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Gertrude Bell
Gertrude Bell in 1909, visiting archaeological excavations in Babylon
Born	Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell (1868-07-14)14 July 1868 Washington New Hall, County Durham, England
Died	12 July 1926(1926-07-12) (aged 57) Baghdad, Mandatory Iraq
Nationality	British
Education	Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford
Occupation(s)	Traveller, political officer
Era	Victorian, Edwardian – 1900s
Known for	Writer, traveller, political officer, archaeologist, explorer, cartographer in Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Arabia
Parent	Sir Hugh BellMary Bell (née Shield)

Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell, CBE (14 July 1868 – 12 July 1926) was an English writer, traveller, political officer, administrator, and archaeologist who explored, mapped, and became highly influential to British imperial policy-making due to her knowledge and contacts, built up through extensive travels in Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Arabia. Along with T. E. Lawrence, Bell helped support the Hashemite dynasties in what is today Jordan as well as in Iraq.

She played a major role in establishing and helping administer the modern state of Iraq, using her unique perspective from her travels and relations with tribal leaders throughout the Middle East. During her lifetime she was highly esteemed and trusted by British officials and exerted an immense amount of power. She has been described as "one of the few representatives of His Majesty's Government remembered by the Arabs with anything resembling affection".

Early life

Bell was born on 14 July 1868 in Washington New Hall – now known as Dame Margaret Hall – in Washington, County Durham, England to a family whose wealth ensured her education and enabled her travels. Her personality was characterised by energy, intellect, and a thirst for adventure that shaped her path in life. Her grandfather was the ironmaster Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, an industrialist and a Liberal Member of Parliament, in Benjamin Disraeli's second term. His role in British policy-making exposed Gertrude at a young age to international matters and most likely encouraged her curiosity for the world, and her later involvement in international politics.

Bell's mother, Mary Shield Bell, died in 1871 while giving birth to a son, Maurice (later the 3rd Baronet). Gertrude Bell was just three at the time, and the death led to a lifelong close relationship with her father, Sir Hugh Bell, 2nd Baronet, a progressive capitalist and mill owner who made sure his workers were well paid and cared for. Throughout her life, Gertrude consulted on political matters with her father, who had also served for many years in various governmental positions.

Some biographies suggest the loss of her mother caused underlying childhood trauma, revealed through periods of depression and risky behaviour. But when Gertrude was seven years old, her father remarried, providing her a stepmother, Florence Bell (née Olliffe), and eventually, three half-siblings. Florence Bell was a playwright and author of children's stories, as well as the author of a study of Bell factory workers. She instilled concepts of duty and decorum in Gertrude and contributed to her intellectual development. Florence Bell's activities with the wives of Bolckow Vaughan ironworkers in Eston, near Middlesbrough, may have helped influence her step-daughter's later stance promoting education of Iraqi women.

Gertrude Bell received her early education from Queen's College in London and then later at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford University, at the age of 17. History was one of the few subjects women were allowed to study, due to the many restrictions imposed on them at the time. She specialised in modern history, and it was said that she was the first woman to graduate in Modern History at Oxford with a first class honours degree, a feat she achieved in only two years. Eleven people graduated that year. Nine were recorded because they were men, and the other two were Bell and Alice Greenwood. However, the two women were not awarded academic degrees. It was not until 1920 that Oxford treated women equally with men in this respect.

Bell never married or had children. She befriended British colonial administrator Sir Frank Swettenham on a visit to Singapore with her brother Hugo in 1903 and maintained a correspondence with him until 1909. She had a "brief but passionate affair" with Swettenham following his retirement to England in 1904. She also had an unconsummated affair with Maj. Charles Doughty-Wylie, a married man, with whom she exchanged love letters from 1913 to 1915. After his death in 1915 during the Gallipoli Campaign, Bell launched herself into her work.

Travels and writings

Bell's uncle, Sir Frank Lascelles, was British minister (similar to ambassador) at Tehran, Persia. In May 1892, after leaving Oxford, Bell travelled to Persia to visit him. She described this journey in her book, Persian Pictures, which was published in 1894. She spent much of the next decade travelling around the world, mountaineering in Switzerland, and developing a passion for archaeology and languages. She had become fluent in Arabic, Persian, French and German, and also spoke Italian and Ottoman languages. In 1899, Bell again went to the Middle East. She visited Palestine and Syria that year and in 1900, on a trip from Jerusalem to Damascus, she became acquainted with the Druze living in Jabal al-Druze. She travelled across Arabia six times during the next 12 years.

