| Revision as of 12:59, 18 April 2021 editRAJIVVASUDEV (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Rollbackers15,362 edits Importing Wikidata short description: "Study of handwriting" (Shortdesc helper)← Previous edit | Revision as of 21:04, 22 April 2021 edit undo韩进 (talk | contribs)3 editsNo edit summaryTags: Reverted non-English content blankingNext edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Short description|Study of handwriting}} | |||
| {{distinguish|text=], the forensic examination of handwritten documents as a branch of questioned document examination}} | |||
| {{for|the linguistic study of writing systems which has sometimes been called graphology|Graphemics}} | |||
| {{Multiple issues| | |||
| {{original research|date=January 2014}} | |||
| {{Weasel|date=January 2014}} | |||
| }} | |||
| ] | |||
| 笔迹学（英语：Graphology）是一种边缘学科，是各种笔迹特征与人格特质对应关系的知识系统。它以笔迹为研究对象，以推测书写者的人格特质为目的，它是建立在相信笔迹特征与书写者的人格特质之间存在着对应关系的基础上，认为笔迹就是心迹。 | |||
| '''Graphology''' is the analysis of the physical characteristics and patterns of ] with attempt to identify the writer, indicate the ] at the time of writing, or evaluate ] characteristics.<ref name="definition">{{citation | title=Longman Dictionary of Psychology and Psychiatry | publisher=Longman Group United Kingdom | year=1983 }}</ref> No scientific evidence exists to support graphology,<ref name="DriverBuckleyFrink1996">{{cite journal |last1=Driver |first1=Russell W. |last2=Buckley |first2=M. Ronald |last3=Frink |first3=Dwight D. |title=Should We Write Off Graphology? |journal=International Journal of Selection and Assessment |date=April 1996 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=78–86 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2389.1996.tb00062.x }}</ref><ref name="NYT1">{{cite news |last1=Cohen |first1=Roger |title=In France, It's How You Cross the t's |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/19/business/in-france-it-s-how-you-cross-the-t-s.html |work=The New York Times |date=19 October 1993 }}</ref> and it is generally considered a ]<ref name=nevo1986/><ref name=Graph_Beyer_PBS/><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Scientific American Frontiers|8|2|BEYOND SCIENCE? Paper Personality}}</ref><ref name = Dunning>{{Skeptoid|id=4363|number=363|title=All About Graphology|access-date=2 September 2016}}</ref> or scientifically questionably practice.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Graphology|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=April 25, 2017|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/graphology |quote=In general, the scientific basis for graphological interpretations of personality is questionable.}}</ref> However, it remains in widespread use in ]<ref name="NYT1"/><ref>{{cite news|title=A French love affair... with graphology|first=Hugh|last=Schofield|work=BBC News|location=Paris|date=29 April 2013|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22198554 }}</ref> and has historically been considered legitimate for use in some court cases.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bishop|first=Paul|year=2017|title=Ludwig Klages and the Philosophy of Life: A Vitalist Toolkit|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781138697157|page=5}}</ref> The term is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to ], due to the fact that aspects of the latter dealing with the examination of handwritten documents are occasionally referred to as '']''. | |||
| 就世界范围而言，笔迹学最兴盛的时期是上个世纪九十年代。进入21世纪后，对笔迹学质疑、批评的声音渐多，不少人认为笔迹学的科学依据不足，有些人甚至说它是伪科学。但社会上喜欢笔迹学的人依然越来越多，目前脸书上的笔迹学小组很多，组员人数有不少上千。至于那些专家们，绝大多数都有严肃认真负责的科学精神和态度，他们的科学探索是值得敬佩的。 | |||
| 实际上谈笔迹学应该分为世界笔迹学和中国笔迹学两部分。 | |||
| 由于中国的文字是独一无二的象形文字，所以世界各国以拼音文字笔迹为对象的笔迹学无法进入中国，西方的笔迹学书籍没有在中国出版的。近30年来，中国的笔迹学专著约出版了30部，也没有一部翻译成外文出版。双方的专家学者很少有技术交流。世界笔迹学和中国笔迹学处于基本上隔绝的状态。有关中国笔迹学的消息，用英语网上搜索，至今是有价值的信息一无所有，完全空白。 | |||
| 中国的笔迹学专家具有分析任何文字笔迹的能力，希望与世界各国的同仁切磋技艺。但世界各国的笔迹学专家分析汉字笔迹的能力有限，没见到有人愿意同中国的笔迹学专家较量高低。 | |||
| 30多年前，曾经有梅纳斯夫人到中国介绍笔迹学，后来2019年仍有外国专家参加中国的笔迹学北京峰会，但可以说中国和世界没有过真正笔迹学方面的学术交流。 | |||
| 但是，中国的笔迹学发展实在出乎许多人的意料。 | |||
| 中国的一切都在党和政府的领导之下，社会上无神论是主流，只有严肃认真地走科学之路，才能在中国立足研究笔迹学。汉字的复杂结构，使西方的笔迹学没有用武之地，这种情况逼迫中国的笔迹学专家另辟蹊径，走动态分析笔迹的道路，结果是，真闯出了一片新天地。 | |||
| 笔迹学在中国的发展特点是，不能威胁共产党的利益，所以人们一般不敢分析国家领导人的笔迹，不能随便评论党和国家树立的正面人物；除此之外，笔迹学倒是具有特别健康而清净的社会环境，走的是严格的科学道路，不能随便乱说乱评；与相面算命严格划清界限。什么巴纳姆效应和福克斯博士效应，都与中国笔迹学不沾边。读中国的笔迹分析结论，你会发现全是干货，很少有水分，与世界各国的情况大不相同。 | |||
| 中国的笔迹学专家大部分走的是动态分析笔迹的道路，分析方法分临写法（又叫临摹法）和触觉法两种。在中国，基本上听不到质疑或批评笔迹学的声音；30多年来，国家级的报刊上没有发表过怀疑或批评笔迹学的文章，而肯定、支持的报道倒有二三十篇。完全可以说，在中国，肯定笔迹学的声音是绝对的主流，这一点，只要搜索网上的中文信息也可以看出来。 | |||
| 中国的笔迹学家使用的是动态分析的方法，世界各国的笔迹学专家使用的是静态分析的方法。 | |||
| 动态分析的方法，分析的是笔迹中的动作习惯，其中必有直觉感知的过程，在外行看来，这是主观的方法。 | |||
| 静态分析的方法，对笔迹采取客观的态度，视笔迹为图像，努力精确测量、精细地分析静态的笔迹特征。 | |||
| 静态分析方法的科学性不足，因为它违背了笔迹的一个重要特性，即笔迹具有绝对的不稳定性。 | |||
| 笔迹具有双重性，既有相对的稳定性，也有绝对的不稳定性。 | |||
| 从稳定性来说，文件鉴别可以确定任何笔迹是谁写的，说明笔迹具有个人特征的稳定性。 | |||
| 从不稳定性来说，谁也写不出绝对相同的两个字，即使签名，签一百遍就会有一百种样子。 | |||
| 相对的稳定性，只能表现在某些局部特征上。 | |||
| 绝对的不稳定性，表现为笔迹的全部笔迹特征不能重复再现。 | |||
| 世界各国的笔迹学专家，以对待物理性质事物的态度，对待和处理具有绝对不稳定性特征的笔迹，这是世界笔迹学科学性不足的根本原因。 | |||
| 要知道，笔迹真是一种很特殊的事物。 | |||
| 现在网上的信息，说世界各国的笔迹学专家没有经得起测试考核，其实这种测试考核是非常复杂的事情，应该慎重研究怎样才能算真正科学的测试考核。 | |||
| Schlicht, an academic historian, states that while graphology failed to become a scientific discipline, many experts in ] and ] participated in the endeavour to study graphology within a broader, more recognized science of expression, and that "to qualify something as pseudoscience can thus easily result in an unsystematic examination of a historical constellation of knowledge production."<ref>{{cite paper|last=Schlicht|first=Laurens|year=2020|title=Graphology in Germany in the 1920s and 1930s|journal=NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin|volume=28|issue=2|pages=149–179|doi=10.1007/s00048-020-00246-8|pmid=32333033|doi-access=free}}</ref> Graphology has been controversial for more than a century. Although supporters point to the ] of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, empirical studies fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.