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Popular Front of India

Abbreviation	PFI
Formation	22 November 2006
Type	Voluntary Based Nonprofit organisation
Purpose	To establish an egalitarian society in which freedom, justice and security are enjoyed by all.
Headquarters	G-66, 2nd Floor, Shaheen Bagh Kalindikunj, Noida Road, New Delhi – 110025, Tel/ Fax – 011 29949902
Region served	India
Chairman of the Front	OMA Abdul Salam
Website	www.popularfrontindia.org

The Popular Front of India (PFI) is an ngo organisation in India formed as a successor to National Development Front (NDF) in 2006, and often have been accused for involvement in anti-national and anti-social activities by the Indian Government. It acquired a multi-state dimension by merging with the National Development Front, Manitha Neethi Pasarai, Karnataka Forum for Dignity and other organisations. The PFI describe themselves as a neo-social movement committed to empower people to ensure justice, freedom and security. The organisation has various wings to cater to different sections of society, including the National Women's Front and the Campus Front of India.

PFI claims to work in cooperation with the National Confederation of Human Rights Organisations and other human rights activists in a bid to curb human rights violations in the nation. The organisation campaigns for Muslim Reservation in line with the Mishra Commission (National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities) report to address inequality faced by Muslims in India. In 2012, the organisation conducted protests against the use of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act to detain innocent citizens.

Since its inception, the organisation has been accused of various antisocial and anti-national activities. The allegations include connections with various Islamic terrorist groups, possessing arms, kidnapping, murder, intimidation, hate campaigns, rioting, Love Jihad and various acts of religious extremism. In 2010, the assault on Prof. T. J. Joseph who published a controversial question paper, supposedly insulting the Prophet Muhammad, was linked to the PFI. However, the charges were denied by the organisation, which added that the accusations were fabricated to malign the organisation.

In 2012, the Government of Kerala informed the High Court of their opinion that the activities of the Popular Front are inimical to the safety of the country and that it is "nothing but a resurrection of the banned outfit Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) in another form", in its argument to ban the organisation's Independence Day programme, dubbed "Freedom Parade". The High Court dismissed the Government's stand, but upheld the ban imposed by the State Government. In July 2010, the Kerala Police seized country-made bombs, weapons, CDs and several documents containing Taliban and Al-Qaeda propaganda, from PFI activists. The raids conducted were subsequently termed "undemocratic" and "unconstitutional" by the organisation. As of 6 September 2010, as informed to the state high court by the Kerala government, no evidence has been found by the police in its probe into the allegation of links to Hizbul Mujahideen, Lashkar-e Taiba (Let) or Al-Qaeda. However, in April 2013 a series of raids by the Kerala Police on PFI centres across North Kerala found lethal weapons, foreign currency, human shooting targets, bombs, explosive raw materials, gunpowder, swords, among other things. The Kerala Police claimed that the raid revealed the "terror face" of the PFI.

In 2015, the Madras High Court issued a notice to the Commissioner of Police based on the PIL charging police for having given misleading information to HC on the "unity march", a variant of the Freedom Parade. The HC directed to register a case against the CoP and the SP, and ₹3.3mn as compensation for "loss of image, reputation and defamation". The organisation provided counter arguments to the allegations positioned against it in its 2012 nationwide campaign "Why Popular Front".

The organisation is also known for its anti-Imperialist and anti-Zionist stance, as seen in the pro-Palestine protests in various parts of the country in November 2012, and later in July 2014 with the nationwide solidarity campaigns christened "I am Gaza". In 2015, the Popular Front protested against the death sentence given to a democratically elected leader and Islamist affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood, Mohamed Morsi and his followers. The protest was in front of the Egyptian embassy in New Delhi.

History

The PFI started in Kerala as successor to National Development Front in 2006. It went on to merge with the Karnataka Forum for Dignity of Karnataka and the Manitha Neethi Pasarai in Tamil Nadu and later in 2009, with Goa's Citizen's Forum, Rajasthan's Community Social and Educational Society, West Bengal's Nagarik Adhikar Suraksha Samiti, Manipur's Lilong Social Forum and Andhra Pradesh's Association of Social Justice. It actively advocates Muslim reservations, personal law courts for Muslims, the cause of Dalits, Muslims and tribals, and scholarships to deprived Muslim students.

A common platform was formed in cooperation with the South India Council as an outcome of a regional discussion attended by Muslim social activists and intellectuals from the South Indian States at Bangalore on 25 and 26 January 2004. It has taken up the issue of reservation in government and private sector jobs and Parliament and Assemblies and in cooperation with the Confederation of Muslim Institutions in India, it organised a two-day workshop on Muslim Reservations on 26 and 27 November 2005 at Hyderabad, inaugurated by Rajya Sabha member Rahman Khan. The slogan of PFI is Naya Karavan: Naya Hindustan, which is Urdu for "New Caravan: new India".

Leadership (Office Bearers)

The National General Assembly (NGA) of Popular Front of India elected

O.M.A Salam - Chairman

E.M Abdul Rahiman - Vice Chairman

Anis Ahmed, General Secretary

V.P Nasruddin, Secretary

Afsar Pasha, Secretary

Mohammed Shakif, Secretary

E Abubacker, NEC Member

Prof P Koya, NEC Member

Mohammed Ali Jinnah, NEC Member

A.S Ismail, NEC Member

Adv. Mohammed Yusuff, NEC Member

Abdul Wahid Sait, NEC Member

Criticism and accusations

Geothermal field

El Tatio is well known as a geothermal field in Chile, and is the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere with about 8% of all geysers in the world. Only the fields at Yellowstone in the United States and Dolina Geizerov, are larger. They also have taller geysers than at El Tatio, where geyser fountains are on average only 75 centimetres (30 in) high. Together with Sol de Mañana, which is just east of El Tatio in Bolivia, it is also the highest-altitude geyser field in the world.