Between 1899 and 1904, she conquered a number of mountains, including the La Meije and Mont Blanc, as she recorded 10 new paths or first ascents in the Bernese Alps in Switzerland. One Alpine peak in the Bernese Oberland, the 2,632 m (8,635 ft) Gertrudspitze, was named after her after she and her guides Ulrich and Heinrich Fuhrer first traversed it in 1901. However, she failed in an attempt of the Finsteraarhorn in August 1902, when inclement weather including snow, hail and lightning forced her to spend "forty eight hours on the rope" with her guides, clinging to the rock face in terrifying conditions that nearly cost her her life.

She published her observations of the Middle East in the book Syria: The Desert and the Sown (1907, William Heinemann Ltd, London). In this book she described, photographed and detailed her trip to Greater Syria's towns and cities such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Beirut, Antioch and Alexandretta. Bell's vivid descriptions revealed the Arabian deserts to the western world. In March 1907, Bell journeyed to the Ottoman Empire and began to work with Sir William M. Ramsay, an archaeologist and New Testament scholar. Their excavations in Binbirkilise were chronicled in A Thousand and One Churches.

In 1907, they discovered a field of ruins in northern Syria on the east bank of the upper course of the Euphrates, along a steep slope of the former river valley. From the ruins, they created a plan and described the ramparts: "Munbayah, where my tents were pitched – the Arabic name means only a high-altitude course – was probably the Bersiba in Ptolemy's list of city names. It consists of a double rampart, situated on the river bank."

Bell was a founder member of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League in 1908. She was the first honorary secretary of the League and founded its northern branch.

In January 1909, Bell left for Mesopotamia. She visited the Hittite city of Carchemish, photographed the relief carvings in Halamata Cave, mapped and described the ruin of Ukhaidir, and travelled on to Babylon and Najaf. Back in Carchemish, she consulted with the two archaeologists on site. One of them was T. E. Lawrence, assistant to Reginald Campbell Thompson. In 1910, Bell visited the Munich exhibition Masterpieces of Muhammadan Art. In a letter to her stepmother, she recounts how she had the research room to herself and spoke to some Syrians from Damascus who were part of the ethnographic section of the exhibition.

In 1913, she completed her last and most arduous Arabian journey, travelling about 1800 miles from Damascus to the politically volatile Ha'il, back up across the Arabian peninsula to Baghdad and from there back to Damascus. She was only the second foreign woman after Lady Anne Blunt to visit Ha'il and, arriving during a period of particular instability, was held in the city for eleven days.

In 1924 she invited Assyriologist Edward Chiera to conduct archaeological excavations in ancient Nuzi, near Kirkuk, Iraq, where hundreds of inscribed clay tablets had been discovered and deciphered, now known as the Nuzi Tablets.

In 1927, a year after Bell's death, her stepmother Florence Bell published two volumes of Bell's collected correspondence written during the 20 years preceding World War I.

War and political career

At the outbreak of World War I, Bell's request for a Middle East posting was initially denied. She instead volunteered with the Red Cross in France.

Later, she was asked by British Intelligence to get soldiers through the deserts, and from the World War I period until her death she was the only woman holding political power and influence in shaping British imperial policy in the Middle East. She often acquired a team of locals which she directed and led on her expeditions. Throughout her travels Bell established close relations with tribe members across the Middle East. Additionally, being a woman gave her access to the private quarters of wives of tribe leaders, and thus to other perspectives and functions.

Cairo and Basra

In November 1915, she was summoned to Cairo to the nascent Arab Bureau, headed by General Gilbert Clayton. She also again met T. E. Lawrence.

Both Bell and Lawrence had attended Oxford and earned a First Class Honours in Modern History, both spoke fluent Arabic and both had travelled extensively in the Arabian desert and established ties with the local tribes before World War I. Renowned archaeologist and historian Lt. Cmdr. David Hogarth recognised the value of Lawrence and Bell's expertise and upon his recommendation first Lawrence, then Bell, were assigned to Army Intelligence Headquarters in Cairo in 1915 for war service.