<ref name="DriverBuckleyFrink1996">{{cite journal |last1=Driver |first1=Russell W. |last2=Buckley |first2=M. Ronald |last3=Frink |first3=Dwight D. |title=Should We Write Off Graphology? |journal=International Journal of Selection and Assessment |date=April 1996 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=78–86 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2389.1996.tb00062.x }}</ref><ref name="Furnham1987">{{cite journal |last1=Furnham |first1=Adrian |last2=Gunter |first2=Barrie |title=Graphology and personality: Another failure to validate graphological analysis |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |date=January 1987 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=433–435 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(87)90045-6 }}</ref> It has also been rated by mental health professionals as one of the top five most discredited psychological tests.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Norcross|first=John C.|last2=Koocher|first2=Gerald P.|last3=Garofalo|first3=Ariele|date=2006|title=Discredited psychological treatments and tests: A Delphi poll.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0735-7028.37.5.515|journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice|volume=37|issue=5|pages=515–522|doi=10.1037/0735-7028.37.5.515|issn=1939-1323|quote=Five tests rated by at least 25% of the experts in terms of being discredited for a specific purpose received mean scores of 4.0 or higher: Luscher Color Test, Szondi Test, handwriting analysis (graphology), Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (for assessment of neuropsychological impairment), eneagrams, and Lowenfeld Mosaic Test|via=}}</ref> | |||
| 至少，世界各国没有对中国的笔迹学家测试考核过；而中国的笔迹学专家一直很希望有人 、有组织对他们进行严格科学的测试考核。 | |||
| 因此，谈现在笔迹学的情形，应该把世界各国和中国分开来谈。若是站在发展的立场上，至少我们可以期待笔迹学成为一门新型的学科，我们应该理解它在探索过程中出现的错误，允许它有个逐步发展的过程。若是因为它现在的测评结论不能令人满意就一棒子把它打死，斥责它是伪科学，这种态度我认为不太合适，也不明智。 | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| The word "graphology" is derived from ''grapho-'' (from the Greek γραφή, "writing") and '']'' (from the Greek ], which relates to discussion or theory).<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.finedictionary.com/graphology.html|title = Fine Dictionary|access-date = 2014-09-22|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924013139/http://www.finedictionary.com/graphology.html|archive-date = 2015-09-24|url-status = live}}</ref> | |||
| 2021年4月23日编辑英文版维基百科“笔迹学”。 | |||
| == History == | |||
| ] stated in 1991 that ]'s 1575 ''Examen de ingenios para las ciencias'' was the first book on handwriting analysis.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gille-Maisani |first= Jean-Charles |year=1991 |title=Psicología de la Escritura |trans-title=Psychology of Handwriting) |location=Barcelona |publisher=Herder|isbn=978-84-254-1705-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Huarte |first=Juan |title=Examen de ingenios para las ciencias |trans-title=Examination of inventions for the sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6v4rNcFzqUC |year=1846 |publisher=Imprenta R. Campuzano |location=Madrid |language=es |orig-year=1575}}</ref> In American graphology, ]'s ''Trattato come da una lettera missiva si conoscano la natura e qualita dello scrittore'' from 1622 is considered to be the first book.<ref name="ROMAN1952"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Baldi |first=Camillo |author-link=Camillo Baldi |title=Trattato come da una lettera missiva si conoscano la natura e qualità dello scrittore |trans-title=Treatise on from a missive letter knowing the nature and quality of the writer |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k8597375 |location=Carpi |publisher=Girolamo Vaschieri |year=1622 |language=it |access-date=2016-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121092829/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k8597375 |archive-date=2016-11-21 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| Around 1830 ] became interested in handwriting analysis. He published his findings<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Michon | |||
| | first = Jean-Hippolyte | |||
| | title = Le mystéres de l'écriture | |||
| | place = Paris | |||
| | year = 1872 | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Michon | |||
| | first = Jean-Hippolyte | |||
| | title = Systéme de graphologie | |||
| | place = Paris | |||
| | year = 1875 | |||
| }}</ref> shortly after founding ''Société Graphologique'' in 1871. The most prominent of his disciples was ] who rapidly published a series of books<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Crépieux-Jamin | |||
| | first = Jules | |||
| | title = Traité pratique de graphologie, étude du caractère de l'homme d'après son écriture | |||
| | place = Paris | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Crépieux-Jamin | |||
| | first = Jules | |||
| | title = L'écriture et le caractère | |||
| | place = Paris | |||
| | publisher = 1888 | |||
| }}</ref> that were soon published in other languages.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Crépieux-Jamin | |||
| | first = Jules | |||
| | title = Handwriting and Expression | |||
| | place = London | |||
| | publisher = 1892 | |||
| | edition = First English Translation | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Crépieux-Jamin | |||
| | first = Jules | |||
| | title = Praktisches Lehrbuch der Graphologie | |||
| | place = Leipzig | |||
| | publisher = List | |||
| | year = 1906 | |||
| | edition = Fifth German | |||
| }}</ref> Starting from Michon's integrative approach, Crépieux-Jamin founded a holistic approach to graphology. | |||
| ] was convinced to conduct research into graphology from 1893 to 1907. He called it "the science of the future" despite rejection of his results by graphologists. | |||
| After ], interest in graphology continued to spread in Europe as well as the United States. In Germany during the 1920s, ] founded and published his finding in ''Zeitschrift für Menschenkunde'' (''Journal for the Study of Mankind''). His major contribution to the field can be found in ''Handschrift und Charakter''.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Klages | |||
| | first = Ludwig | |||
| | author-link = Ludwig Klages | |||
| | title = Handschrift und Charakter | |||
| | publisher = 1916 | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Klages | |||
| | first = Ludwig | |||
| | author-link = Ludwig Klages | |||
| | title = Handschrift und Charakter: gemeinverständlicher Abriss der graphologischen Technik | |||
| | place = Barth | |||
| | year = 1940 | |||
| | edition = 17th | |||