The geothermal field covers an area of 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) at elevations of 4,200–4,600 metres (13,800–15,100 ft), and is characterized by fumaroles, hot springs, steam vents and steaming soil. Stronger geothermal activity is located within three discrete areas covering a total of 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) surface, and includes boiling water fountains, hot springs, geysers, mudpots, mud volcanoes and sinter terraces; further, chimneys of extinct geysers have been noted. One of these three areas lies within a valley, the second on a flat surface and the third along the banks of the Rio Salado. The first area offers a notable contrast between the snow-covered Andes, the coloured hills that surround the field and the white deposits left by the geothermal activity. Most geysers of El Tatio are found here and are particularly noticeable in cold weather. A similar landscape exists at the third (lower) area, with the presence of the Rio Salado river adding an additional element to the landscape. The second area is located between a creek and a hill and includes an artificial 15-by-30-metre (49 ft × 98 ft) pool for tourists.

About 110 documented geothermal manifestations have been documented at El Tatio, but the total has been estimated at 400. The field once numbered 67 geysers and more than three hundred hot springs. Many vents are linked to fractures that run northwest–southeast or southwest–northeast across the field. Some geyser fountains in the past reached heights greater than 10 metres (33 ft); usually, however, they do not exceed 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) and their activity sometimes varies over time. A few geysers have received names, such as Boiling Geyser, El Cobreloa, El Cobresal, El Jefe, Terrace Geyser, Tower Geyser and Vega Rinconada. Minor eruptions of the geysers occur approximately every dozen minutes and major eruptions every few hours on average, and major eruptions take place after the conduit was "prepared" by multiple smaller ones. An additional geothermal system lies southeast of and at elevations above El Tatio and is characterized by steam-heated ponds fed by precipitation water, and solfataric activity has been reported on the stratovolcanoes farther east.

Deposition of sinter from the waters of the geothermal field has given rise to spectacular landforms, including, but not limited to mounds, terraced pools, geyser cones and the dams that form their rims. Small-scale features include cones, crusts, mollusc-shaped formations, waterfall-like surfaces and very small terraces. These sinter deposits cover an area of about 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) and include both active and inactive deposits, both of which were emplaced on glacial sediments. High contents of silica give the waters a blueish colour, organic compounds such as carotenoids conversely often colour the sinter with orange-brown, and greenish hues are owing to iron-oxidizing bacteria.

Individual vent types and deposits found at El Tatio include:

• Hot springs form pools with water temperatures of 60–80 °C (140–176 °F), which are often gently moving and surging and in the case of the warmer springs actively bubbling. These pools often contain ball-like rocks called oncoids and are surrounded by sinter rims, which have spicule-like textures. These sinter rims often form dam-like structures around deeper vents which are filled with water. Spherical grains develop in the hot springs as a consequence of hydrodynamic processes, and include biogenic material; during the growth of the sinter they often end up embedded in the material.
• Water draining from the springs deposits sinter, which can form fairly thick deposits and large aprons when sheet flow occurs, known as "discharge deposits"; sometimes terraces are developed instead. As in springs, oncoids and spicules are observed in channels. Much of the water evaporates and its temperature drops from 30–35 °C (86–95 °F) to less than 20 °C (68 °F) away from the springs; the low air temperatures cause it to freeze occasionally, resulting in frost weathering.
• Geysers and also water fountains discharge from up to 3-metre (9.8 ft) high cones with gently sloping surfaces, which sometimes support splash mounds. The cones are made out of geyserite. Other geysers and fountains instead discharge from within rim-bounded pools, and some geysers are in the bed of the Rio Salado river. The activity of geysers is not stable over time; changes in water supply or in the properties of the conduit that supplies them can cause changes in their eruptive activity. Such changes can be triggered by rainfall events or earthquakes and at El Tatio geyser behaviour changes have been linked to the 2014 Iquique earthquake and a 2013 precipitation event. The water of geysers is 80–85 °C (176–185 °F) hot.
• Mud pools are often bubbling, with the hot mud fountaining. Simmering pools of water have been recorded at El Tatio as well.

• A vent surrounded by yellow rocks
• Geyser cone
• Geyser cone
• Geyser cone

Geology

Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate is responsible for the formation of the Andes. Volcanism does not occur along the entire length of the Andes; there are three volcanic zones called the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone, all separated by areas with no Holocene-age volcanism.

El Tatio and a number of other geothermal fields such as Sol de Mañana are part of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex. The region was dominated by andesitic volcanism producing lava flows until the late Miocene, then large-scale ignimbrite activity took place between 10 and 1 million years ago. This ignimbrite volcanism is part of the APVC proper and produced about 10,000 cubic kilometres (2,400 cu mi) of ignimbrites, covering a surface area of 50,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi). The APVC activity continued into the Holocene with the emission of voluminous lava domes and lava flows, and Tatio was one of the last volcanic centres in the APVC to erupt; the present-day uplift of the Uturunku volcano in Bolivia may signal ongoing activity of the APVC. The APVC is underpinned by a large magma chamber with the shape of a sill, the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body; a number of volcanoes and geothermal systems including El Tatio are geographically associated with the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body.

The Laguna Colorada caldera lies east of El Tatio. The terrain at El Tatio is formed by Jurassic–Cretaceous sediments of marine and volcanic origin, Tertiary–Holocene volcanic formations that were emplaced in various episodes, and recent sediments formed by glaciers, alluvium, colluvium and material formed by the geothermal field, such as sinter. Volcanic formations fill the Tatio graben, including the Miocene Rio Salado ignimbrite and related volcanics which reach thicknesses of 1,900 metres (6,200 ft) in some places, the Sifon ignimbrite, the Pliocene Puripicar ignimbrite and the Pleistocene Tatio ignimbrite; the Puripicar ignimbrite crops out farther west. Active volcanoes in the area include Putana and Tocorpuri.