Arriving in February 1916, she did not, at first, receive an official position, but instead helped Hogarth set about organising and processing her own, Lawrence's and Capt. W. H. I. Shakespear's data about the location and disposition of Arab tribes. They could then be encouraged to join the British against the Ottoman Empire. Lawrence and the British used the information in forming alliances with the Arabs.

On 3 March 1916, Gen. Clayton abruptly sent Bell to Basra, which British forces had captured in November 1914, to advise Chief Political Officer Percy Cox regarding an area she knew better than any other Westerner. Cox found her an office in his headquarters, where she was employed for the two days per week she was not at Military GHQ Basra. She drew maps to help the British army reach Baghdad safely. She became the only female political officer in the British forces and received the title of "Liaison Officer, Correspondent to Cairo" (i.e. to the Arab Bureau where she had been assigned). She was St. John Philby's field controller, and taught him the finer arts of behind-the-scenes political manoeuvering.

I went out last week along the light railway 25 miles into the desert it's the Nasariyeh Railway - ...it was so curious to travel 50 minutes by rail and find...General Maude, our new army commander, has just arrived. I've made his acquaintance..."

Armenian genocide

While in the Middle East, Gertrude Bell reported on the Armenian genocide. Contrasting the killings with previous massacres, she wrote that earlier killings "were not comparable to the massacres carried out in 1915 and the succeeding years." Bell also reported that in Damascus, "Ottomans sold Armenian women openly in the public market." In an intelligence report, Bell quoted a statement by a Turkish prisoner-of-war:

The battalion left Aleppo on 3 February and reached Ras al-Ain in twelve hours....some 12,000 Armenians were concentrated under the guardianship of some hundred Kurds...These Kurds were called gendarmes, but in reality mere butchers; bands of them were publicly ordered to take parties of Armenians, of both sexes, to various destinations, but had secret instructions to destroy the males, children and old women...One of these gendarmes confessed to killing 100 Armenian men himself...the empty desert cisterns and caves were also filled with corpses...No man can ever think of a woman's body except as a matter of horror, instead of attraction, after Ras al-Ain."

Creation of Iraq

After British troops took Baghdad on 10 March 1917, Bell was summoned by Cox to Baghdad and given the title of "Oriental Secretary." As the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire was finalised by the end of the war in late January 1919, Bell was assigned to conduct an analysis of the situation in Mesopotamia. Due to her familiarity and relations with the tribes in the area she had strong ideas about the leadership needed in Iraq. She spent the next ten months writing what was later considered a masterly official report, "Self Determination in Mesopotamia". The British Commissioner in Mesopotamia, Arnold Wilson, had different ideas of how Iraq should be run, preferring an Arab government to be under the influence of British officials who would retain real control, as he felt, from experience, that Mesopotamian populations were not yet ready to govern and administer the country efficiently and peacefully.

On 11 October 1920, Percy Cox returned to Baghdad and asked her to continue as Oriental Secretary, acting as liaison with the forthcoming Arab government. Bell essentially played the role of mediator between the Arab government and British officials. Bell often had to mediate between the various groups of Iraq including Shias in the southern region, Sunnis in central Iraq, and the Kurds, mostly in the northern region, who wished to be autonomous. Keeping these groups united was essential for political balance in Iraq and for British imperial interests. Iraq not only contained valuable resources in oil but would act as a buffer zone, with the help of Kurds in the north as a standing army in the region to protect against Turkey, Persia (Iran), and Syria. British officials in London, especially Churchill, were highly concerned about cutting heavy costs in the colonies, including the cost of quashing tribal infighting. Another important project for both the British and new Iraqi rulers was creating a new identity for these people so that they would identify themselves as one nation.

British officials quickly realised that their strategies in governing were adding to costs. Iraq would be cheaper as a self-governing state. The Cairo Conference of 1921 was held to determine the political and geographic structure of what later became Iraq and the modern Middle East. Significant input was given by Bell in these discussions thus she was an essential part of its creation. At the Cairo Conference Bell and Lawrence highly recommended Faisal bin Hussein, (the son of Hussein, Sherif of Mecca), former commander of the Arab forces that helped the British during the war and entered Damascus at the culmination of the Arab Revolt. He had been recently deposed by France as King of Syria, and British officials at the Cairo Conference decided to make him the first King of Iraq. They believed that due to his lineage as a Hashemite and his diplomatic skills he would be respected and have the ability to unite the various groups in the country. Shias would respect him because of his lineage from Muhammad. Sunnis, including Kurds, would follow him because he was Sunni from a respected family. Keeping all the groups under control in Iraq was essential to balance the political and economic interests of the British Empire.

