Revision as of 19:19, 20 October 2019 editRussian Rocky (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users8,238 edits Undid revision 922128195 by Gotitbro (talk) Read Annexation#Sikkim. If you have evidence, start a discussion in Talk:List of military occupations and prove your point there. Take a note, there is also the annexation of Goa.Tag: Undo← Previous edit | Revision as of 23:58, 20 October 2019 edit undoRussian Rocky (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users8,238 edits added sources for Gotitbro; if you have objections to it, explain yourself on the article's talk page; otherwise, it looks like WP:IDONTLIKEITNext edit → | ||
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* In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 161–1 in favour of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. ({{cite press release|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2008/ga10794.doc.htm |title=General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees |publisher=United Nations |date=5 December 2008}}) | * In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 161–1 in favour of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. ({{cite press release|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2008/ga10794.doc.htm |title=General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees |publisher=United Nations |date=5 December 2008}}) | ||
* " the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab–Israeli war." Also, " the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". ({{cite web|last=Prados|first=Alfred B. |url=https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf |title=CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues|publisher=Congressional Research Service|pages=3, 4|date=19 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060323113431/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf|archive-date=2006-03-23}})</ref><ref name=InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory>Occupied territory: | * " the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab–Israeli war." Also, " the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". ({{cite web|last=Prados|first=Alfred B. |url=https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf |title=CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues|publisher=Congressional Research Service|pages=3, 4|date=19 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060323113431/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf|archive-date=2006-03-23}})</ref><ref name=InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory>Occupied territory: | ||
* " Israeli-occupied Golan Heights" ({{cite book|author=Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqanFyF6nI0C&pg=PA339&dq=%22OCCUPIED+GOLAN%22&hl=en&ei=T2BVTJuyLsH48AbYwM3kBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=%22OCCUPIED%20GOLAN%22&f=false |title=CIA World Factbook 2010 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Inc.|year=2009 |page=339 |isbn=1-60239-727-9}}) | * " Israeli-occupied Golan Heights " ({{cite book|author=Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqanFyF6nI0C&pg=PA339&dq=%22OCCUPIED+GOLAN%22&hl=en&ei=T2BVTJuyLsH48AbYwM3kBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=%22OCCUPIED%20GOLAN%22&f=false |title=CIA World Factbook 2010 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Inc.|year=2009 |page=339 |isbn=1-60239-727-9}}) | ||
* " the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal " ({{cite web|last=Mark|first=Clyde R. |url=https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf |title=CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations |publisher=Congressional Research Service |date=5 April 2002|page=8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030424042458/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf|archive-date=2003-04-24|url-status=dead}}) | * " the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal " ({{cite web|last=Mark|first=Clyde R. |url=https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf |title=CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations |publisher=Congressional Research Service |date=5 April 2002|page=8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030424042458/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf|archive-date=2003-04-24|url-status=dead}}) | ||
* " Occupied Golan Heights." ({{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied |title=Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories travel advice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811045929/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied |archive-date=11 August 2010 |url-status=dead|publisher=UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office|date=5 August 2010}}) | * " Occupied Golan Heights." ({{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied |title=Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories travel advice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811045929/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied |archive-date=11 August 2010 |url-status=dead|publisher=UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office|date=5 August 2010}}) | ||
* "In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory" ({{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/israel-golan-311207.htm|title=ICRC activities in the occupied Golan during 2007|publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross|date=24 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113065232/http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/israel-golan-311207.htm|archive-date=2011-11-13|url-status=dead}})</ref><ref name=KORMAN>{{cite book| last=Korman|first=Sharon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueDO1dJyjrUC&pg=PA261&dq=The+right+of+conquest+golan+heights&hl=en&ei=AzpYTMLXE4mhOPufvPEI&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20right%20of%20conquest%20golan%20heights&f=false |title=The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|page=265|isbn=0-19-828007-6|quote=The continued occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights is recognized by many states as valid and consistent with the provisions of the United Nations Charter, on a self-defence basis. Israel, on this view, would be entitled to exact as a condition of withdrawal from the territory the imposition of security measures of an indefinite character—such as perpetual demilitarization, or the emplacement of a United Nations force—which would ensure, or tend to ensure, that the territory would not be used against it for aggression on future occasions. But the notion that Israel is entitled to claim any status other than that of belligerent occupant in the territory which it occupies, or to act beyond the strict bounds laid down in the Fourth Geneva Convention, has been universally rejected by the international community—no less by the United States than by any other state.