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== Syedism, Ashrafism, Biradarism, Zatism, and Divisions ==

Syedism (or Sayedism) is considered to be a system of social inequality among South Asian Muslims.<ref name = "ThePrint"/> Syedism involves the belief that Syeds have a more authentic grasp on Islam and all social and political matters.<ref name = "Patel"></ref> Zat is sometimes considered a broader category than Biradari. In Pakistani Punjab, being relatives is the main criterion to comprise a Biradari.

{{see also|List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities}}

Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=32-35}}

*''Ashraf'', who claim foreign-origin descent.
**e.g. , ], ]
*Converts from ]
**e.g. ], ], ]
*Converts from other indan ]
**e.g. ], ], Mansoori, ], ], ] (Nai), ], ], ], ], ], and ]
*Converts from ] castes
**e.g. ]

The non-Ashrafs are categorized as ''Ajlaf''. The untouchable Hindu converts are also categorized as ''Arzal'' ("degraded").<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last = Ambedkar |first = Bhimrao |author-link = B.R. Ambedkar |title = Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher = Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline"></ref> They are relegated to menial professions such as scavenging and carrying ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/dereserve-these-myths/12109/|title=Dereserve these myths - Indian Express|website=archive.indianexpress.com|language=en-gb|access-date=2017-09-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Falahi|first1=Masood|title=Caste and caste based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims'|url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf|website=SAS|access-date=5 January 2015}}</ref>

], citing the Superintendent of the Census for 1901 for the Province of Bengal, mentions that the Ajlaf primarily include:
* Cultivating Sheikhs, and others who were originally Hindus but who do not belong to any functional group, and have not gained admittance to the Ashraf Community, e.g. Pirali and Thakrai.
* Darzi, Brahmin, Jolaha, Fakir, and Rangrez.
* Barhi, Bhalhiara, Chik, Churihar, Dai, Dhawa, Dhunia, Gaddi, Kalal, Kasai, Kula Kunjara, Laheri, Mahifarosh, Mallah, Naliya, Nikari.
* Abdal, Bako, Bediya, Bhal, Chamba, Dafali, Dhobi, Hajjam, Mucho, Nagarchi, Nal, Panwaria, Madaria, Tunlia.

For the Arzal, the following castes are mentioned by the Superintendent of the Census: Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar.<ref>http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/410.html#part_2</ref>

In ], various social groups (called {{transl|ur|quoms}}) display a social stratification comparable to the Indian caste system. The various {{transl|ur|quoms}} differ widely in power, privilege and wealth. Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. ], ], ], ], etc.) and membership of specific ]s or {{transl|ur|zaat/quoms}} are additional integral components of social identity.<ref name="barth">{{cite book | last = Barth | first = Fredrik | editor = E. R. Leach | title = The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan) | url= https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 113 | year = 1962 }}</ref> Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close ] are preferred due to a congruence of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott adds that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan|author=Fredrick Barth|journal=American Anthropologist|doi=10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080|volume=58|issue=6|pages=1079–1089|date=December 1956|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (Editor: Kenneth David)|author=Zeyauddin Ahmed|pages=337–354|isbn=978-90-279-7959-9|publisher=Aldine Publishing Company|year=1977}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan|author=McKim Marriott|year=1960|publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute|oclc=186146571}}</ref> The numerically and socially influential tribes in Pakistani Punjab includes the agricultural tribes of ], ], ] and ] as well as Rajput.<ref name="nihcr.edu.pk"/>

In ], the castes of Muslims rank differs according to the criteria applied.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities, Volume 1|author=Nagendra Kr Singh, Abdul Mabud Khan|page=1124|publisher=Global Vision Pub House|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzfs_G7QHoAC&pg=PA1124|isbn=9788187746072|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic Culture - Volume 52|page=207|author=Marmaduke William Pickthall, Muhammad Asad|year=1978}}</ref>

In India the Ajlaf comprise of Qureshis, Ansaris, Saifis, and other groups of lower occupation.

=== Pakistani Punjab ===

In Pakistani Punjabi villages, there is a hierarchical division of two major caste based status groups: landowning castes, Zamindars, and service providing castes, Kammis. Zamindar Quoms and Kammi Quoms are distinct and rigid birth-ascribed status groups on the bases of their parentage occupations. Zamindars and Kammis are traditionally linked through the Seyp system (labor contract), in which Kammis are provided money, food, grains/crops, and favors in return for their services and labor. Zamindars are the dominant caste group, and they compete for leadership roles and control village affairs. Zamindar Quoms in Pakistani Punjab have had a monopolistic control over land against Kammi Quoms, and dominate political, economic, and social aspects of village life. Kammi Quoms are socially marginalized. Inter-Quom endogamy remains a strict divide between Zamindar and Kammi Quoms. Pakistani Punjabis associate the status of being a Zamindar with the possession of ancestral land and cultivation as the parentage occupation.

In contemporary Pakistani Punjabi villages, "Zamindars" refer mostly to members of a landowning Quom involved in agriculture (Zamindari) as their occupation. Some Quoms, including Arains, are above the service providing castes but are not mostly given the landowning castes' status either.