Hydrothermal alteration of country rock at El Tatio has yielded large deposits of alteration minerals such as illite, nobleite, smectite, teruggite and ulexite. The summit parts of several volcanoes of the El Tatio volcanic group have been bleached and discoloured by hydrothermal activity.

Hydrology

Most of the water that is discharged by the hot springs appears to originate as precipitation, which enters the ground east and southeast of El Tatio. The source of heat of the complex appears to be the Laguna Colorada caldera, the El Tatio volcanic group, the Cerro Guacha and Pastos Grandes calderas or the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body. The movement of the water in the ground is controlled by the permeability of the volcanic material and the Serrania de Tucle–Loma Lucero tectonic block west of El Tatio that acts as an obstacle. As it moves through the ground, it acquires heat and minerals and loses steam through evaporation. Unlike geothermal fields in wetter parts of the world, given the dry climate of the area, local precipitation has little influence on the hot springs hydrology at El Tatio. Neither magmatic water nor water from local precipitation are mixed into this water. The time the water takes to traverse the whole path from precipitation to the springs is considered to be either 15 years or more than 60, and three-quarters of the heat is transported by steam.

The water travels through a number of aquifers that correspond to permeable rock formations, such as the Salado and Puripicar ignimbrites, as well as through faults and fractures in the rock. It steeply ascends under El Tatio and appears to be confined between northeast-trending fault systems. Three separate geothermal reservoirs have been identified, which underlie the Cerros del Tatio and extend to the La Torta volcano; they are connected by, and partly formed in cavities formed by faults. The Puripicar ignimbrite appears to be the main hydrothermal reservoir, with temperatures reaching 253 °C (487 °F). The total heat output of El Tatio is about 120–170 MW. The hydrothermal system beneath El Tatio appears to extend to the neighbouring La Torta system.

Depending on the season, the hot springs yield 0.25–0.5 m/s of water at temperatures reaching the local boiling point. The water is rich in minerals, especially sodium chloride and silica. Other compounds and elements in order of increasing concentration are antimony, rubidium, strontium, bromine, magnesium, caesium, lithium, arsenic, sulfate, boron, potassium and calcium.

Some of these minerals are toxic, especially arsenic which pollutes a number of waters in the region. Arsenic concentrations in waters at El Tatio can reach 40–50 mg/l – among the highest concentrations found in hot springs of the whole world – and 11 g/kg in sediments. Producing about 500 tonnes per year (16 long ton/Ms), El Tatio is a principal source of arsenic in the Rio Loa system, and arsenic pollution in the region has been linked to health issues in the population.

Composition of these hot springs is not uniform in El Tatio, with chloride content decreasing from the northern springs over the southwestern ones to the eastern springs, where sulfate is more frequent. This sulfate enrichment appears to be driven by the steam-driven evaporation of the hot spring water, with the sulfate forming when hydrogen sulfide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. The decreasing chloride content on the other hand appears to be due to drainage coming from the east diluting the southern and western and especially eastern spring systems.

Fumaroles

Steam vents are particularly noticeable in the morning hours when the steam columns emanating from them are visible, and temperatures of 48.3–91.6 °C (118.9–196.9 °F) have been found. Carbon dioxide is the most important fumarole gas, followed by hydrogen sulfide. The amount of water relative to these two gases is variable, probably due to condensation of water in the ground.

Additional components include argon, helium, hydrogen, methane, neon, nitrogen and oxygen. Characteristically for fumarole gases on convergent plate boundaries, much of this nitrogen is non-atmospheric. However, atmospheric air is also involved in generating the chemistry of the El Tatio fumarole gases.

Composition of spring deposits

Opal is the most important component of sinter associated with hot springs; halite, sylvite and realgar are less common. This dominance of opal is because usually conditions favour its precipitation from water but not of other minerals, and it occurs both in subaqueous environments and on surfaces that are only occasionally wetted. During the precipitation, the opal forms tiny spheres which can aggregate as well as glassy deposits.

Halite and other evaporites are more commonly encountered on the sinter surfaces outside of the hot springs, and while opal dominates these environments too, sassolite and teruggite are found in addition to the aforementioned four minerals in the discharge deposits. Cahnite has also been identified in sinter deposits. Volcanic minerals such as plagioclase and quartz are found within cavities of the sinter. Sandstone formed by debris flows and redeposited volcanic material is found embedded in sinter at some localities. Finally, antimony, arsenic and calcium form sulfidic deposits in some springs.

Various facies have been identified in drill cores through the sinter, including arborescent, columnar, fenestral palisade, laminated (both inclined and planar), particulate, spicular and tufted structures. These structures contain varying amounts of microfossils and formed at diverse temperatures and locations of individual sinter mounds. Microorganisms and material like pollen is found integrated within the sinter deposits. The rate at which sinter is deposited has been estimated at 1.3–3.4 kilograms per square metre per year (0.27–0.70 pdr/sq ft/a).

Climate and biology

The climate is dry with most precipitation falling between December and March, a precipitation pattern mediated by the South American monsoon and by the South Pacific High which is responsible for the dry climate. The whole Central Andes were wetter in the past, resulting in the formation of lakes such as Lake Tauca in the Altiplano. This, and a colder climate, resulted in the development of glaciers at El Tatio, which have left moraines.