Upon Faisal's arrival in 1921, Bell advised him on local questions, including matters involving tribal geography and local business. She also supervised the selection of appointees for cabinet and other leadership posts in the new government. Referred to by Arabs as "al-Khatun" (a Lady of the Court who keeps an open eye and ear for the benefit of the State), she was a confidante of King Faisal of Iraq and helped ease his passage into the role, amongst Iraq's other tribal leaders at the start of his reign. He helped her to found Baghdad's Iraqi Archaeological Museum from her own modest artefact collection and to establish The British School of Archaeology, Iraq, for the endowment of excavation projects from proceeds in her will. The stress of authoring a prodigious output of books, correspondence, intelligence reports, reference works, and white papers; of recurring bronchitis attacks brought on by years of heavy smoking in the company of English and Arab cohorts; of bouts with malaria; and finally, of coping with Baghdad's summer heat all took a toll on her health. Somewhat frail to start with, she became emaciated.

Historians have said that more recent troubles in Iraq arose from the political boundaries which Bell conceived. Her reports, however, indicate that problems were foreseen, and both Bell and her British colleagues believed that there were limited permanent solutions for calming the divisive forces at work in that part of the world. Her colleagues also insisted that the Kurds be denied a homeland, and that a proportion of them should be incorporated into Iraq, a division that Bell did not oppose. The division of the Kurds between Iraq, Syria and Turkey led to their oppression in all three countries, and Bell endorsed the use of force against the Kurds. "Mesopotamia is not a civilised state," Bell wrote to her father on 18 December 1920.

Throughout the early 1920s Bell was an integral part of the administration of Iraq. The new Hashemite monarchy used the Sharifian flag, which consisted of a black stripe representing the Abbasid caliphate, white stripe representing the Umayyad caliphate, and a green stripe for Fatimid Dynasty, and lastly a red triangle to set across the three bands symbolising Islam. Bell felt it essential to customise it for Iraq by adding a gold star to the design. Faisal was crowned king of Iraq on 23 August 1921, but he was not completely welcomed. Using Shi'ite history to gain support for Faisal, during the holy month of Muharram, Bell compared Faisal's arrival in Baghdad to Husayn, grandson of Muhammad. However, there was little enthusiasm for Faisal when he landed at the Shia port of Basra.

She did not find working with the new king to be easy: "You may rely upon one thing — I'll never engage in creating kings again; it's too great a strain." Faisal attempted to rid himself of the control of British advisors, including Bell, with only limited success.

1921 conference

Bell, Cox and Lawrence were among a select group of "Orientalists" convened by Winston Churchill to attend a 1921 Conference in Cairo to determine the boundaries of the British mandate (e.g., "the British Partitions") and nascent states such as Iraq. Gertrude is supposed to have described Lawrence as being able "to ignite fires in cold rooms".

Throughout the conference, she, Cox and Lawrence worked tirelessly to promote the establishment of the countries of Transjordan and Iraq to be presided over by the Kings Abdullah and Faisal, sons of the instigator of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire (ca. 1915–1916), Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca. Until her death in Baghdad, she served in the Iraq British High Commission advisory group there.

Bell opposed the Zionist movement, on the grounds that it would be impossible to impose Jewish rule on Arab inhabitants of Palestine. "The Jews here are much more like ourselves in these respects and contrast ill with the vigorous primitiveness of the Arab". She wrote that she regarded the Balfour Declaration with "the deepest mistrust" and that "It's like a nightmare in which you foresee all the horrible things which are going to happen and can`t stretch out your hand to prevent them". In a letter to her mother she described the zionism as "a wholly artificial scheme divorced from all relation to facts and I wish it the ill-success it deserves".

Mark Sykes, the British diplomat responsible for the Sykes–Picot Agreement, was not fond of her.

National Library of Iraq

In November 1919, Bell was an invited speaker at a meeting for the promotion of a public library in Baghdad, and subsequently served on its Library Committee, as President from 1921 to 1924. The Baghdad Peace Library (Maktabat al-Salam) was a private, subscription library, but in c.1924 was taken over by the Ministry of Education and became known as the Baghdad Public Library (or sometimes as the General Library). In 1961, this became the National Library of Iraq.