}}</ref> | * "In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory " ({{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/israel-golan-311207.htm|title=ICRC activities in the occupied Golan during 2007|publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross|date=24 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113065232/http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/israel-golan-311207.htm|archive-date=2011-11-13|url-status=dead}})</ref><ref name=KORMAN>{{cite book| last=Korman|first=Sharon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueDO1dJyjrUC&pg=PA261&dq=The+right+of+conquest+golan+heights&hl=en&ei=AzpYTMLXE4mhOPufvPEI&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20right%20of%20conquest%20golan%20heights&f=false |title=The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|page=265|isbn=0-19-828007-6|quote=The continued occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights is recognized by many states as valid and consistent with the provisions of the United Nations Charter, on a self-defence basis. Israel, on this view, would be entitled to exact as a condition of withdrawal from the territory the imposition of security measures of an indefinite character—such as perpetual demilitarization, or the emplacement of a United Nations force—which would ensure, or tend to ensure, that the territory would not be used against it for aggression on future occasions. But the notion that Israel is entitled to claim any status other than that of belligerent occupant in the territory which it occupies, or to act beyond the strict bounds laid down in the Fourth Geneva Convention, has been universally rejected by the international community—no less by the United States than by any other state.}}</ref> | ||
| {{Flag|Syria}} | | {{Flag|Syria}} | ||
| {{Flagicon|Israel}} part of ] (]) | | {{Flagicon|Israel}} part of ] (]) | ||
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| {{Country|China}} | | {{Country|China}} | ||
| ] | | ] | ||
⚫ | | {{n/a}} | ||
⚫ | | '''Yes''' | ||
⚫ | |- | ||
| ]<ref>Occupied and annexed territory: | |||
* " in 1949, India occupied Sikkim, with its direct route to Lhasa." ({{cite book|last=Cohen|first=Stephen P. |author-link=Stephen P. Cohen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmnfAAAAMAAJ&q="India+occupied+Sikkim"|title=The Security of South Asia: American and Asian Perspectives|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1987|page=40}}) | |||
* "India's relations with Nepal reached at a nadir in 1975 after Indian occupation of Sikkim, fearing a similar fate, Nepal began to distance itself from India " ({{cite journal|last=Haider|first=Zaglul |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317264493_Locating_the_Loopholes_of_South_-South_Cooperation_in_South_Asia_Can_SAARC_Deter_Hostilities_and_Promote_Cooperation|title=Locating the Loopholes of South-South Cooperation in South Asia: Can SAARC Deter Hostilities and Promote Cooperation?|volume=40|number=3 |date=Spring 2017|journal=Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies|page=44|jstor=10.33428/jsoutasiamiddeas.40.3.0035}} | |||
* "Following failed negotiations and public riots, India ultimately occupied Sikkim. In May 1975, Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian Union and the monarchy was abolished." ({{cite book|last=Radha|first=Kumar|author-link=Radha Kumar|editor-last=Tocci |editor-first=Nathalie |chapter=India as Foreign Policy Actor – Normative Redux |chapter-url=https://books.google.ru/books?id=M8ED-CZU6fUC&pg=PA235|title=Who Is a Normative Foreign Policy Actor?: The European Union and Its Global Partners|place=Brussels|publisher=Centre for European Policy Studies|year=2008|page=235|isbn=978-92-9079-779-1}}) | |||
* {{cite news|last=Grimes|first=Paul |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/03/08/archives/desai-deplores-annexation-of-sikkim-but-says-he-cannot-undo-it.html|title=Desai Deplores Annexation of Sikkim, but Says He Cannot Undo|work=The New York Times|date=8 March 1978|page=9|accessdate=2019-10-20}} | |||
* "Factually, the annexation of Sikkim by India was not legal. You can see from the response we have had in the last few days how the people support us. Since 1975, people have not been allowed to visit the palace." ({{cite interview|last=Namgyal|first=Wangchuk |author-link=Wangchuk Namgyal|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19820315-annexation-of-sikkim-by-india-was-not-legal-wangchuk-namgyal-771600-2013-10-19|title=India has a lot to gain by Sikkimese independence: Wangchuk Namgyal|interviewer=Madhu Trehan|work=India Today|date=15 March 1982|accessdate=2019-10-20}}) | |||
</ref> | |||
| 1949–1975 | |||
⚫ | | {{Country|Sikkim|1967}} | ||
⚫ | | {{Country|India}} | ||
⚫ | | ] | ||
| {{n/a}} | | {{n/a}} | ||
| '''Yes''' | | '''Yes''' | ||
Line 1,052: | Line 1,066: | ||
| ] | | ] | ||
| No | | No | ||
⚫ | |- | ||
| ] | |||
| 1975 | |||
⚫ | | {{Country|Sikkim|1967}} | ||
⚫ | | {{Country|India}} | ||
⚫ | | ] | ||
⚫ | | {{n/a}} | ||
⚫ | | '''Yes''' | ||
|- | |- |
Revision as of 23:58, 20 October 2019
This article is about territorial occupations. For military ranks, see List of comparative military ranks.This article presents a list of military occupations. Only military occupations since the customary laws of belligerent military occupation were first clarified and supplemented by the Hague Convention of 1907 are included In this article.