The region is additionally rather windy with mean windspeeds of 3.7–7.5 metres per second (12–25 ft/s), which influence the hot springs by enhancing evaporation. The evaporation rates per month reach 131.9 millimetres (5.19 in) and they facilitate the deposition of sinters. The atmospheric pressure at this elevation drops to about 0.58 atmospheres, lowering the boiling point of water.

Apart from precipitation, the area is characterized by extreme temperature variations between day and night which can reach 40 °C (72 °F) and induce freeze-thaw cycles. The Chilean Dirección General del Agua operates a weather station at El Tatio; according to data from this station air temperatures average 3.6 °C (38.5 °F) and precipitation 250 millimetres per year (9.8 in/year). El Tatio further features high ultraviolet (UV) insolation, which can reach 33 W/m UV-A and 6 W/m UV-B. The low atmospheric pressure and high UV irradiation has led scientists to treat El Tatio as an analogue for environments on Mars.

The dry grassland vegetation of the region is classified as Central Andean dry puna and lies above the treeline. About 90 plant species have been identified at El Tatio and surroundings, such as the endemic Adesmia atacamensis, Calceolaria stellariifolia, Junellia tridactyla and Opuntia conoidea. Tussock grasses like Anatherostipa, Festuca and Stipa occur at 3,900–4,400 metres (12,800–14,400 ft) elevation, while rosette and cushion plants reach elevations of 4,800 metres (15,700 ft); these include Azorella, Chaetanthera, Mulinum, Senecio, Lenzia, Pycnophyllum and Valeriana. Bushland species include Lenzia chamaepitys, Senecio puchii and Perezia atacamensis, while Arenaria rivularis, Oxychloe andina and Zameioscirpus atacamensis grow in wetlands. Riparian vegetation occurs along the Rio Salado. Among the animals in the region are chinchillas and viscachas and llamas, mainly the vicuña.

• Vicuñas at El Tatio
• A yareta growing between rocks
• Landscape of the El Tatio region

Spring biology

The geothermal field El Tatio is populated by various plants, microbes and animals. The vents are an extreme environment, given the presence of arsenic, the large amount of UV radiation that El Tatio receives and its high elevation.

Hot springs have characteristic microbial communities associated with them that leave characteristic fossil traces in the spring deposits; environmental conditions on the early Earth resembled these of hot springs with potentially high UV radiation exposure, as the ozone layer did not yet exist and life probably developed within such conditions. In addition, microbial metabolism of arsenic influences its toxicity and the effects of arsenic pollution.

Microorganisms

Biofilms and microbial mats are omnipresent at El Tatio, including Calothrix, Leptolyngbya, Lyngbya and Phormidium cyanobacteria, which form mats within the hot springs covering the solid surfaces, including oncoids and the sinter. In other places, the aforementioned three genera form stromatolithic structures. Chroococcidiopsis is another cyanobacterium that can be found in hot waters of El Tatio, and non-cyanobacteria bacteria have also been found in the mats and sinter.

There is a thermal gradation of microorganisms, with the hottest waters supporting Chloroflexus green bacteria and hyperthermophiles, cyanobacteria at less than 70–73 °C (158–163 °F) water temperature and diatoms at even lower temperatures. Microbial mats have been found at other hot springs in the world such as Yellowstone and Steamboat Springs, both in the United States, and New Zealand, but they are thinner at El Tatio.

These mats often have their organic material replaced with opal and thus end up forming much of the sinter, which has thus characteristic biogenic textures, such as filaments and laminae. Such biogenic textures have been observed on sinter deposits around the world and are usually microbial in origin, at El Tatio they sometimes feature still living bacteria. In the case of El Tatio, these biogenic textures are particularly well preserved in the sinter deposited by water flowing away from springs. Chloroflexus is a thermophilic filamentous green bacterium found in hot waters at Yellowstone; filamentous structures within geyser cones at El Tatio may have been formed by this bacterium. In splash cones Synechococcus-like microbes are instead responsible for the structures, which resemble those of hot springs.

Sinter absorbs much of UV radiation, protecting microorganisms that dwell within the sinter against this harmful radiation. Some microstructures found on the Home Plate landform on Mars are similar to these biogenic structures at El Tatio, but do not necessarily imply that the microstructures on Mars are biogenic.

Diatoms are also found in El Tatio waters, including Synedra species, which are often found attached to filamentous substrates, and algae are found in the waters. Among bacteria identified in the somewhat colder flowing waters are bacteroidetes and proteobacteria, with Thermus species in the hot waters. Various archaeans have been cultured from El Tatio waters, with hot springs producing crenarchaea, desulfurococcales and methanobacteriales. One species, Methanogenium tatii, has been discovered at El Tatio, and is a methanogen recovered from a warm pool. The species name is derived from the geothermal field and other methanogens may be active in El Tatio.

Macroorganisms

In the upper geyser basin, vegetation has been observed to grow within thermal areas, like a thermal marsh. Animal species found at El Tatio include the snail Heleobia and frog Rhinella spinulosa. The larvae of this frog at El Tatio live in water with approximately constant temperatures of 25 °C (77 °F) and show atypical development patterns compared to frogs of the same species that developed in places with more variable water temperatures.

Geological history

During the Pliocene–Quaternary the Cordillera Occidental was subject to extensional tectonics. A related fault system was active; it is linked to Sol de Mañana in Bolivia and controls the position of several vents in El Tatio. The intersection between northwest–southeast trending, north-northwest-south-southeast-trending lineaments at El Tatio has been correlated with the occurrence of geothermal activity. The tectonics of the El Tatio area were originally interpreted as reflecting the existence of a graben before a compressive tectonic regime was identified.