Baghdad Archaeological Museum

Gertrude Bell's first love had been archaeology, thus she began forming what became the Baghdad Archaeological Museum, later renamed the Iraqi Museum. Her goal was to preserve Iraqi culture and history which included the important relics of Mesopotamian civilizations, and keep them in their country of origin. She also supervised excavations and examined finds and artifacts. She brought in extensive collections, such as from the Babylonian Empire. The museum was officially opened in June 1926, shortly before Bell's death. After her death, at the Emir's suggestion, the right wing of the Museum was named as a memorial to her.

Final years

When Bell briefly returned to Britain in 1925, she faced family problems and ill health. Her family's fortune had begun to decline due to the onset of post-World War I strikes by workers in Britain and economic depression in Europe. She returned to Baghdad and soon developed pleurisy. When she recovered, she heard that her younger half brother Hugh had died of typhoid.

On 12 July 1926, Bell was discovered dead, of an apparent overdose of sleeping pills. There is much debate on her death, but it is unknown whether the overdose was an intentional suicide or accidental since she had asked her maid to wake her. In her final years she became acquainted with Kinahan Cornwallis who later wrote an introduction to the posthumously published book The Arab War, Confidential Information for General Headquarters from Gertrude Bell, Being Despatches Reprinted from the Secret "Arab Bulletin".

She was buried at the British cemetery in Baghdad's Bab al-Sharji district. Her funeral was a major event, attended by large numbers of people including her colleagues, British officials and the King of Iraq. It was said King Faisal watched the procession from his private balcony as they carried her coffin to the cemetery.

Legacy and tributes

Contemporary

An obituary written by her peer D. G. Hogarth expressed the respect British officials held for her. Hogarth honoured her by saying,

No woman in recent time has combined her qualities – her taste for arduous and dangerous adventure with her scientific interest and knowledge, her competence in archaeology and art, her distinguished literary gift, her sympathy for all sorts and condition of men, her political insight and appreciation of human values, her masculine vigour, hard common sense and practical efficiency – all tempered by feminine charm and a most romantic spirit.

Modern

Bell is remembered in Iraq in the 21st century. The British diplomat, travel writer and former Member of Parliament Rory Stewart wrote:

When I served as a British official in southern Iraq in 2003, I often heard Iraqis compare my female colleagues to "Gertrude Bell." It was generally casual flattery, and yet the example of Bell and her colleagues was unsettling. More than ten biographies have portrayed her as the ideal Arabist, political analyst, and administrator.

— Rory Stewart

Stewart notes that Bell was "both more lively and more honest" than political statements in his time. He quotes six examples of her writing, the shortest of which is "No one knows exactly what they do want, least of all themselves, except that they don’t want us." He quotes Bell's colleague, T. E. Lawrence, as saying that she was "not a good judge of men or situations", and observes that "If there was no ideal solution, however, there were still clear mistakes. Bell should never have acquiesced in the inclusion of the Kurdish-dominated province of Mosul in Iraq." However, Stewart praises her 1920 White Paper, comparing it to General Petraeus's Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq.

Film

• In 1992, Bell was portrayed by Gillian Barge in the ITV television film A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia.
• In 2015, Werner Herzog released Queen of the Desert. The film chronicles much of Bell's life. She is portrayed by Nicole Kidman.
• In 2016, the documentary Letters from Baghdad, based on Bell's and her contemporaries' writings, was released. The film was directed and produced by Zeva Oelbaum and Sabine Krayenbühl. The quotations from Bell's letters were read by Tilda Swinton.

Posthumous tributes

Bell's work was specially mentioned in the British Parliament, and she was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire.

A stained-glass window dedicated to her memory, made by Douglas Strachan, was erected in St Lawrence's Church, East Rounton, North Yorkshire. It depicts Magdalen College, Oxford, and Khadimain, Baghdad. The inscription reads:

This window is in remembrance of Gertrude Versed in the learning of the east and of the west Servant of the state Scholar Poet Historian Antiquary Gardener Mountaineer Explorer Lover of nature of flowers and of animals Incomparable friend sister daughter.

In 2019, entomologists studying wild bees in Saudi Arabia described a new genus which they named to honour Bell, as genus Belliturgula, known from the species Belliturgula najdica from central Saudi Arabia.