| | page = 256 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| Thea Stein Lewinson and J. Zubin modified Klage's ideas, based upon their experience working for the U.S. government, publishing their method in 1942.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last1 = Lewinson | |||
| | first1 = Thea Stein | |||
| | last2 = Zubin | |||
| | first2 = J | |||
| | title = Handwriting analysis; a series of scales for evaluating the dynamic aspects of handwriting | |||
| | place = New York | |||
| | publisher = King's Crown Press | |||
| | year = 1942 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| | pages = xiii, 147 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| In 1929 Milton Bunker founded The American Grapho Analysis Society teaching ]. This organization and its system split the American graphology world in two. Students had to choose between graphoanalysis or holistic graphology. While hard data is lacking, anecdotal evidence indicates that 10% of the members of International Graphoanalysis Society (IGAS) were expelled between 1970 and 1980.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Chimera | |||
| | first = Mary Ann | |||
| | journal = Impact Magazine | |||
| | issue = 5 | |||
| | postscript = .}}{{pn|date=September 2020}}</ref> | |||
| Regarding a proposed correlation between gender and handwriting style, a paper published by James Hartley in 1989 concluded that there was some evidence in support of this hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartley |first1=James |title=Sex Differences in Handwriting: a comment on Spear |journal=British Educational Research Journal |date=January 1991 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=141–145 |doi=10.1080/0141192910170204 }}</ref> | |||
| == Professional status == | |||
| Although graphology had some support in the scientific community before the mid-twentieth century, more recent research rejects the validity of graphology as a tool to assess personality and job performance.<ref name=nevo1986>Nevo, B ''Scientific Aspects Of Graphology: A Handbook'' Springfield, IL: Thomas: 1986</ref><ref name="kingkoehler">{{cite journal |last1=King |first1=Roy N. |last2=Koehler |first2=Derek J. |title=Illusory correlations in graphological inference |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied |date=2000 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=336–348 |doi=10.1037/1076-898X.6.4.336 |pmid=11218342 |citeseerx=10.1.1.135.8305 }}</ref><ref>{{cite document |last1=Lockowandt |first1=Oskar |title=Present status of the investigation of handwriting psychology as a diagnostic method |publisher=American Psychology Association |year=1976 }}</ref> Today it is considered to be a ].<ref name=nevo1986/><ref name='Graph_Beyer_PBS'>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/safarchive/3_ask/archive/qna/3282_bbeyerstein.html |title=Barry Beyerstein Q&A |access-date=2008-02-22 |work=Ask the Scientists |publisher=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220080111/https://www.pbs.org/safarchive/3_ask/archive/qna/3282_bbeyerstein.html |archive-date=2007-02-20 }} "they simply interpret the way we form these various features on the page in much the same way ancient oracles interpreted the entrails of oxen or smoke in the air. i.e., it's a kind of magical divination or fortune telling where 'like begets like'".</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="NYT1"/><ref name="Dunning"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Goodwin CJ |title=Research In Psychology: Methods and Design |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eNsVUGTMcDoC&pg=PA36 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-52278-3 |page=36}}</ref> Many studies have been conducted to assess its effectiveness to predict personality and job performance. Recent studies testing the validity of using handwriting for predicting personality traits and job performance have been consistently negative.<ref name="nevo1986"/><ref name ="kingkoehler"/> | |||
| In a 1987 study, graphologists were unable to predict scores on the ] using writing samples from the same people.<ref name="Furnham1987"/> In a 1988 study, graphologists were unable to predict scores on the ] test using writing samples from the same people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bayne |first1=R. |last2=O'Neill |first2=F. |title=Handwriting and personality: A test of some expert graphologists' judgments |journal=Guidance and Assessment Review |volume=4 |issue=4 |year=1988 |pages=1–3 }}</ref> A 1982 ] drawn from over 200 studies concludes that graphologists were generally unable to predict any kind of personality trait on any personality test.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jennings |first1=D. L. |last2=Amabile |first2=T. M. |last3=Ross |first3=L. |chapter=Informal covariation assessment: Data-based versus theory-based judgments |pages=211–238 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0H8gwj4a1MC&pg=PA211 |editor1-first=Daniel |editor1-last=Kahneman |editor2-first=Paul |editor2-last=Slovic |editor3-first=Amos |editor3-last=Tversky |year=1982 |title=Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-28414-1 }}</ref> | |||
| Measures of job performance appear similarly unrelated to the handwriting metrics of graphologists. Professional graphologists using handwriting analysis were just as ineffective as lay people at predicting performance in a 1989 study.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neter |first1=Efrat |last2=Ben-Shakhar |first2=Gershon |title=The predictive validity of graphological inferences: A meta-analytic approach |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |date=January 1989 |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=737–745 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(89)90120-7 }}</ref> A broad literature screen done by King and Koehler confirmed dozens of studies showing the geometric aspects of graphology (slant, slope, ''etc.'') are essentially worthless predictors of job performance.<ref name="kingkoehler"/> | |||
| Rowan Bayne, a British psychologist who has written several studies on graphology, summarized his view of the appeal of graphology: "t's very seductive because at a very crude level someone who is neat and well behaved tends to have neat handwriting", adding that the practice is "useless... absolutely hopeless".<ref name="duff">{{cite news | |||
| | last = Duffy | |||
| | first = Jonathan | |||
| | author2 = Giles Wilson | |||
| | title = Writing wrongs | |||