A series of ignimbrites was emplaced. The first was the 10.5–9.3 million year old Rio Salado ignimbrite, which forms a 1,800-metre (5,900 ft) thick layer; this might imply that the source of this ignimbrite was close to El Tatio. The Rio Salado ignimbrite elsewhere crops out as two flow units, with varying colours, and close to El Tatio it is crystalline and densely welded. It was followed by the 8.3 million year old voluminous Sifon ignimbrite, which reaches a thickness of about 300 metres (980 ft) in the area. The Pliocene Puripicar ignimbrite reaches a similar thickness, and it was later downwarped by faulting.

This strong ignimbrite volcanism is associated with activity of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex, which has produced large volume dacite ignimbrites and sizable calderas, starting from the middle Miocene. Among these, Cerro Guacha, La Pacana, Pastos Grandes and Vilama produced supereruptions.

The Tatio ignimbrite was emplaced less than one million years ago, while the Tucle volcanics are dated to 800,000 ± 100,000 years ago. The ignimbrite reaches a volume of 40 cubic kilometres (9.6 cu mi) and crops out over a surface area of 830 square kilometres (320 sq mi). The Tatio ignimbrite contains rhyolitic pumice and crystals, while the Tucle volcanics are andesitic and include both lava and tuffs. The El Tatio ignimbrite ponded in the El Tatio area and may have originated at the Tocorpuri rhyolite dome, which is less than one million years old, in a vent now buried beneath the El Tatio volcanic group, or at the Laguna Colorada caldera.

The El Tatio volcanic group has likewise been dated to be less than one million years old, and its lavas overlie the older formations. Volcan Tatio erupted mafic lavas probably during the Holocene; later this volcano was reinterpreted to be of Pleistocene age. Petrological data suggest that over time the erupted lavas of the El Tatio volcanic group have become more mafic, with older products being andesitic and later ones basaltic-andesitic.

There is no recorded historical volcanism in the El Tatio area and volcanism has not directly affected it for about 27,000 years. Based on the rates of sinter precipitation and the thickness of the sinter deposits, it has been estimated that the sinters at El Tatio started to form between 4,000 and 1,500 years ago; these age estimates were not based on direct dating of the deposits, however, and older sinter deposits extend past the present-day geothermal field. Later, radiocarbon dating of the sinter deposits found that their deposition began after the end of the last ice age, an observation endorsed by the presence of glacial deposits beneath the sinter and radiocarbon dating evidence that sinter deposition began after glaciers retreated. Research published in 2020 suggests that the geothermal activity commenced in the southern part of the field about 27,000–20,000 years ago and spread northwards, reaching the western part of the field less than 4,900 years ago. Secular variations in the deposition rate have been found, with an increase noted in the last 2,000 years.

Geothermal exploitation

Geothermal energy comes from the internal heat of the Earth, where the heat flow is sufficiently high that it can be used for heating and for the generation of electrical power. In Chile, various legal and economic hurdles have so far prevented substantial development of geothermal energy.

The earliest references to geothermal power at El Tatio go back to the beginning of the 20th century, when a private society "Comunidad de El Tatio" was formed and employed Italian engineers from Larderello, which in 1921 and 1922 probed the field. Technical and economic problems prevented this first effort from further progress. Feasibility studies in northern Chile identified El Tatio as a potential site for geothermal power generation, with large-scale prospecting taking place in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1973 and 1974, wells were drilled and it was estimated that if the geothermal resources were fully exploited, about 100–400 megawatts of electric power could be produced. Also in 1974 a desalination facility was built at El Tatio and could still be seen there in 2003; a thermal desalination process was developed at El Tatio, which could be used both for creating fresh water and brine that could be reprocessed for valuable minerals. Drilling substantially altered the behaviour of the hot springs; already in November 1995, reports indicated that a number of geysers had disappeared or become hot springs and fumaroles.

El Tatio is remote and this along with economic difficulties eventually led to the abandonment of the efforts at power generation; a bidding process for exploration rights in 1978 to attract private companies to El Tatio was interrupted by government changes and until 2000 geothermal development programs were paralyzed.

More recently in the 2000s several companies expressed interest in restarting geothermal power projects at El Tatio. A dispute over gas supplies for Northern Chile from Argentina in 2005 helped push the project forward, and after an environmental impact review in 2007 the Chilean government in 2008 granted a concession to develop geothermal resources in the field, with the expected yield being about 100-40 megawatt. The first drilling permits were issued for the Quebrada de Zoquete area 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) away from the main field.

Controversy

On 8 September 2009, a well that was being bored in El Tatio blew out, generating a 60-metre (200 ft) high steam fountain that was not plugged until 4 October. The operator of the geothermal project restricted access to the blow-out vent and stated through the technical manager of the El Tatio geothermal project that the blowout was neither a threat to the springs nor to tourists visiting El Tatio, and the Empresa Nacional de Geotermia company that operates it denied any responsibility for the incident.

The project had earlier been opposed by the local Atacameno population, owing to concerns about environmental damage. Before the incident, an issue of the English-language newspaper The Economist had called attention to the adverse consequences of geothermal power extraction; the incident triggered a major controversy over geothermal power, with ramifications beyond Chile. The controversy gained international attention and involved public demonstrations against the project, such as the march of two women to the capital Santiago to defend the geothermal field. The environmental authorities of Antofagasta subsequently suspended the El Tatio geothermal project, and the Geotérmica del Norte company responsible for the project received strong criticism and was targeted by legal action. Both the Ministers of Mining and Energy cautioned against stigmatizing geothermal energy, however, and some local authorities disagreed with the rejection. The director of the National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN) stated that the company had no plans to handle such a situation. The Geotérmica del Norte company was fined 100 UTM [es] (a Chilean unit of account for fines and sanctions) for violating mitigation plans, a fine upheld in 2011 by the Court of Appeals in Santiago. Legal cases related to the Tatio field went as far as the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

Industry-community disputes have occurred before in northern Chile, typically tied to conflicts about the use of water, which was in large part privatized during the Pinochet era; during the Tatio controversy, power generation and relations between the Chilean government and native communities also gained prominence among the disputed issues. An important factor in the Tatio controversy is the role of the tourism industry, which viewed the geothermal project as a threat; this kind of industry-industry conflict was unusual. Geothermal projects in New Zealand and the United States have resulted in the extinction of geysers. While the incident ultimately did not result in lasting changes to the El Tatio geysers, the widespread media attention did create adverse publicity and social opposition against geothermal energy in Chile.