Caste endogamy is practiced in Pakistan and different Quoms generally do not inter-marry or at least generally do not prefer to marry out of the Quom. The caste endogamy between Zamindar and Kammi Quoms is an essential feature of the caste system in rural Pakistani Punjab. All the service providing, laborer, and artisan Quoms are grouped together as Kammis (for example, cobblers, carpenters, and barbers). Quoms form the Biradari system.

A Kammi woman remarked how:

{{quote|"Even if a Kammi acquires 100 acres of land, he remains Kammi and Zamindars will always consider him lower. A Zamindar who owns one acre of land would think "if a Kammi has bought 2 acres, so what after all he remains a Kammi". They do not accept us as equals."}}

Quoms are an important factor in marriage practices. Different Zamindar Quoms sometimes intermarry, and this may form a Biradari. A large majority of Kammis are associated with low graded tasks or daily wage labour.

In elections, people show loyalty to their Quoms. Local bodies' elections in Pakistani Punjab are purely on Biradari basis. Kammis are lesser in population than Zamindars. Kammis generally do not contest elections, including because contesting elections involves a lot of financial resources.

A study in a Pakistani Punjabi village found that in the ''Seyp'' (contractual relationships) between a ''Zamindar'' (landholding) family and ''Kammi'' (artisan castes) families, Kammi families provide services and goods to the Zamindars in exchange for grain; the Kammi families also perform some other ritual and customary roles - for example, the barber cooks in the house of the Zamindar on special occasions and performs circumcision.

== Discrimination == == Discrimination ==


Revision as of 13:38, 30 July 2021

Discrimination

Over the centuries, like other South Asian societies, the Muslim society in the region has evolved into the concept of caste purity and pollution. Hence, the low-class (Ajlaf) Muslims in the region have faced other kinds of discrimination. In 20th century India, the upper-class (Ashraf) Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include lower social classes among the groups eligible for affirmative action in India under SC and STs provision act.

In Bihar state of India, cases have been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.

A study in a Pakistani village found that a caste-like hierarchy exists in the Muslim community of the village. The sweeper group is ranked the lowest. The other Muslim communities do not allow the sweepers to touch the cooking vessels of the upper ranking groups of Muslims.

An analysis of Muslim representation in India's Lok Sabha found that of the roughly 400 Muslim representatives from the 1st to the 14th Lok Sabha, 340 were Ashraf, while 60 were Pasmanda (meaning oppressed or marginalized); Pasmandas make up 85% of India's Muslim population and Ashrafs 15%.

Medieval Ashraf scholars mentioned that Muslims of Afghan, Iranian, Arab, and Central Asian origin were superior while local converts were inferior. This was due not only to racial differences with local concerts generally being dark skinned and Ashrafs being lighter skinned, but also due to Ashraf being the dominant political elite, while the majority of Ajlaf were associated with ancestral professions as peasants and artisans which were looked down upon as inferior and demeaning.

Based on classical literature, particularly the Fatawa-i-Jahandari written by Turkish scholar Ziauddin Barani, a leading courtier of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Sultan of Delhi), caste divisions were recommended among Indian Muslims. Barani warned the Sultan not to educate the lowborn and that they are not allowed to mingle with the superior race.

Historians and Urdu writers such as Masood Alam Falahi have discussed how condescension of Ashraf Muslims towards the lower caste and Dalit Muslims often masqueraded under conceptions of class and "khandaani" (family line) values among Muslims in Uttar Pradesh.

Some scholars say that Ashraf Muslims are over-represented in government-run institutions for minorities (including Aligarh Muslim University).

Another practice that has been noted includes the existence of separate burial grounds.

See also

References

Citations

  1. Azra Khanam 2013, pp. 120–121.
  2. Webner, Pnina (2007). The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis. ISBN 9781472518477. Retrieved 30 October 2016.
  3. Asghar Ali Engineer. "On reservation for Muslims". The Milli Gazette. Pharos. Retrieved 2004-09-01.
  4. Anand Mohan Sahay. "Backward Muslims protest denial of burial". Rediff.com. Retrieved 2003-03-06.
  5. Ahmad, I., 2010. Can There Be a Category Called Dalit Muslims?. STUDIES IN INEQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE, p.79.
  6. Hastings Donnan (1988). Marriage Among Muslims: Preference and Choice in Northern Pakistan. BRILL. pp. 51–56. ISBN 978-90-04-08416-2.
  7. ^ Anis Ansari, Khalid (13 May 2019). "India's Muslim community under a churn: 85% backward Pasmandas up against 15% Ashrafs". Times of India.
  8. ^ Kanmony, J. Cyril (2010). Dalits and Tribes of India. Mittal Publications. p. 200.
  9. Umar, Sanober. "The Identity of Language and the Language of Erasure: Urdu and the Racialized-Decastification of the "Backward Musalmaan" in India". Brandeis University: 187. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

Bibliography

Further reading

Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)
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Ethnic and racial
Gender
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