Military occupation is a type of effective control of a certain power over a territory which is not under the formal sovereignty of that entity, without the volition of the actual sovereign, and provisional in nature. Military occupation is distinguished from annexation by its intended temporary nature (i.e. no claim for permanent sovereignty), by its military nature, and by citizenship rights of the controlling power not being conferred upon the subjugated population.
Between the end of World War II and the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, there have been only three occasions in which military occupation resulted in permanent colonization: the 1967 Israeli occupation of Palestine and the Golan Heights, the 1974 Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus, and the 1975 Moroccan occupation of Western Sahara. Since then, all other permanent military occupations relate to post-Soviet states.
Contemporary occupations
Territory | Since | Occupied state/territory | Occupying state | Declared state/territory | Status | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
East Jerusalem | 1967 | Palestinian territories; Palestine (since 1988 declaration) |
Israel | part of Jerusalem District (effectively annexed in 1980) | Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation | |
West Bank | — | Occupation by a foreign power | ||||
Gaza Strip | Occupation by a foreign power | |||||
Golan Heights | Syria | part of Northern District (effectively annexed in 1981) | Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation Recognized by the United States as part of Israel. | |||
Northern Cyprus | 1974 | Cyprus | Turkey | Northern Cyprus | Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power | |
Majority of Western Sahara | 1975 | Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (declared in 1976) | Morocco | Southern Provinces since the 1991 ceasefire |
Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation | |
Transnistria | 1992 | Moldova | Russia | Transnistria | Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power | |
Nagorno-Karabakh (and surrounding territories) |
1994 | Azerbaijan | Armenia | Artsakh | Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power | |
Abkhazia | 2008 | Georgia | Russia | Abkhazia | Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power | |
South Ossetia | South Ossetia | |||||
Parts of Donetsk Oblast | 2014 | Ukraine | Donetsk People's Republic | Occupation by an armed group under the influence of a foreign power | ||
Parts of Luhansk Oblast | Lugansk People's Republic | |||||
Crimea | Occupation by a foreign power with illegal annexation | |||||
Northern parts of Aleppo Governorate | 2016 | Syria | Turkey | — | Occupation by a foreign power | |
Al-Tanf (U.S. military base) | 2016 | Syria | United States | — | Occupation by a foreign power |
Historic occupations
Events before the Hague Convention of 1907 are out of scope.