Tourism

El Tatio is a tourism destination, with substantial numbers of travelers both from Chile and other countries. This tourism is an important economic resource for the region, and the site is administered by the local Atacameno population as part of a wider trend of cooperations between native communities and heritage sites in the region. About 100,000 tourists visit El Tatio every year. In 2009, there were more than 400 daily visitors of the geysers, about 90 percent of all tourism of San Pedro de Atacama from where El Tatio can be reached. Aside from viewing the geysers, bathing in the hot water, watching the natural scenery and visiting surrounding Atacameño villages with their adobe buildings are other activities possible at El Tatio. Environmental impacts such as pollution and vandalism of geothermal landforms have been documented.

El Tatio displays some typical hazards of geothermal areas. Exposure to the hot gases and water can result in burn injuries, and both sudden eruptions of geysers and fountains and fragile ground above vents and above boiling water, concealed beneath thin covers of solid ground, increase the risk to unwary travelers. The site lies at high altitude, frequently leading to altitude sickness, and the cold dry climate creates further danger. The Chilean government recommends that tourists take warm clothing, sunscreen and mineral water.

In 2002, El Tatio was declared part of a "zone of touristic interest"; a classification which implies that local institutions ought to develop an action plan to induce the development of tourism. In 2009, José Antonio Gómez Urrutia, then-senator of Chile for the Antofagasta region proposed that El Tatio be declared a natural sanctuary (a type of protected area); the corresponding parliamentary motion was approved in the same year. In 2010, the El Tatio area was declared to be a protected area, with a surface area of 200 square kilometres (20,000 ha). It was not clear at that time what the exact status would be, with the regional Secretary of Agriculture proposing that it should become a national park.

The various allegations include connections with various Islamic terrorist groups, possessing arms, kidnapping, murder, intimidation, hate campaign, rioting, Love Jihad and various acts of religious extremism, including the assault on professor T. J. Joseph who had set a controversial question paper supposedly insulting the Prophet Muhammed. However, the charges were refuted by the PFI which alleged the accusations as baseless and fabricated to malign the organisation. An IB officer have said that PFI preaches to its cadres that killing of right-wing activists would provide them 'religious rewards in the afterlife'.

2003 Murders

In 2003, some of its members were arrested for rioting and murdering eight Hindus in Marad Beach in Kerala's Kozhikode.

Connection with Students Islamic Movement of India

In 2010, the PFI was alleged to have links with the banned Islamic terrorist organisation Students Islamic Movement of India. The PFI's national chairman, Abdul Rehman, was the former national secretary of SIMI, while the organization's state secretary, Abdul Hameed, was SIMI's former state secretary. Most former leaders of SIMI were either identified with PFI or were holding various portfolios in the organisation. The alleged SIMI connection has been dubbed baseless by the leaders of the Popular Front claiming that the Front was launched in 1993, whereas the SIMI ban came much later in 2001. Retired Indian army officer P. C. Katoch has claimed that the PFI maintains links with the Pakistani intelligence agency, ISI.

Arms training camp in Narath

In April 2013, Kerala Police raided a training camp in Narath, Kannur and arrested 21 activists of the Popular Front of India. Two country-made bombs, a sword, raw materials for making bombs and pamphlets in the name of PFI were seized by the police. The raid was conducted at the office building of Thanal Charitable Trust. A document with names of several leading personalities and organisations was also seized, which police suspect is a hit-list. The Popular Front leadership and those arrested claimed that it was a Yoga training programme organised as part of a personality development programme and asked for a judicial probe by a sitting judge to inquire into the alleged training camp. PFI's state president claimed that this police case was fabricated in a bid to tarnish the organisation's image. On 18 May 2013, the NIA arrived to investigate the alleged extremist activities in Narath.

Kidnap and Murder of boys for ransom

Two boys were kidnapped on 8 June 2011 from SBRR Mahajana College premises in Mysore and murdered by members of Karnataka Forum for Dignity (KFD), who sought ransom of 5 crore rupees to raise funds for their organisation. In 2006 KFD had merged with PFI. The arrested KFD members are Adil, alias Adil Pasha; Athavulla Khan; Ameen, alias Syed Ameen; Rehman, alias Shabbir Rehaman; Kouser, alias Mohammed Kouser; and Safeer Ahmed, alias Safeer. Following the arrest of these KFD members, Karnataka state government requested the Union government to ban Karnataka Forum for Dignity.

Murder of CPI(M) and RSS workers

In 2012, the Kerala government informed the Kerala High Court, in an affidavit, that Popular Front of India had active involvement in 27 murder cases, mostly of cadres of CPI-M and RSS. In 2014, it again submitted before the Kerala High Court that activists of the NDF/PFI were involved in 27 communally motivated murder cases, 86 attempt to murder cases and in 106 communal cases registered in the state. The affidavit was filed in response to a petition filed by Thejas, spokesperson of PFI in the State, challenging the refusal of the government to give government advertisements to the daily. A carpenter Abid Pasha was arrested for six murder cases. He had links with PFI.