Museum

In 2016, a campaign was launched to transform Bell's family estate, Red Barns, into a memorial and museum. The family were patrons of the Arts and Crafts movement in England, and the home, located in Redcar, features wallpaper by William Morris. Although the building is Grade II* listed, it had not been maintained in recent years. Turning the building into a memorial to Bell is partially the result of a 2015 exhibition about her at the Great North Museum in Newcastle. The exhibition moved to the Kirkleatham Museum in Redcar after its run in Newcastle.

The Gertrude Bell archive, held by Newcastle University, was added to the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme in 2017.

Comics

In the 2010s, a team from Newcastle University released a comic version of Bell's life. John Miers was the cartoonist.

Selected works

• Bell, Gertrude (1897). Poems from the Divan of Hafiz. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Bell, Gertrude (1907). The Desert and the Sown.
• Bell, Gertrude (1910). Mountains of the Servants of God.
• Bell, Gertrude (1911). Amurath to Amurath. New York, Dutton.
• Bell, Gertrude (1914). The Palace and Mosque of Ukhaidir: A Study in Early Mohammadan Architecture. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Bell, Gertrude (1961). Gertrude Bell: From Her Personal Papers 1914–1926. London: Ernest Benn Ltd.
• Bell, Gertrude (2015). A Woman in Arabia: The Writings of the Queen of the Desert. London: Penguin.
• Gertrude Lowthian Bell; Gertrude Bell (1919) . The Desert and the Sown: Travels in Palestine and Syria. W. Heinemann. p. 340.
• Gertrude Bell (1911, rep.1924) From Amurath to Amurath, complete text with illustrations.
• Works by Gertrude Bell at Project Gutenberg Australia The letters of Gertrude Bell, selected and edited by Lady Bell, 1927 (plain text and HTML)
• The Arabian Report
• Arab Bulletin