| | publisher = BBC News Magazine | |||
| | date = 2005-02-01 | |||
| | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4223445.stm | |||
| | access-date = 2008-06-24 | |||
| | archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/65SHN3sIV?url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4223445.stm | |||
| | archive-date = 2012-02-14 | |||
| | url-status = live | |||
| }}</ref> The ] ranks graphology alongside ], giving them both "zero validity".<ref name="duff"/> | |||
| Graphology was also dismissed as a pseudo-science by the skeptic ] in 1991.<ref>{{youtube|NeYkOHQ683k|James Randi and a Graphologist}}</ref> | |||
| In his May 21, 2013 ] episode titled "All About Graphology," ] author ] reports:<ref name= Dunning /><blockquote>In his book ''The Write Stuff'', Barry Beyerstein summarized the work of Geoffrey Dean, who performed probably the most extensive literature survey of graphology ever done. Dean did a meta-analysis on some 200 studies: | |||
| Dean showed that graphologists have failed unequivocally to demonstrate the validity or reliability of their art for predicting work performance, aptitudes, or personality. Graphology thus fails according to the standards a genuine psychological test must pass before it can ethically be released for use on an unsuspecting public. | |||
| Dean found that no particular school of graphology fared better than any other... In fact, no graphologist of any stripe was able to show reliably better performance than untrained amateurs making guesses from the same materials. In the vast majority of studies, neither group exceeded chance expectancy.</blockquote> | |||
| Dunning concludes:<ref name = Dunning/><blockquote>Other divining techniques like ], ], ], and ] also have differing schools of thought, require years of training, offer expensive certifications, and fail just as soundly when put to a scientific controlled test. Handwriting analysis does have its plausible-sounding separation from those other techniques though, and that's the whole "handwriting is brainwriting" idea — traits from the brain will be manifested in the way that it controls the muscles of the hand. Unfortunately, this is just as unscientific as the others. No amount of sciencey sounding language can make up for a technique failing when put to a scientifically controlled test.</blockquote> | |||
| ===Additional specific objections=== | |||
| * The ] (the tendency to interpret vague statements as specifically meaningful) and the ]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ware |first1=J E |last2=Williams |first2=R G |title=The Dr. Fox effect: a study of lecturer effectiveness and ratings of instruction |journal=Academic Medicine |date=February 1975 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=149–156 |doi=10.1097/00001888-197502000-00006 |pmid=1120118 |doi-access=free }}</ref> (the tendency for supposed experts to be validated based on likeability rather than actual skill) make it difficult to validate methods of personality testing. These phenomena describe the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. See, for example, Tallent (1958).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tallent |first1=Norman |title=On individualizing the psychologist's clinical evaluation |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychology |date=1958 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=243–244 |doi=10.1002/1097-4679(195807)14:3<243::aid-jclp2270140307>3.0.co;2-a |pmid=13549608 }}</ref> Non-individualized graphological reports give credence to this criticism. | |||
| * Effect Size: Dean's (1992)<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Dean | |||
| | first = Geoffrey A. | |||
| | title = The Bottom Line: Effect Size | |||
| | journal = In Beyerstein & Beyerstein (1992) | |||
| | pages = 269–341 | |||
| }}</ref><ref name ="beyerstein1992">{{Citation | |||
| | last1 = Beyerstein | |||
| | first1 = Barry L. | |||
| | author-link = Barry Beyerstein | |||
| | last2 = Beyerstein | |||
| | first2 = Dale F. | |||
| | title = The Write Stuff: Evaluation of Graphology - The Study of handwriting Analysis | |||
| | place = Buffalo, NY | |||
| | publisher = Prometheus Books | |||
| | year = 1992 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| | url = https://archive.org/details/writestuffevalua00beye | |||
| | isbn = 978-0-87975-612-3 | |||
| | url-access = registration | |||
| }}</ref> primary argument against the use of graphology is that the ] is too small. Regardless of the validity of handwriting analysis, the research results imply that it is not applicable for any specific individual, but may be applicable to a group. | |||
| * Vagueness: Some important principles of graphology are vague enough to allow significant room for a graphologist to skew interpretations to suit a subject or preconceived conclusion. For example, one of the main concepts in the theory of ] is ''form-niveau'' (or ''form-level''): the overall level of originality, beauty, harmony, style, ''etc.'' of a person's handwriting—a quality that, according to Klages, can be perceived but not measured. According to this theory, the same sign has a positive or negative meaning depending on the subject's overall character and personality as revealed by the ''form-niveau''. In practice, this can lead the graphologist to interpret signs positively or negatively depending on whether the subject has high or low social status.<ref>Ulfried Geuter, '''', pp. 95–96. ], 1992.</ref> | |||
| == Approaches == | |||
| ] supports a system called symbolic analysis in which he looks for symbols in the handwriting.<ref>{{Citation | last = Pulver | first = Max Albert Eugen | author-link = Max Pulver | title = Symbolik der Handschrift | place = Zurich & Leipzig | publisher = Orell Füssli | year = 1931 | edition = 1st}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Pulver | first = Max Albert Eugen | author-link = Max Pulver | title = Symbolik der Handschrift | place= Munich | publisher = Kindler | year = 1972 | edition = New | isbn = 978-3-463-18087-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Pulver | first = Max Albert Eugen | author-link = Max Pulver | title = Person, Charakter, Schicksal | place=Zurich | publisher = Orell Füssli | year = 1944 | edition = 1st}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Pulver | first = Max Albert Eugen | author-link = Max Pulver | title = Der Intelligenzausdruck in der Handschrift | place= Zurich | publisher = Orell Füssli | year = 1949 | edition = 1st}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=October 2014}} | |||