Murder of ABVP activist N Sachin Gopal and Vishal

On 6 July 2012, N. Sachin Gopal, a student of Modern ITC, Kannur and the district leader Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad, was allegedly stabbed by members of the Campus Front and Popular Front of India. Student leader Vishal was murdered. Gopal later died of his injuries at KMC Hospital in Mangalore on 6 September 2012 A Special Investigation Team (SIT) was formed to investigate the case.

SMS campaign against people of the North-East

After the Assam riots in 2012, an SMS hate campaign was launched in the South of India threatening people from the North-East with retribution, particularly after Ramzan. Investigators traced the source of these hate messages to Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami (HuJI) and the Popular Front of India, along with its affiliate organisations Manita Neeti Pasarai and Karnataka Forum for Dignity. More than 60 million messages were sent in a single day on 13 August 2012. Some 28-30 percent of the messages were found to have been uploaded from Pakistan. The SMS campaign was designed to create a panic among the people from the North-East, forcing them to flee. This led to a mass exodus of 30,000 people from cities of Pune, Chennai, Hyderabad and national capital Delhi. Union Home Ministry banned bulk SMS and MMS for 15 days to quell rumors and threats.

The PFI has denied the accusation.

Attack on T. J. Joseph by PFI activists

In Jan 2011, Kerala Police filed a charge sheet against 27 alleged PFI activists in conjunction with an incident in which they severed the hand of a Kerala professor who had offended the religious sentiments of his students. At the time of the attack, Joseph was coming back from his duties at a private Christian college in Muvattapuzha and had been accused of blasphemy.

It is reported that the attack resulted from the ruling from one of the "Taliban-model" courts (Darul Khada) operating in the state. The Kerala state police claimed to be "unearthing the vast network" of the PFI, and after a series of raids on the houses of PFI members, the district secretary of the PFI "threatened the officer with dire consequences if he continued raiding the houses of its activists." On 9 July 2010, it was reported that PFI installations were being raided by police, and that they had found propaganda videos from the global Islamic network al-Qaeda in the possession of one alleged PFI member, and a rifle, fake SIM cards, and fake identity cards in the possession of another member of the PFI. As a result of the incident, the BJP has called for a ban on the PFI and an examinations of possible links between the PFI and the Taliban by the National Investigation Agency.

One of the chief accused in this case, Prof. Anas was acquitted. He had contested to win the local elections from jail. He alleged the accusation is a scheme devised by the NIA and the police to deliberately target the Popular Front.

Shimoga Violence

Karnataka's Shimoga faced violence during rallies held by Popular Front of India, which resulted in the death of two persons. Popular Front of India activists were arrested for the murder of Vishwanath Shetty. Later it was proved that the second killing was related to Popular Front.

Funding of Anti-CAA Protests

On 1 January 2020 Union law minister Mr.Ravi Shankar Prasad stated that Popular Front of India, may have played a part in violence surrounding some protests against the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA).Enforcement Directorate (ED) has also informed Ministry of Home Affairs in its report submitted to Home Ministry and is investigating a Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) probe. However Popular Front of India has denied any link with any protest against the CAA in the country and called it a cheap campaign against Popular Front of India.

Forced conversion

AS Zainaba, president of the National Women's Front – the PFI's women's wing – have admitted planning forced religious conversions to Islam at charitable trusts related to PFI.

On accusations and counter charges

In 2012, the Popular Front launched a nationwide campaign "Why the Popular Front", detailing the alleged false accusations and attempts by mainstream media and other organisations to tarnish its image. The organisation maintains that it strives hard to restore the rights of the depressed and marginalised sections of the Indian society. The organisation's former Chairman, E M Abdul Rahman, gave elaborate justifications for the accusations that the PFI faces that year. Further, the organisation filed complaints with the Press Council of India against 10 newspapers—both Hindi and English—for their attempts to tarnish the image of the PFI. In 2013, in line with the PFI's counter charge, "Coastal Digest" reported that the NIA and the IB denied that they had shared any such information, denying the claims by the media. This was in response to the 2012 complaints against 10 newspapers. In March 2015, Indian intelligence agencies reported that the role of the PFI in the 2011 Mumbai bombings, 2012 Pune bombings and 2013 Hyderabad blasts had been found; claims which were subsequently denied by the PFI.

Political activities

National Political Conference

The public meeting on 17 February 2009 which marked the conclusion of National Political Conference saw the merger of social organisations in eight states into the Popular Front of India. Along with the state presidents of NDF Kerala, MNP Tamil Nadu and KFD Karnataka which had already merged with Popular Front, heads of social organisations in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Manipur joined hands on the dais with the Popular Front chairman.

Freedom Parade on Indian Independence Day

The PFI and its allies conducted a freedom parade on 15 August in 2009 and 2010 in celebration of Indian Independence Day. The parade was followed by a public meeting. In 2010, the parade was conducted in Udupi and Mettuppalayam. In the previous year it was conducted in Mangalore and Madurai.

The Kerala state government banned the Freedom Parade stating it would jeopardise communal harmony. The ban was challenged in the Kerala High Court which upheld the ban. The Intelligence wing of Kerala Police had informed the High Court that PFI is the new face of banned Islamist group Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) and is engaged in fundamentalist and anti-national activities. This stand of the government was rejected by the High Court.

Social Justice conference 2011

The Social Justice Conference was held at Ramlila Ground in New Delhi on 26 and 27 November 2011. The conference was addressed by Syed Shahabuddin, a former MP and Mulayam Singh Yadav, the Samajwadi Party leader, and Thol. Thirumavalavan the Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi leader. The key address of the conference was to plea the UPA government to implement the findings of Sachar Committee Report and the Ranganath Misra Commission.