1907–1919
1920–1939
1940–1959
1960–1979
1980–1999
Occupied territory | Years | Occupied state | Occupying state | Event | Part of war(s) | Subsequently annexed? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Falkland Islands | 1982 | United Kingdom | Argentina | Occupation of the Falkland Islands | Falklands War | No |
Grenada | 1983 | Grenada | United States | Invasion of Grenada | Grenadian Revolution | No |
Northern Province | 1987–1990 | Sri Lanka | India | Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War | Sri Lankan Civil War | No |
Maldives | 1988 | Maldives | 1988 Maldives coup d'état | No | ||
Panama | 1989–1990 | Panama | United States | Invasion of Panama | War on Drugs | No |
Kuwait | 1990–1991 | Kuwait | Iraq | Invasion of Kuwait | Gulf War | Yes |
Haiti | 1994–1995 | Haiti | Operation Uphold Democracy | 1991 Haitian coup d'état | No | |
Lesotho | 1998–1999 | Lesotho | Operation Boleas | Lesotho general election riots | No | |
Parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo | 1998–2002 | Democratic Republic of the Congo | Foreign support to the DR Congo | Second Congo War | No | |
Kargil District | 1999 | India | Pakistan | Kargil War | Indo-Pakistani Wars | No |
2000–2019
Occupied territory | Years | Occupied state | Occupying state | Event | Part of war(s) | Subsequently annexed? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gash-Barka, Southern, Northern Red Sea and Southern Red Sea regions of Eritrea |
2000–2018 | Eritrea | Ethiopia | Regions were seized at the end of the Eritrean–Ethiopian War in 2000, and subsequently delimited and demarcated by the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague to be Eritrean territory.
Ethiopia returned all occupied territories in July 2018 following a peace summit between the two states. |
Eritrean–Ethiopian War | No |
Iraq | 2003–2011 | Iraq |
|
Iraq War | No | |
Parts of Somalia | 2006–2009 | Somalia | Ethiopia | Somali Civil War (2006–2009) | Somali Civil War | No |
Gori and Poti | 2008 | Georgia | Russia | Occupation of Gori and Poti | Russo-Georgian War | No |
Perevi | 2008–2010 | Occupation of Perevi | No | |||
Socotra | 2018 | Yemen | United Arab Emirates | Takeover of Socotra | Yemeni Civil War | No |
See also
- Military occupations by the Soviet Union
- Peacekeeping – military deployments for peace-keeping purposes
- List of military and civilian missions of the European Union
- Annexation
- Revanchism
- For a list of states that have seceded unilaterally see List of states with limited recognition
- For a list of cases where territory is disputed between countries, see List of territorial disputes
Bibliography
- Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO (2015), Occupation/Annexation of a Territory: Respect for International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights and Consistent EU Policy (PDF)
Footnotes and references
- Footnotes
- Annexation refers to de jure annexation or annexation as defined under international law.
- ^ The West Bank (including East Jerusalem) was occupied by Jordan and the Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt from 1948 to 1967 and have been occupied by Israel since 1967. The State of Palestine, which claims these territories, did not declare its independence until 1988. See Palestinian Declaration of Independence. The State of Palestine is, as of November 2015, recognised by 136 countries and is a non-member observer state at the United Nations.
- Seized during the Six-Day War from Jordan; effectively annexed in 1980 via the Jerusalem Law
- The West Bank was seized during the Six-Day War from Jordan, and is administered by the Israeli Civil Administration. The Oslo II Accord, officially signed on 28 September 1995, divided the West Bank into the Area C administered by Israel and the Area A and B administered by the Palestinian National Authority.
- Still considered occupied despite the 2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza. The system of control imposed by Israel has been described as an "indirect occupation". Some other legal scholars have disputed the idea that Israel still occupies Gaza.
- The Gaza Strip was seized during the Six-Day War from Egypt. In 2005, Israel disengaged its military forces from the strip and no longer considers itself to be occupying the territory. Gaza's border crossings with Israel and maritime and air space are controlled by Israel. As of 2012, the United Nations "continue to refer to the Gaza Strip as part of the Occupied Palestinian Territory until such time as either the General Assembly or the Security Council take a different view."
- Seized during the Six-Day War; effectively annexed in 1981 via the Golan Heights Law. Lebanon also claims the Shebaa farms and sees the territory as being under Israeli occupation.
- Seized during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus; administered as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a state with no international recognition
- Seized during the Western Sahara War; de facto annexed; administered as the Southern Provinces; claimed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, a state with limited international recognition
- Seized during the Transnistria War; administered as the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, a state with limited international recognition.
- Seized during the Nagorno-Karabakh War; administered as the Republic of Artsakh, a state with limited international recognition
- Seized during the Russo-Georgian War; administered as states with limited international recognition.