| === Systems of handwriting analysis === | |||
| {{third-party|section|date= October 2014}} | |||
| Each approach to handwriting analysis has spawned several systems. | |||
| Integrative graphology focuses on strokes and their relation to personality.<ref name="Sciences 360">{{Cite web|url = http://www.sciences360.com/index.php/handwriting-analysis-and-the-secrets-of-graphology-3-22964/|title = Handwriting Analysis and the Secrets of Graphology|access-date = 2014-09-22|website = Sciences 360|publisher = Helium, Inc.|last = Carter|first = Molly|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140704202319/http://www.sciences360.com/index.php/handwriting-analysis-and-the-secrets-of-graphology-3-22964/|archive-date = 2014-07-04|url-status = live}}</ref> ] was the most influential system in the United States, between 1929 and 2000. The Sistema de Xandró is another method of integrative graphology.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Xandró | |||
| | first = Mauricio | |||
| | title = Psicologia y Grafologia | |||
| | place = Havana | |||
| | publisher = Ed de Conf y Ensayos | |||
| | year = 1949 | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Xandró | |||
| | first = Mauricio | |||
| | title = Abecedario Grafológico | |||
| | place = Onate | |||
| | publisher = Aránzazu | |||
| | year = 1954 | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Xandró | |||
| | first = Mauricio | |||
| | title = Grafología Tratado de Iniciación | |||
| | place = Barcelona | |||
| | publisher =Stadium | |||
| | year = 1955 | |||
| }}</ref> Holistic graphology is based on form, movement, and use of space.<ref name="Sciences 360" /> The ]<ref name="ROMAN1952">{{Citation | |||
| | last = Roman | |||
| | first = Klara G. | |||
| | title = Handwriting: A Key to Personality | |||
| | place= New York | |||
| | publisher = Pantheon Books | |||
| | year = 1952 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Cole | |||
| | first = Charlie | |||
| | author2 = Jean Hartman, Karey Starmer | |||
| | title = Handwriting Analysis Workshop Unlimited: Professional Graphology Course | |||
| | publisher = E C F Cole / HAWU | |||
| | year = 1961–1968 | |||
| | location = Campbell, CA | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Anthony | |||
| | first = Daniel S. | |||
| | title = The Graphological Psychogram: Psychological meanings of its Sectors; Symbolic Interpretation of its Graphic Indicators | |||
| | place= Fort Lauderdale, FL; New York NY | |||
| | orig-year = 1964| year = 1983 | |||
| | edition = Revised | |||
| }}</ref> is another method which uses specific diagrams to analyze handwriting. The Personal Worth Chart is one such method developed by the Handwriting Consultants of San Diego<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last1 = Sassi | |||
| | first1 = Paula | |||
| | last2 = Whiting | |||
| | first2 = Eldene | |||
| | title = Personal Worth Intermediate Course in Handwriting Analysis | |||
| | place= San Diego, CA | |||
| | publisher = Handwriting Consultants of San Diego | |||
| | year = 1983 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| }}</ref> during the early 1980s. The ] is an additional psychogram method.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = King | |||
| | first = Leslie W. | |||
| | title = Graphology Handbook for Tyros or Pros ... | |||
| | place= Bountiful, UT | |||
| | publisher = Handwriting Consultants of Utah | |||
| | year = 1978 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| }}</ref> was developed by Leslie King during the 1970s. The Wittlich Character Diagram,<ref name="Wittlich 1956">{{Citation | |||
| | last = Wittlich | |||
| | first = Bernhard | |||
| | title = Graphologische Charakterdiagramme | |||
| | place= Munich | |||
| | publisher = Johann Ambrosius Barth | |||
| | year = 1956 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| }}</ref><ref name="Wittlich 1951">{{Citation | |||
| | last = Wittlich | |||
| | first = Bernhard | |||
| | title = Angewandte Graphologi | |||
| | place= Berlin | |||
| | publisher = Walter de Griyter & Co | |||
| | year = 1951 | |||
| | edition = 2nd | |||
| }}</ref> and the Muller-Enskat Protokol<ref name="Müller 1973">{{Citation | |||
| | last1 = Müller | |||
| | first1 = Wilhelm H. | |||
| | last2 = Enskat | |||
| | first2 = Alice | |||
| | title = Graphologische Diagnostik | |||
| | place= Bern, Stuttgart, Wien | |||
| | publisher = Verlag Hans Huber | |||
| | year = 1973 | |||
| | edition = 20th | |||
| | isbn = 978-3-456-30514-1 }}</ref><ref name="Müller 1943">{{Citation | |||
| | last = Müller | |||
| | first = Wilhelm H. | |||
| | title = Mensch und Handschrift. Lehrbuch der Graphologischen Deutungstechnik zum Selbstunterricht | |||
| | place= Bern | |||
| | publisher = Munz | |||
| | year = 1943 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| }}</ref> are other psychogram methods. | |||
| Psychologists ], Augusto Vels, and Girolamo Moretti invented their personal schools of graphology.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Moretti | |||
| | first = Girolamo Maria | |||
| | title = Trattato Scientifico di Perizie Grafiche su base Grafologica | |||
| | place= Verona | |||
| | publisher = L'Alberto | |||
| | year = 1942 | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = Moretti | |||
| | first = Girolamo Maria | |||
| | title = ISanti dalla scrittura: esami grafologici | |||
| | place= Padova | |||
| | publisher = Messaggero di S Antonio | |||
| | year = 1963 | |||
| }}</ref><ref>:Moretti, Girolamo (1980) : ''Trattato di Grafologia. Intelligenza – Sentimento,'' Padova, Ed. Messagero di S. Antonio, 12ª Ed.</ref><ref>: Vels, Augusto: ''Tratado de Grafología'', Barcelona, Editorial Vives, 1945</ref><ref>:Vels, Augusto: ''El lenguaje de la Escritura'', Barcelona, Editorial Miracle, 1949.</ref><ref>:Vels, Augusto: ''Cómo ser importante'', Barcelona, P.E.A.P., 1957.</ref><ref>: Vels, Augusto: ''Escritura y Personalidad'', Barcelona, Editorial Herder, 468 pág. - 8ª ed.</ref><ref>:Vels, Augusto: ''La Selección de Personal y el problema humano en las empresas'', Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 640 pág. -5ª ed.</ref><ref>:Vels, Augusto: Diccionario de Grafología y términos psicológicos afines, Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 1998, 532 pág., 5ª ed.</ref><ref>:Vels, Augusto: ''Manual de Grafoanálisis'', Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 264 pág., 2ª ed. revisada.</ref><ref>:Vels, Augusto: ''Grafología Estructural y Dinámica'', Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 404 pág. 1997</ref><ref>:Vels, Augusto: ''Grafología de la A a la Z'', Barcelona, Ed. Herder, 2000, 432 pág.</ref> | |||