Protest against misuse of Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act

21 activists of PFI were charged with Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) for involvement in anti-national activities. Following which, in May 2013, the organisation conducted a statewide campaign in Kerala, it started on 8 May from Kasargod and how the UAPA is being misused, and how they believe it is terrorising citizens who resisted oppression from a ruling elite. The campaign concluded with a mass gathering at the State Capital, Thiruvananthapuram on 30 May.

Muslim minority reservation and employment

KM Shareef, the National General Secretary of PFI has asserted that reservation is the most immediate need of Muslims, referencing a report submitted by the Prime Minister's High Level Committee (Justice Rajindar Sachchar Committee) in November 2006, which identified the Muslim community as more backward than any other, and claimed that insufficient discussion on this topic was taking place in assemblies and parliament. In the context of the Central Government's decision on reservation in higher education, the South India Council organised three Regional Conventions on Reservation: in Calcutta on 4 August 2006, in Bangalore on 5 August 2006, and in Chennai on 17 August 2006. A National Convention on Reservation in Higher Education was organised by the South India Council jointly with All India Milli Council at New Delhi on 29 August 2006. Former Prime Minister V. P. Singh also addressed the convention. In 2010, the National Executive Council of the PFI demanded a ten percent reservation for Muslims across India.

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130. ^ Landrum et al. 2009, p. 665. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLandrumBennettEngelAlsina2009 (help)
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134. ^ Giggenbach 1978, p. 979. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGiggenbach1978 (help)
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137. ^ Letelier et al. 2021, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLetelierO'SullivanReichVeloso2021 (help)
138. Cusicanqui, Mahon & Ellis 1975, p. 710. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCusicanquiMahonEllis1975 (help)
139. ^ Letelier et al. 2021, p. 11. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLetelierO'SullivanReichVeloso2021 (help)
140. Letelier et al. 2021, p. 12. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLetelierO'SullivanReichVeloso2021 (help)
141. Letelier et al. 2021, p. 20. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLetelierO'SullivanReichVeloso2021 (help)
142. Munoz-Saez, Manga & Hurwitz 2018, p. 14. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMunoz-SaezMangaHurwitz2018 (help)
143. Aravena et al. 2016, p. 6. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAravenaMuñozMorataLahsen2016 (help)
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146. Tapia et al. 2019, p. 315. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTapiaMurrayOrmacheaTirado2019 (help)
147. Wang et al. 2018, p. 11. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWangLiGuoJiang2018 (help)
148. Ingebritsen & Evans 2019, p. 9. sfn error: no target: CITEREFIngebritsenEvans2019 (help)
149. Alsina et al. 2014, p. 434. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAlsinaZanellaHoelPizarro2014 (help)
150. Giggenbach 1978, p. 984. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGiggenbach1978 (help)
151. Giggenbach 1978, p. 985. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGiggenbach1978 (help)
152. Cusicanqui, Mahon & Ellis 1975, p. 706. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCusicanquiMahonEllis1975 (help)
153. ^ Intendencia 2018. sfn error: no target: CITEREFIntendencia2018 (help)
154. ^ Martínez et al. 2006, p. 73. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMartínezCampanoMedinaTassi2006 (help)
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156. Martínez et al. 2006, p. 74. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMartínezCampanoMedinaTassi2006 (help)
157. Fernandez-Turiel et al. 2005, p. 138. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFernandez-TurielGarcia-VallesGimeno-TorrenteSaavedra-Alonso2005 (help)
158. Fernandez-Turiel et al. 2005, p. 139. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFernandez-TurielGarcia-VallesGimeno-TorrenteSaavedra-Alonso2005 (help)
159. ^ Fernandez-Turiel et al. 2005, p. 134. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFernandez-TurielGarcia-VallesGimeno-TorrenteSaavedra-Alonso2005 (help)
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161. Wilmeth et al. 2020, p. 16. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilmethNabhanMyersSlagter2020 (help)
162. Cusicanqui, Mahon & Ellis 1975, p. 707. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCusicanquiMahonEllis1975 (help)
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164. Nicolau, Reich & Lynne 2014, p. 61. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicolauReichLynne2014 (help)
165. Letelier et al. 2021, p. 4. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLetelierO'SullivanReichVeloso2021 (help)
166. Ward, Thornton & Cesta 2017, p. 670. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWardThorntonCesta2017 (help)
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171. Kull & Grosjean 2000, pp. 623, 624. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKullGrosjean2000 (help)
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178. ^ Pierce, Malin & Figueroa 2012, p. 78. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPierceMalinFigueroa2012 (help)
179. Phoenix et al. 2006, pp. 15, 16. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPhoenixBennettEngelTyler2006 (help)
180. Glennon & Pfaff 2003, p. 39. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGlennonPfaff2003 (help)
181. Engel, Johnson & Porter 2013, p. 745. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEngelJohnsonPorter2013 (help)
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Further reading

• Menon, Nandagopal R. (21 August 2010). "Imagined Kerala". Economic and Political Weekly. 34: 22–25.
• Abdelhalim, Julten (2013). "Being a Governed Muslim in a Non-Muslim State: Indian Muslims and Citizenship". In Bidisha Chaudhuri; Lion Koenig (eds.). Discourses of Transculturality:Ideas, Institutions and Practices in India and China. South Asia Institute, Heidelberg University. pp. 19–30.
• Abdelhalim, Julten (2013). Spaces for Jihād: Indian Muslims and Conceptions of Citizenship. University of Heidelberg.

External links

• Official website
• "Here Come the Pious". Tehelka.

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• 2006 establishments in India
• Political organisations based in India
• Islamic organisations based in India
• Islamist front organizations
• Far-right politics in India