- See 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine, Russian military intervention in Ukraine, War in Donbass and Minsk Protocol
- See Russian military intervention in Ukraine and Annexation of Crimea
- See Turkish military intervention in Syria and Syrian Civil War
- Most of the Allies had withdrawn by 1920, Japan continued to occupy Northern Sakhalin until 1925
- On 17 June 1944, Iceland dissolved its union with Denmark and the Danish monarchy and declared itself a republic.
- On 7 July 1941, the defence of Iceland was transferred from Britain to the United States.
- ^ On March 26, 1949, the US department of State issued a circular letter stating that the Baltic countries were still independent nations with their own diplomatic representatives and consuls.
- ^ From the Welles Declaration of July 23, 1940, "that we would not recognise the occupation, the United States acted with a consistency and a tenacity of which we can all be proud. We housed the exiled Baltic diplomatic delegations. We accredited their diplomats. We flew their flags in the State Department's Hall of Flags. We never recognised in deed or word or symbol the illegal occupation of their lands."
- A status of forces agreement was signed in December 1956 to formally regulate the position of Soviet troops in Poland, which had been there since the end of the Second World War. After the end of the country's Soviet-backed Communist regime in 1989, the last Soviet contingent would leave the country in 1993.
- A status of forces agreement was signed in 1947 to regulate the position of Soviet troops in Hungary, which was further confirmed by Hungary's later membership in Comecon in 1949. Soviet troops would remain stationed in Hungary until 1991.
- The Tokara Islands were restored to Japan in 1952. The Amami Islands were restored in 1953.
- The All-Palestine Government was de facto controlled by Egypt. Formal occupation occurred only from 1959 to 1967 after that government was dissolved.
- Israel withdrew from Taba in 1989.
- Government control ended with the Velvet Revolution in late 1989, and stationed Soviet troops departed peacefully over 1990–1991
- References
- "Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907". Archived from the original on 1999-02-25. Retrieved June 20, 2015 – via The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School.
- A Roberts (1990). "Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967". Am. J. Int'l L. 84: 47. doi:10.2307/2203016.
- Benvenisti, Eyal (2004). The International Law of Occupation. Princeton University Press. pp. xvi. ISBN 0-691-12130-3.
- Eran Halperin; Daniel Bar-Tal; Keren Sharvit; Nimrod Rosler; Amiram Raviv (2005). "Socio-psychological implications for an occupying society: The case of Israel". Journal of Peace Research. 47: 47, 59. doi:10.1177/0022343309350013.
- David M. Edelstein (2004). "Occupational Hazards: Why Military Occupations Succeed or Fail". International Security. 29: 49–91. doi:10.1162/0162288041762913.
- Stirk, Peter (2009). The Politics of Military Occupation. Edinburgh University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7486-3671-6.
The significance of the temporary nature of military occupation is that it brings about no change of allegiance. Military government remains an alien government whether of short or long duration, though prolonged occupation may encourage the occupying power to change military occupation into something else, namely annexation.
- Benvenisti, Eyal (2004). The International Law of Occupation. Princeton University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0-691-12130-3.
under Article 47 of the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 (GCIV), the law of occupation continues to apply even if the annexation was legally effective.
- Fourth Geneva Convention Article 47: "Protected persons who are in occupied territory shall not be deprived, in any case or in any manner whatsoever, of the benefits of the present Convention by any change introduced, as the result of the occupation of a territory, into the institutions or government of the said territory, nor by any agreement concluded between the authorities of the occupied territories and the Occupying Power, nor by any annexation by the latter of the whole or part of the occupied territory."
- ^ Ben-Nun, Gilad (23 March 2019). "Territorial Conquest: Its Prevalence, Demise, and Resurfacing: 1880s – The Present". Connections. A Journal for Historians and Area Specialists. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
Between the end of the allied occupation of Germany (1949) and the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), military occupation resulted in permanent colonization only three times: in Israel's occupation of Palestine and the Golan (1967), in Turkey's occupation of Northern Cyprus, and in Morocco's grip on Western Sahara.
- "Israel plans 1,300 East Jerusalem Jewish settler homes". BBC News. 9 November 2010. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
- "Chapter 12: The status of Jerusalem" (PDF). The Question of Palestine & the United Nations (Brochure). United Nations Department of Public Information. March 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-09-02.
- "Israeli authorities back 600 new East Jerusalem homes". BBC News. 26 February 2010. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
- "United Nations Security Council Resolution 298 (1971) of 25 September 1971". Archived from the original on 2013-08-19.