| Four academic institutions offer an accredited degree in handwriting analysis: | |||
| * The ], Italy: MA (Graphology) | |||
| * Instituto Superior Emerson, Buenos Aires, Argentina: BA (Graphology)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.grafologiaemerson.com.ar/ |title=Instituto Superior Emerson |trans-title=Emerson Higher Institute |website=Grafología Emerson |year=2016 |language=es |access-date=2016-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112211211/http://www.grafologiaemerson.com.ar/ |archive-date=2016-11-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
| * Centro de Estudios Superiores (CES), Buenos Aires, Argentina: BA (Graphology)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news-ces.com/ |title=Grafologia |trans-title=Graphology |year=2016 |website=Centro de Estudios Superiores |language=es |access-date=2016-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106155603/http://www.news-ces.com/ |archive-date=2016-11-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> | |||
| * ], Barcelona, Spain: MA (Graphology) | |||
| The majority of material in the field is oriented toward the Latin writing system. Courses offered in the subject reflect that bias. | |||
| == Vocabulary == | |||
| Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meanings of those words may be different. The technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning is not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means annoyance. In ], the term indicates a fear of imposition.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = IGAS Department of Instruction | |||
| | author-link = International Graphoanalysis Society | |||
| | title = The Encyclopedic Dictionary for Graphoanalysts | |||
| | place = Chicago, IL | |||
| | publisher = International Graphoanalysis Society | |||
| | year = 1964 | |||
| | edition = 1st | |||
| }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | |||
| | last = IGAS Department of Instruction | |||
| | author-link = International Graphoanalysis Society | |||
| | title = The Encyclopedic Dictionary for Graphoanalysts | |||
| | place = Chicago, IL | |||
| | publisher = International Graphoanalysis Society | |||
| | year = 1984 | |||
| | edition = 3rd | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| == Legal considerations == | |||
| === In Hungary === | |||
| A report by the Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information says that handwriting analysis without informed consent is a privacy violation.<ref name="nagymaros">{{cite journal | first = Attila | last = Péterfalvi | title = Overview of the Data Protection Commissioner's investigation into the tender for the notary position of the city of Nagymaros | publisher = Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information | date = 16 March 2004 | url = http://abiweb.obh.hu/dpc/index.php?menu=reports/2004/III/4&dok=reports/2004/222&nyomtat=1 | access-date = 2008-06-21 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://archive.is/20100109171828/http://abiweb.obh.hu/dpc/index.php?menu=reports/2004/III/4&dok=reports/2004/222&nyomtat=1 | archive-date = 9 January 2010 }}</ref> | |||
| === In the United States === | |||
| ==== Sex and handwriting ==== | |||
| A 1991 review of the then-current literature concluded that respondents were able to predict the gender of handwriting between 57 and 78% of the time.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/0141192910170204|title=Sex Differences in Handwriting: A comment on Spear|year=1991|last1=Hartley|first1=James|journal=British Educational Research Journal|volume=17|issue=2|pages=141–145}}</ref> However, most of these samples, as well as subsequent studies, are based on small sample sizes that are collected nonrandomly. A much larger and more recent survey of over 3,000 participants only found a classification accuracy of 54%.<ref>http://blog.survata.com/identifying-gender-by-handwriting-youre-probably-not-as-good-at-it-as-you-think#:~:text=Gender%20equality&text=Men%20identified%20male%20handwriting%20successfully,of%2049%25%20to%2045%25</ref> As statistical discrimination below .7 is generally considered unacceptable,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve in Diagnostic Test Assessment |journal=Journal of Thoracic Oncology |date=1 September 2010 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=1315–1316 |doi=10.1097/JTO.0b013e3181ec173d |last1=Mandrekar |first1=Jayawant N. |pmid=20736804 }}</ref> this indicates that most results are rather inaccurate,<ref>{{Cite book|doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-01424-7_60|chapter = Handwriting-Based Gender Classification Using End-to-End Deep Neural Networks|title = Artificial Neural Networks and Machine Learning – ICANN 2018|series = Lecture Notes in Computer Science|year = 2018|last1 = Illouz|first1 = Evyatar|last2 = (Omid) David|first2 = Eli|last3 = Netanyahu|first3 = Nathan S.|volume = 11141|pages = 613–621|arxiv = 1912.01816|isbn = 978-3-030-01423-0|s2cid = 52909281}}</ref> and that variation in results observed are likely due to sampling technique and bias.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bradley |first1=Sean |title=Handwriting and Gender: A multi-use data set |journal=Journal of Statistics Education |date=March 2015 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=1 |doi=10.1080/10691898.2015.11889721 |s2cid=123033133 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