Notes

1. Daughter of John Shield of Newcastle-on-Tyne.

References

1. ^ Bell, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence (ed.). The Letters of Gertrude Bell. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
2. Bell, Gertrude Lowthian (October 2000). O'Brien, Rosemary (ed.). Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913-1914. ISBN 9780815606727.
3. "Bell, Gertrude Margaret Lowthian". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/30686. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
4. Meyer, Karl E.; Brysac, Shareen B. (2008), Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 162
5. Del Testa, David W., ed. (2001). "Bell, Gertrude". Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists. Westport, Connecticut: Oryx Press. p. 20.
6. O'Brien, Rosemary, ed. (2000), Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press
7. "Bell (Gertrude) Archive - Archives Hub".
8. ^ Howell, Georgina (2008). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations (Paperback ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-53135-5.
9. O'Brien, pp. 5–6
10. "LMH, Oxford - Prominent Alumni". Retrieved 20 May 2015.
11. ^ Howell, Georgina (2007). Queen of the Desert: The Extraordinary Life of Gertrude Bell (Paperback ed.). Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4472-8626-4.
12. "Greenwood, Alice Drayton". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/59037. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
13. Sultan, Mena (8 October 2019). "October 1920: Women granted full membership of Oxford University". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
14. Judge, Ben (7 October 2020). "7 October 1920: Oxford University allows women to graduate". MoneyWeek. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
15. Barlow, Henry S. (1995). Swettenham. Kuala Lumpur: Southdene. pp. 654–5.
16. Barlow, Henry S. (1997). "Malaysia: Swettenham's Legacy". Asian Affairs. 28 (3): 333. doi:10.1080/714857151.
17. ^ Lukitz, Liora (3 March 2006). A Quest in the Middle East: Gertrude Bell and the Making of Modern Iraq. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-415-3. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
18. ^ "Gertrude Bell and the Birth of Iraq". theava.com. 15 November 2011. Archived from the original on 23 October 2004. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
19. Berry, Helen (September 2013). "Gertrude Bell: adventurer, diplomat, mountaineer and anti-suffragette". BBC History Magazine. BBC. Retrieved 16 May 2017 – via cloudfront.net.
20. Cohen, Getzel M.; Sharp Joukowsky, Martha (2006). Breaking Ground: Pioneering Women Archaeologists. University of Michigan Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-472-03174-0.
21. Alfred Werner Maurer. Mumbaqat 1977 report on the resources of the University of Saarbrücken, undertaken by the German Oriental Society excavation. Philologus Verlag, Basel, 2007.
22. Fitzgerald, Kitty (November 2009). "Suffrage, but not for me". Prospect. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
23. Brown, Eleanor. "The Anti-Suffrage Anomaly: Gertrude Bell and the Question of Privilege". Retrieved 28 October 2021.
24. "Gertrude Bell on the 1910 Masterpieces of Muhammadan Art Exhibition in Munich".
25. Edward Chiera, Joint Expedition with the Iraq Museum at Nuzi (5 vols., Paris and Philadelphia, 1927-1934)
26. Bell, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence (ed.). "To Herbert Baker, Basrah, June 25, 1916". The Letters of Gertrude Bell, Volume 1. London. p. 379. He is going to give me a room in his office where I shall go two or three mornings a week... the other days I shall go on working at GHQ....Sir Percy's office is a quarter of an hour away.
27. Bell, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence (ed.). "To Florence Bell, August 27, 1916". The Letters of Gertrude Bell. 1. London: 386. He is going to give me a room in his office where I shall go two or three mornings a week... the other days I shall go on working at GHQ....Sir Percy's office is a quarter of an hour away.
28. Townshend, Charles (2011). Desert Hell: The British Invasion of Mesopotamia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. p. 494. ISBN 978-0674061347.
29. Rich, Paul J., ed. (2008). Iraq and Gertrude Bell's The Arab of Mesopotamia. Lanham: Lexington Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-1461633662.
30. Fisk, Robert (2005). The Great War for Civilisation: the Conquest of the Middle East. London: Alfred Knopf. p. 327. ISBN 1-84115-007-X.
31. Sobel, Andrew; Sheth, Jagdish (2001). Clients for Life Clients for Life: How Great Professionals Develop Breakthrough Relationships (Reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 64. ISBN 9780743215091.
32. ^ Wallach, Janet (1996). Desert Queen. Bantam Doubleday Dell. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-307-74436-4.
33. ^ "Letters from Baghdad" documentary (2016) Directors: Sabine Krayenbühl, Zeva Oelbaum.
34. "Miss Bell's Lines in the Sand", Guardian, 12 March 2003 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/12/iraq.jamesbuchan Retrieved 10 December 2019.
35. Bell, Gertrude (20 May 2009). "Friday July 8. [8 July 1921]". The Letters. Gertrude Bell Archive, Newcastle University. Archived from the original on 20 May 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
36. Mowla, Khondakar Golam (2008). The Judgment Against Imperialism, Fascism and Racism Against Caliphate and Islam. Vol. 1. AuthorHouse. p. 255. ISBN 978-1438910956.
37. Bell, Gertrude (25 January 1918). "25 January 1918 From/To: Gertrude Bell to her stepmother, Dame Florence Bell". Letters of Gertrude Bell.
38. Johnson, Daniel (3 September 2006). "Putting the dons on their mettle". The Telegraph.
39. Howell, Georgina (2006). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-4299-3401-5.
40. "How Gertrude Bell caused a desert storm". The Telegraph. 21 February 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
41. Buchan, James (12 March 2003). "Miss Bell's lines in the sand". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
42. H.D.G. (1926). "Obituary: Gertrude Lowthian Bell". The Geographical Journal. 68 (4): 363–368. JSTOR 1783440.
43. ^ Stewart, Rory (25 October 2007). "The Queen of the Quagmire". New York Review of Books. p. 1. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
44. ^ Stewart, Rory (25 October 2007). "The Queen of the Quagmire". New York Review of Books. p. 2. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
45. "Queen of the Desert". Metacritic. 10 February 2015. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
46. "Letters from Baghdad". Between the Rivers Productions. 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
47. "Letters from Baghdad". IMDb.com. International Movie Database. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
48. Pevsner, Nikolaus (1966). The Buildings of England: Yorkshire: The North Riding. Vol. Vol. 30. Penguin. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
49. "pictures of the memorial in East Rounton Church". Flickr.com. 26 March 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
50. Engel, Michael; Alqarni, Abdulaziz; Shebl, Mohamed; Thomas, Jennifer (2019). "New genera of meliturguline bees from Saudi Arabia and Persia, with notes on related genera (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae)". Journal of Hymenoptera Research. 69: 1–21. doi:10.3897/jhr.69.32561.
51. Yale, Pat (9 August 2016). "Gertrude of Arabia: the great adventurer may finally get her museum". The Guardian.
52. "UNESCO celebrates archive of a remarkable woman". Newcastle University. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
53. "The Gertrude Bell Archive". UNESCO. Retrieved 5 October 2019.
54. "Gertrude Bell Comics: Archeologist, Writer, Explorer". Newcastle University. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
55. Wysocki, Lydia; Jackson, Mark; Miers, John; Webster, Jane; Coxon, Brittany (5 September 2019). "Making the invisible visible: hyperlinked webcomics as alternative points of entry to the digitised Gertrude Bell Archive". International Journal of Heritage Studies. 26 (5): 480–497. doi:10.1080/13527258.2019.1663236. S2CID 203046421. Retrieved 3 February 2021.

