that Tibet has been Chinese territory for centuries and that a local government does not have treaty-making powers. China also rejects Lhasa's unilateral declaration of independence in 1913 and claims some 56,000 square miles of territory located south of the line, referred to as Arunachal Pradesh by India and South Tibet by China. Chinese forces briefly occupied this area during the Sino-Indian War of 1962-63.
Early British efforts to create a boundary in this sector were triggered by their discovery in the mid-19th century that Tawang, an important trading town, was Tibetan territory. In 1873, the British-run Government of India drew an "Outer Line," intended as a international boundary. This line follows the alignment of the Himalayan foothills, now the southern boundary of Arunachal Pradesh. Britain concluded treaties with Beijing concerning Tibet's boundaries with Burma and Sikkim. However, Tibet refused to recognize the boundaries drawn by these treaties. British forces led by Sir Francis Younghusband invaded Tibet in 1904 and concluded a treaty with the Tibetan government directly. After a change in government in London, Britain returned to its former policy of allowing China to negotiate on Tibet's behalf. Britain and Russia agreed not to negotiate with Tibet directly (1907).
British interest in the borderlands was renewed when the Qing government sent military forces to establish direct Chinese administration in Tibet (1910-12). A British military expedition was sent into what is now Arunachal Pradesh and the North East Frontier Tract was created to administer the area (1912). In 1912-13, this agency reached agreements with the tribal leaders who ruled the bulk of the region. The Outer Line was moved north, but Tawang was left as Tibetan territory. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in China, Tibet expelled Chinese forces and declared itself independent (1913). In 1913, British convoked a conference at Simla, India to settle the issue of Tibet's status. The conference was attended by representatives of Britain, China, and Tibet. It drew up an agreement which divides Tibet into "Outer Tibet," under the administration of the Dalai Lama's government, and "Inner Tibet," where Lhasa would have religious authority only. Both areas were considered to be under Chinese "suzerainty." A suzerain is a state which has certain authority over a dependent state. All three representatives initialed the agreement in April, 1914. Beijing objected to the proposed boundary between Inner and Outer Tibet and repudiated both the agreement and the initialling by its delegate.
Simla was initially rejected by the Government of India as incompatible with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. However, this agreement was renounced by Russia and Britain jointly in 1921. The Survey of India first published a map showing the McMahon Line as the official boundary in 1937. In 1938, the British finally published the Simla Convention as a bilateral accord. In an attempt to revise history, the relevant volume of C.U. Aitchison's A Collection of Treaties, which had originally been published with a note stating that no binding agreement had been reached at Simla, was recalled from libraries. It was replaced with a new volume that has a false 1929 publication date and includes Simla together with an editor's note stating that Tibet and Britain, but not China, accepted the agreement as binding. When the British demanded that the Tawang monastery, located south of the McMahon Line, cease paying taxes to Lhasa, Tibet protested. However, Lhasa raised no objection to British activity in other sectors of the McMahon Line. In 1944, NEFT established direct administrative control for the entire area it was assigned, although Tibet soon regained authority in Tawang. In Beijing, the Communist Party came to power in 1949 and declared its intention to "liberate" Tibet. India, which had become independent in 1947, responded by declaring the McMahon Line to be its boundary and by decisively asserting control of the Tawang area (1950-51). Following a battle between Tibetan and the Chinese Communist forces near Chamdo, Tibet and Beijing concluded the Seventeen Point Agreement affirming Chinese sovereignty over Tibet (1951).
In 1954, India renamed the disputed area the North East Frontier Agency. It also accepted Chinese sovereignty over Tibet at this time. In the 1950s, India-China relations were cordial and the boundary dispute quiet. Indian Prime Minister Nehru promoted the slogan Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai (India and China are brothers). Because India was a Soviet ally, the Sino-Soviet split of 1959-60 ignited tension with China. Chinese leader Mao Zedong wanted a successful war to boost the prestige of War Minister Lin Biao, his favored successor. Chinese troops captured an Indian outpost at Longju, just south of the line, on August 26, 1959, but pulled back in 1961. On September 8, 1962, a Chinese unit launched a surprise attack on an Indian posts at Dhola on the Thagla Ridge, three kilometers north of the McMahon Line, which is deep in Chinese territory by even India's own claim McMahon intended his line to follow the Himalayan crest, but in this sector the line is mistakenly drawn south of the crest. On October 20, China launched a major attack across the McMahon as well as another attack further north. The Sino-Indian War which followed was a national humiliation for India. By November 20, 1962, there was no organized Indian resistance left in NEFA or in the territories claimed by China in the western sector. The Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain all pledged military aid to the Indians. China then withdrew to the McMahon Line and returned Indian prisoners of war (1963). New Delhi attributes the retreat to the superiority of the Indian Air Force and to China's logistical problems.
NEFA was renamed Arunachal Pradesh in 1972 and became an Indian state in 1987. In 1985, agents of India's Intelligence Bureau began camping in the Sumdorong Chu Valley, located in the disputed Thagla Ridge sector and just north of the McMahon Line. The IB has long contended that the Himalayan crest is the true Sino-Indian boundary. An IB patrol in 1986 discovered Chinese soldiers camped in the valley. This information was leaked to the Indian press, creating a national uproar. In October 1986, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping threatened to "teach India a lesson" and both sides poured troops into the valley. The confrontation was defused in May 1987 and the armies have since withdrawn.
References
- ^ Calvin, James Barnard, "The China-India Border War", Marine Corps Command and Staff College, April 1984
- Convention Relating to Burmah and Thibet (1886)
- "Convention Between Great Britain and China Relating to Sikkim and Tibet (1890)"
- "Convention Between Great Britain and Thibet (1904)"
- "Convention Between Great Britain and Russia (1907)"
- "Proclamation Issued by His Holiness the Dalai Lama XIII (1913)"
- ^ Maxwell, Neville, India's China War, New York, Pantheon, 1970.
- "Convention Between Great Britain, China, and Tibet, Simla (1914)"
- Goldstein, 1989, p75
- British/Indian maps published in 1904-1914 shows the Tibeto-Assamese boundary lying on the foothill, which is in conformity with China's claim. See North East Frontier of India (1910 & 1911 editions)
- Guruswamy, Mohan, "The Battle for the Border", Rediff.com, June 23, 2003.
- Lin, Hsiao-Ting, "Boundary, sovereignty, and imagination: Reconsidering the frontier disputes between British India and Republican China, 1914-47", The Journal of Imperial & Commonwealth History, September 2004, 32, (3).
- Schedule of the Simla Convention, 1914
- Goldstein, 1989, pp812-813
- The Sino-Indian Treaty of 29 April 1954 identifies Tibet as "Region of China"
- Vajpayee claps with one hand on border dispute, by Sultan Shahin
- Natarajan, V., "The Sumdorong Chu Incident", Bharat Rakshak Monitor, Nov.-Dec. 2000, 3 (3)
Further reading
- Lamb, Alastair, The McMahon line: a study in the relations between India, China and Tibet, 1904 to 1914, London, 1966