- See also Jordanian annexation of the West Bank
- See also Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt
- "Palestinian territories - Timeline". BBC News. 8 July 2015. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
- "Amid violence, 'glaring lack of hope,' UN deputy chief urges action to break Israeli-Palestinian impasse". UN News. 23 November 2015. Retrieved November 30, 2015.
- ^ Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO 2015, p. 14: "An occupied territory may also be illegally annexed Annexation means that the territory is incorporated into another state and is being regarded by that state as a part of its territory. Among contemporary examples, one finds the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem, Western Sahara and Crimea. Under current international law, annexation can only be carried out after a peace treaty, and preferably after a referendum. Annexations which do not correspond to this requirement – like those just mentioned – are illegal."
- "Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory" (PDF) (Advisory opinion). Reports of Judgments, Advisory Opinions and Orders. International Court of Justice. 2004. ISBN 92-1-070993-4. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
- ^ Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO 2015, p. 14: "Territory over which a foreign power has taken control is occupied. An occupation is supposed to be a temporary status, but current reality shows that territory may be occupied for decades; the West Bank and Gaza have been occupied for 48 years."
-
- Sanger, Andrew (2011). "The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla". Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 2010. 13. Springer Science & Business Media: 429. doi:10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14. ISBN 978-90-6704-811-8.
Israel claims it no longer occupies the Gaza Strip, maintaining that it is neither a Stale nor a territory occupied or controlled by Israel, but rather it has 'sui generis' status. Pursuant to the Disengagement Plan, Israel dismantled all military institutions and settlements in Gaza and there is no longer a permanent Israeli military or civilian presence in the territory. However the Plan also provided that Israel will guard and monitor the external land perimeter of the Gaza Strip, will continue to maintain exclusive authority in Gaza air space, and will continue to exercise security activity in the sea off the coast of the Gaza Strip as well as maintaining an Israeli military presence on the Egyptian-Gaza border. and reserving the right to reenter Gaza at will.
Israel continues to control six of Gaza's seven land crossings, its maritime borders and airspace and the movement of goods and persons in and out of the territory. Egypt controls one of Gaza's land crossings. Troops from the Israeli Defence Force regularly enter pans of the territory and/or deploy missile attacks, drones and sonic bombs into Gaza. Israel has declared a no-go buffer zone that stretches deep into Gaza: if Gazans enter this zone they are shot on sight. Gaza is also dependent on Israel for water, electricity, telecommunications and other utilities, currency, issuing IDs, and permits to enter and leave the territory. Israel also has sole control of the Palestinian Population Registry through which the Israeli Army regulates who is classified as a Palestinian and who is a Gazan or West Banker. Since 2000 aside from a limited number of exceptions Israel has refused to add people to the Palestinian Population Registry.
It is this direct external control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza that has led the United Nations, the UN General Assembly, the UN Fact Finding Mission to Gaza, International human rights organisations, US Government websites, the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office and a significant number of legal commentators, to reject the argument that Gaza is no longer occupied.{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|editors=
ignored (|editor=
suggested) (help) - Scobbie, Iain (2012). Elizabeth Wilmshurst (ed.). International Law and the Classification of Conflicts. Oxford University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-19-965775-9.
Even after the accession to power of Hamas, Israel's claim that it no longer occupies Gaza has not been accepted by UN bodies, most States, nor the majority of academic commentators because of its exclusive control of its border with Gaza and crossing points including the effective control it exerted over the Rafah crossing until at least May 2011, its control of Gaza's maritime zones and airspace which constitute what Aronson terms the 'security envelope' around Gaza, as well as its ability to intervene forcibly at will in Gaza.
- Gawerc, Michelle (2012). Prefiguring Peace: Israeli–Palestinian Peacebuilding Partnerships. Lexington Books. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7391-6610-9.
While Israel withdrew from the immediate territory, Israel still controlled all access to and from Gaza through the border crossings, as well as through the coastline and the airspace. In addition, Gaza was dependent upon Israel for water, electricity, sewage, communication networks, and for its trade (Gisha 2007. Dowty 2008). ln other words, while Israel maintained that its occupation of Gaza ended with its unilateral disengagement, Palestinians—as well as many human right organizations and international bodies—argued that Gaza was by all intents and purposes still occupied.