Sources

• Bell (ed.), Lady Florence (1927). The Letters of Gertrude Bell. Vol. 2 vols. London: Ernest Benn Ltd. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
• Hogarth, David G. "Obituary: Gertrude Lowthian Bell". The Geographical Journal 68.4 (1926): pp. 363–368. JSTOR. 28 October 2009.
• Meyer, Karl E.; Brysac, S. B. (2008). Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-33770-9. pp 157–92.
• O'Brien, R., ed. (2000). Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0672-7.
• Satia, Priya (2008). Spies in Arabia: The Great War and the Cultural Foundations of Britain's Covert Empire in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199715985.

Further reading

• Adams, Amanda (2010). Ladies of the Field: Early Women Archaeologists and Their Search for Adventure. Greystone Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-55365-641-8.
• Bodley, R. V. C.; Hearst, L. (1940). Gertrude Bell. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-258-44101-2.
• Howell, Georgina (2006). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-1-4299-3401-5.; also issued as Daughter of the Desert: the remarkable life of Gertrude Bell. Macmillan, 2006. ISBN 1-4050-4587-6

--- (paperback edition, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008) ISBN 0-374-53135-8

• Lukitz, Liora (2004). "Gertrude Bell". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 4. Oxford University Press.
• Lukitz, Liora (3 March 2006). A Quest in the Middle East: Gertrude Bell and the Making of Modern Iraq. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-415-3. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
• Wallach, Janet (1996). Desert Queen. Bantam Doubleday Dell. ISBN 978-0-307-74436-4.
• Winstone, H. V. F. (2004). Gertrude Bell. Barzan Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-9547728-0-2.

External links

• The Gertrude Bell Project based at Newcastle University Library
• The Gertrude Bell Archive
• Gertrude Bell Biography also Gertrude Bell on her translations of Hafiz
• "Archival material relating to Gertrude Bell". UK National Archives.
• British "Queen of Iraq" rests in Baghdad cemetery
• Gertrude Bell, a Masterful Spy and Diplomat
• "Gertrude of Arabia". The Economist. 7 September 2006. Review of Daughter of the Desert: The Remarkable Life of Gertrude Bell by Georgina Howell{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
• Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia, London: H.M. Stationery Office. 1920
• Works by Gertrude Bell at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Gertrude Bell at the Internet Archive
• Works by Gertrude Bell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Poems from the Divan of Hafiz. Translated by Gertrude Lowthian Bell. 1897.
• The Arab war; confidential information for General headquarters from Gertrude Bell, being despatches from the secret "Arab bulletin". Golden Cockerel Press. 1940.
• The Rountons: The Bell Family (photographs)
• Lifestory of Gertrude Bell, from "Lives of the First World War"
• Newspaper clippings about Gertrude Bell in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

• 1868 births
• 1926 deaths
• 19th-century British women writers
• 19th-century English writers
• 20th-century archaeologists
• 20th-century British women writers
• 20th-century English writers
• 20th-century geographers
• Alumni of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford
• Anti-suffragists
• British women archaeologists
• British women historians
• British women in World War I
• British women travel writers
• Burials in Iraq
• Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
• Daughters of baronets
• English Arabists
• English archaeologists
• English explorers
• English mountain climbers
• English travel writers
• Explorers of Arabia
• Explorers of Asia
• Female climbers
• Female explorers
• Female wartime spies
• Holy Land travellers
• Interwar-period spies
• People educated at Queen's College, London
• People from Middlesbrough
• People from Washington, Tyne and Wear
• Victorian women writers
• Witnesses of the Armenian genocide
• Women geographers
• World War I spies for the United Kingdom