| The reason for this bias varies; while it has been speculated as being contributed to by biology due to fine motor skills,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/0141192910170204|title=Sex Differences in Handwriting: A comment on Spear|year=1991|last1=Hartley|first1=James|journal=British Educational Research Journal|volume=17|issue=2|pages=141–145}}</ref> however this explanation is flawed due to a lack of direct evidence, a lack of large differences in motor skills by gender,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1080/00336297.2013.824903|title = Feminist Scholarship: Cross-Disciplinary Connections for Cultivating a Critical Perspective in Kinesiology|year = 2014|last1 = Reifsteck|first1 = Erin J.|journal = Quest|volume = 66|pages = 1–13|s2cid = 144633115}}</ref> and any differences remaining being nonuniform and explainable by culture.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc = 5407840|year = 2017|last1 = Kokštejn|first1 = J.|last2 = Musálek|first2 = M.|last3 = Tufano|first3 = J. J.|title = Are sex differences in fundamental motor skills uniform throughout the entire preschool period?|journal = PLOS ONE|volume = 12|issue = 4|pages = e0176556|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0176556|pmid = 28448557|bibcode = 2017PLoSO..1276556K}}</ref> Instead, explanations rooted in culture and gender bias may better explain the data.<ref>https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1510&context=gsurc</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1080/00224545.1996.9712254|title = Inferring Gender from Handwriting in Urdu and English|year = 1996|last1 = Hamid|first1 = Sarah|last2 = Loewenthal|first2 = Kate Miriam|journal = The Journal of Social Psychology|volume = 136|issue = 6|pages = 778–782|pmid = 9043207}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/0141192890150304|title=Differences between the Written Work of Boys and Girls|year=1989|last1=Spear|first1=Margaret Goddard|journal=British Educational Research Journal|volume=15|issue=3|pages=271–277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/00224540209603929|title=Judging Gender from Samples of Adult Handwriting: Accuracy and Use of Cues|year=2002|last1=Burr|first1=Vivien|journal=The Journal of Social Psychology|volume=142|issue=6|pages=691–700|pmid=12450344|s2cid=39650656}}</ref> | |||
| ==== Employment law==== | |||
| A 2001 advisory opinion letter from the ] responded to a question regarding "whether it is legal to use an analysis of an applicant's handwriting as an employment screening tool. You also ask whether it is legal to ask the applicant's age and use of medications to allow for variants in his/her handwriting."<ref name=EEOC>{{citation|last=Johnston|first=Dianna B.|title=Title VII: Disparate Impact, Handwriting Analysis|publisher=U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|date=28 February 2001|url=https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/foia/letters/2001/titlevii_disparate_handwriting.html|access-date=4 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122024344/https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/foia/letters/2001/titlevii_disparate_handwriting.html|archive-date=22 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> The letter advised that in this circumstance, it was illegal under the ] (ADA) to ask a job applicant whether he or she is taking any medications, and also advised that asking an applicant for his or her age "allegedly to allow for variants in analyzing his/her handwriting" was not a ''per se'' violation of the ] (ADEA), but could be significant evidence of age discrimination.<ref name=EEOC/> The letter also said that there was no judicial guidance on "whether a policy of excluding applicants based upon their handwriting has an adverse impact on a protected group" under the ADA, ADEA, or ].<ref name=EEOC/> | |||
| == Applications == | |||
| === Employment profiling === | |||
| A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position. Applicant can also malpractice in this system; they may ask someone to write on their behalf.<ref>{{Citation | |||
| |publisher = Behavioral Profiling International | |||
| |title = Partial List of Characteristics Evaluated | |||
| |url = http://www.bpilab.com/Characteristics%20Evaluated.htm | |||
| |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040106055421/http://bpilab.com/Characteristics%20Evaluated.htm | |||
| |url-status = dead | |||
| |archive-date = 2004-01-06 | |||
| |access-date = 2007-06-05 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools. | |||
| Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lighton |first=R. E. |title=A Graphological Examination of the Handwriting of Air Pilots|journal=Thesis in the Faculty of Arts |publisher=University of Pretoria|year=1934}}</ref> to guarded | |||
| success.<ref>{{Citation|author=Luca, E. S.|title=Major Aptitudes and Personality Characteristics of 42 Dental Students as Evaluated Through Their Handwriting|journal=New York Journal of Dentistry|year=1973|volume=43|issue=9|pages=281–83|pmid=4518182}}</ref> The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Steven L. |last2=Vaught |first2=Steve |title=The write stuff: What the evidence says about using handwriting analysis in hiring |journal=SAM Advanced Management Journal |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=31–35 |date=September 2001}}</ref> | |||
| The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical grounds<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Daryl |last=Koehn|title=Handwriting Analysis In Pre-Employment Screening|journal=The Online Journal of Ethics|volume=1|issue=1}}</ref> and on legal grounds in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Julie |last=Spohn|title=The Legal Implications of Graphology|journal=Washington University Law Quarterly|volume=73|issue=3|date=Fall 1997}}</ref> | |||
| === Psychological analysis === | |||
| Graphology has been used clinically by European counselors and psychotherapists.<ref name="Wittlich 1956"/><ref name="Wittlich 1951"/><ref name="Müller 1973"/><ref name="Müller 1943"/> When it is used, it is generally used alongside other projective personality assessment tools, and not in isolation. It is often used within individual psychotherapy, marital counseling, or vocational counseling.<ref>Poizner, Annette (2012). Clinical Graphology: An Interpretive Manual for Mental Health Practitioners. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publishers</ref> | |||
| ===Marital compatibility=== | |||
| In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s) within the relationship.<ref>Karohs, Erika (1994) SSS. Pebble Beach, CA</ref> The theory is that after knowing and understanding how each individual in the relationship differs from every other individual in the relationship, the resulting marriage will be more enduring. With a comparative analysis receiving and non-receiving parts responses are measured.<ref>IGAS (1976) MGA. Chicago, IL: IGAS</ref> | |||