- Sanger, Andrew (2011). "The Contemporary Law of Blockade and the Gaza Freedom Flotilla". Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 2010. 13. Springer Science & Business Media: 429. doi:10.1007/978-90-6704-811-8_14. ISBN 978-90-6704-811-8.
- Slater, Jerome (October 2012). "Just War Moral Philosophy and the 2008–09 Israeli Campaign in Gaza" (PDF). International Security. 37 (2): 44–80. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
- "Daily Press Briefing by the Office of the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General". United Nations. 19 January 2012. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
-
- "The international community maintains that the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan is null and void and without international legal effect." International Labour Office (2009). The Situation of Workers of the Occupied Arab Territories. Geneva: International Labour Office. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-2-120630-9.
- In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 161–1 in favour of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. ("General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees" (Press release). United Nations. 5 December 2008.)
- " the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab–Israeli war." Also, " the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". (Prados, Alfred B. (19 January 2006). "CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. pp. 3, 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-23.)
- Occupied territory:
- " Israeli-occupied Golan Heights " (Central Intelligence Agency (2009). CIA World Factbook 2010. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. p. 339. ISBN 1-60239-727-9.)
- " the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal " (Mark, Clyde R. (5 April 2002). "CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-04-24.)
- " Occupied Golan Heights." ("Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories travel advice". UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 5 August 2010. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010.)
- "In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory " ("ICRC activities in the occupied Golan during 2007". International Committee of the Red Cross. 24 April 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-11-13.)
- Korman, Sharon (1996). The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice. Oxford University Press. p. 265. ISBN 0-19-828007-6.
The continued occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights is recognized by many states as valid and consistent with the provisions of the United Nations Charter, on a self-defence basis. Israel, on this view, would be entitled to exact as a condition of withdrawal from the territory the imposition of security measures of an indefinite character—such as perpetual demilitarization, or the emplacement of a United Nations force—which would ensure, or tend to ensure, that the territory would not be used against it for aggression on future occasions. But the notion that Israel is entitled to claim any status other than that of belligerent occupant in the territory which it occupies, or to act beyond the strict bounds laid down in the Fourth Geneva Convention, has been universally rejected by the international community—no less by the United States than by any other state.
- "Trump signs decree recognizing Israeli sovereignty over Golan Heights". Reuters. 25 March 2019. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
- UN Security Council resolutions 353, 357, 358, 359, 360, and 365.
- ^ Secretariat of the European Parliament DG-EXPO 2015, p. 15: "Territory may further be controlled by an armed group. This could be a rebel group which wants to take over control of the government of the state in question or it could be a group that wants to secede from the state and form a new state or have the territory transferred to another state. There is no term in international law for such territory. In some cases, the armed group in power in such a territory may be under the control of or under the influence of a foreign power. As has been held by the European Court of Human Rights, Turkey is legally responsible for human rights violations committed in the non-recognised 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' (TRNC). It is possible that the situation is similar in the self-proclaimed peoples' republics in Donetsk and Lugansk."
- "Military occupation of Western Sahara by Morocco". Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts. Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
- Complex Political Decision-Making: Leadership, Legitimacy and Communication. Taylor & Francis. 2016. p. 170.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|editors=
ignored (|editor=
suggested) (help) - Geiß, Robin (2015). "Russia's Annexation of Crimea: The Mills of International Law Grind Slowly but They Do Grind". International Law Studies. 91. the Stockton Center for the Study of International Law. Retrieved 2019-10-11.
- Kajjo, Sirwan (2 March 2017). "Skirmishes Mar Fight Against IS in Northern Syria". Voice of America.
Turkish occupation "is an existential threat to the Assad government's ability to reclaim the entirety of its territory, which is a key argument that regime loyalists make in their support of Bashar al-Assad's government," Heras said.
- Fisk, Robert (29 March 2017). "In northern Syria, defeated Isis fighters leave behind only scorched earth, trenches – and a crucifixion stand". The Independent.
You can't mistake the front line between the Syrian army and Turkey's occupation force east of Aleppo.
- Matamoros, Cristina Abellan (27 February 2019). "Russia and Syria call for US troops to leave Syria". Euronews. Retrieved 2019-09-29.