| === Medical diagnosis === | |||
| Medical graphology is probably the most controversial branch of handwriting analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ludewig |first1=Reinhard |last2=Dettweiler |first2=Christian |last3=Lewinson |first3=Thea Stein |title=Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Medizinischen Graphologie |trans-title=Possibilities and limits of medical graphology. Determination of current status and perspectives (I) |language=de |journal=Zeitschrift für die gesamte innere Medizin und ihre Grenzgebiete |date=December 1992 |volume=47 |issue=12 |pages=549–57 |pmid=1285461 }}</ref> Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to ]. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knopp |first1=W |last2=Paulson |first2=G |last3=Allen |first3=JN |last4=Smeltzer |first4=D |last5=Brown |first5=FD |last6=Kose |first6=W |title=Parkinson's disease: L-dopa treatment and handwriting area |journal=Current Therapeutic Research, Clinical and Experimental |date=March 1970 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=115–25 |pmid=4985489 }}</ref> The study of these phenomena is a by-product of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body. | |||
| ''The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice'', amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis by those not licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice. | |||
| === Graphotherapy === | |||
| {{More medical citations needed|section|date=October 2014}} | |||
| This is the pseudoscience of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality, or "handwriting analysis in reverse."<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Shermer |editor-first=Michael |title=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA119|volume=1|year=2002|publisher=Skeptic's Society|isbn=978-1-57607-653-8|page=119}}</ref> It originated in France during the 1930s, spreading to the United States in the late 1950s.<ref name="destpaul">{{Citation |last= de Sainte Columbe |title= Grapho Therapeutics: Pen and Pencil Therapy |location= Hollywood, CA |publisher= Laurida Books |year= 1966 |edition= 1st}}</ref><ref name="destpaul2">{{Citation |last= de Sainte Columbe |first= Paul |title= Grapho Therapeutics: Pen and Pencil Therapy |location= Hollywood, CA |publisher= Paul de St Columbe Center |year= 1972 |edition= 2nd}}</ref> The purported therapy consists of a series of exercises which are similar to those taught in basic ] courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk. | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| === Graphologists === | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| === Related fields === | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{Reflist|35em}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * {{cite journal |vauthors=Bangerter A, König CJ, Blatti S, Salvisberg A |title=How Widespread is Graphology in Personnel Selection Practice? A case study of a job market myth |year=2009 |journal=International Journal of Selection and Assessment |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=219–30 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2389.2009.00464.x|s2cid=55481603 |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/20992/files/Bangerter_Adrian_-_How_Widespread_is_Graphology_in_Personnel_Selection_20101122.pdf }} | |||
| * {{cite book |year=2002 |editor=Shermer M |editor-link=Michael Shermer |author=Berger J |work=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA116 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-653-8 |pages=116–20 |title=Handwriting Analysis and Graphology}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})=============================== | |||
| | DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF | | |||
| | LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, | | |||
| | but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link | | |||
| | to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)| | |||
| | and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. | | |||
| | | | |||
| | Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. | | |||
| | See ] and ] for details | | |||
| ===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{Psychology}} | |||
| {{Pseudoscience}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 21:04, 22 April 2021
笔迹学（英语：Graphology）是一种边缘学科，是各种笔迹特征与人格特质对应关系的知识系统。它以笔迹为研究对象，以推测书写者的人格特质为目的，它是建立在相信笔迹特征与书写者的人格特质之间存在着对应关系的基础上，认为笔迹就是心迹。 就世界范围而言，笔迹学最兴盛的时期是上个世纪九十年代。进入21世纪后，对笔迹学质疑、批评的声音渐多，不少人认为笔迹学的科学依据不足，有些人甚至说它是伪科学。但社会上喜欢笔迹学的人依然越来越多，目前脸书上的笔迹学小组很多，组员人数有不少上千。至于那些专家们，绝大多数都有严肃认真负责的科学精神和态度，他们的科学探索是值得敬佩的。 实际上谈笔迹学应该分为世界笔迹学和中国笔迹学两部分。 由于中国的文字是独一无二的象形文字，所以世界各国以拼音文字笔迹为对象的笔迹学无法进入中国，西方的笔迹学书籍没有在中国出版的。近30年来，中国的笔迹学专著约出版了30部，也没有一部翻译成外文出版。双方的专家学者很少有技术交流。世界笔迹学和中国笔迹学处于基本上隔绝的状态。有关中国笔迹学的消息，用英语网上搜索，至今是有价值的信息一无所有，完全空白。 中国的笔迹学专家具有分析任何文字笔迹的能力，希望与世界各国的同仁切磋技艺。但世界各国的笔迹学专家分析汉字笔迹的能力有限，没见到有人愿意同中国的笔迹学专家较量高低。 30多年前，曾经有梅纳斯夫人到中国介绍笔迹学，后来2019年仍有外国专家参加中国的笔迹学北京峰会，但可以说中国和世界没有过真正笔迹学方面的学术交流。 但是，中国的笔迹学发展实在出乎许多人的意料。 中国的一切都在党和政府的领导之下，社会上无神论是主流，只有严肃认真地走科学之路，才能在中国立足研究笔迹学。汉字的复杂结构，使西方的笔迹学没有用武之地，这种情况逼迫中国的笔迹学专家另辟蹊径，走动态分析笔迹的道路，结果是，真闯出了一片新天地。 笔迹学在中国的发展特点是，不能威胁共产党的利益，所以人们一般不敢分析国家领导人的笔迹，不能随便评论党和国家树立的正面人物；除此之外，笔迹学倒是具有特别健康而清净的社会环境，走的是严格的科学道路，不能随便乱说乱评；与相面算命严格划清界限。什么巴纳姆效应和福克斯博士效应，都与中国笔迹学不沾边。读中国的笔迹分析结论，你会发现全是干货，很少有水分，与世界各国的情况大不相同。 中国的笔迹学专家大部分走的是动态分析笔迹的道路，分析方法分临写法（又叫临摹法）和触觉法两种。在中国，基本上听不到质疑或批评笔迹学的声音；30多年来，国家级的报刊上没有发表过怀疑或批评笔迹学的文章，而肯定、支持的报道倒有二三十篇。完全可以说，在中国，肯定笔迹学的声音是绝对的主流，这一点，只要搜索网上的中文信息也可以看出来。 中国的笔迹学家使用的是动态分析的方法，世界各国的笔迹学专家使用的是静态分析的方法。 动态分析的方法，分析的是笔迹中的动作习惯，其中必有直觉感知的过程，在外行看来，这是主观的方法。 静态分析的方法，对笔迹采取客观的态度，视笔迹为图像，努力精确测量、精细地分析静态的笔迹特征。 静态分析方法的科学性不足，因为它违背了笔迹的一个重要特性，即笔迹具有绝对的不稳定性。 笔迹具有双重性，既有相对的稳定性，也有绝对的不稳定性。 从稳定性来说，文件鉴别可以确定任何笔迹是谁写的，说明笔迹具有个人特征的稳定性。 从不稳定性来说，谁也写不出绝对相同的两个字，即使签名，签一百遍就会有一百种样子。 相对的稳定性，只能表现在某些局部特征上。 绝对的不稳定性，表现为笔迹的全部笔迹特征不能重复再现。 世界各国的笔迹学专家，以对待物理性质事物的态度，对待和处理具有绝对不稳定性特征的笔迹，这是世界笔迹学科学性不足的根本原因。 要知道，笔迹真是一种很特殊的事物。
现在网上的信息，说世界各国的笔迹学专家没有经得起测试考核，其实这种测试考核是非常复杂的事情，应该慎重研究怎样才能算真正科学的测试考核。 至少，世界各国没有对中国的笔迹学家测试考核过；而中国的笔迹学专家一直很希望有人 、有组织对他们进行严格科学的测试考核。
因此，谈现在笔迹学的情形，应该把世界各国和中国分开来谈。若是站在发展的立场上，至少我们可以期待笔迹学成为一门新型的学科，我们应该理解它在探索过程中出现的错误，允许它有个逐步发展的过程。若是因为它现在的测评结论不能令人满意就一棒子把它打死，斥责它是伪科学，这种态度我认为不太合适，也不明智。
2021年4月23日编辑英文版维基百科“笔迹学”。