- Giglio, Mike; al-Awad, Munzer (20 December 2018). "Trump's Surprise Withdrawal From Syria Betrays Allies and Bolsters Rivals". BuzzFeed News. Retrieved 2019-09-29.
Russia has repeatedly objected to US presence at al-Tanf. A Russian official earlier this month expressed "growing concern" about the "illegal occupation of the 55-km zone around the base in al-Tanf," calling it "the basic source of destabilisation in that part of Syria."
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - "1913 I Leo Freundlich: Albania's Golgotha: Indictment of the Exterminators of the Albanian People". albanianhistory.net. Translated by Elsie, Robert. Archived from the original on 2012-05-04.
- ^ Kerchnawe, Hugo; Mitzka, Rudolf; Sobotka, Felix; Leidl, Hermann; Krauss, Alfred (1928). Die Militärverwaltung in den von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen besetzten Gebieten, Nide 4 (in German). Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky A.G.
- Feldbrugge, F. J. M.; Van den Berg, G. P.; Simons, William B., eds. (1985). Encyclopedia of Soviet Law (2nd revised ed.). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht. p. 461. ISBN 90-247-3075-9.
- "U.S.-Baltic Relations: Celebrating 85 Years of Friendship" (PDF) (Press release). U.S. Department of State. June 14, 2007. Archived from the original on August 19, 2012. Retrieved June 21, 2015.
{{cite press release}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ "Far East (Formosa and the Pescadores)". Hansard. 540 (cc1870–4). U.K. Parliament. May 4, 1955. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
The sovereignty was Japanese until 1952. The Japanese Treaty came into force, and at that time Formosa was being administered by the Chinese Nationalists, to whom it was entrusted in 1945, as a military occupation.
- Cattan, Henry (1981). "The Status of Jerusalem under International Law and United Nations Resolutions". Journal of Palestine Studies. 10 (3): 3–15. JSTOR 2536456.
- Benvenisti, Eyal (2012-02-23). The International Law of Occupation. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-958889-3.
- Occupied and annexed territory:
- " in 1949, India occupied Sikkim, with its direct route to Lhasa." (Cohen, Stephen P. (1987). The Security of South Asia: American and Asian Perspectives. University of Illinois Press. p. 40.)
- "India's relations with Nepal reached at a nadir in 1975 after Indian occupation of Sikkim, fearing a similar fate, Nepal began to distance itself from India " (Haider, Zaglul (Spring 2017). "Locating the Loopholes of South-South Cooperation in South Asia: Can SAARC Deter Hostilities and Promote Cooperation?". Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies. 40 (3): 44. JSTOR 10.33428/jsoutasiamiddeas.40.3.0035.
- "Following failed negotiations and public riots, India ultimately occupied Sikkim. In May 1975, Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian Union and the monarchy was abolished." (Radha, Kumar (2008). "India as Foreign Policy Actor – Normative Redux". In Tocci, Nathalie (ed.). Who Is a Normative Foreign Policy Actor?: The European Union and Its Global Partners. Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies. p. 235. ISBN 978-92-9079-779-1.)
- Grimes, Paul (8 March 1978). "Desai Deplores Annexation of Sikkim, but Says He Cannot Undo". The New York Times. p. 9. Retrieved 2019-10-20.
- "Factually, the annexation of Sikkim by India was not legal. You can see from the response we have had in the last few days how the people support us. Since 1975, people have not been allowed to visit the palace." (Namgyal, Wangchuk (15 March 1982). "India has a lot to gain by Sikkimese independence: Wangchuk Namgyal". India Today (Interview). Interviewed by Madhu Trehan. Retrieved 2019-10-20.)
- "Africa :: Congo, Democratic Republic of the". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved June 20, 2015.
- "Decision regarding delimitation of the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia" (PDF). Reports of International Arbitral Awards. 13 April 2002. pp. 83–195. Retrieved 2017-05-18.
- "Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission". Permanent Court of Arbitration. Retrieved 2017-05-18.
- "Coalition troops in Iraq". BBC News. 20 July 2004. Retrieved 2019-07-01.
- "Ethiopia Marks Yearlong Occupation in Somalia". Voice of America. 1 November 2009. Archived from the original on 2015-06-21.