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| {{short description|Athletic competitions in Ancient Greece}} | |||
| {{pp-move-indef}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}} | |||
| ], a place devoted to the training of wrestlers and other athletes]] | |||
| {{Olympic Games sidebar}} | |||
| The '''ancient Olympic Games''' (Ὀλυμπιακοὶ ἀγῶνες; {{lang-la|Olympia}}, neuter plural: "the Olympics") were a series of ] among representatives of ] and one of the ] of ]. They were held in honor of ], and the Greeks gave them a ] ]. The first Olympic Games are traditionally dated to 776 BC.<ref name="olym_Olym">{{cite web |title = History |work = Olympic Games |access-date = 11 August 2016 |url = https://www.olympic.org/ancient-olympic-games/history |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160809210127/https://www.olympic.org/ancient-olympic-games/history |archive-date = 9 August 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> The games were held every four years, or ], which became a unit of time in historical chronologies. They continued to be celebrated when Greece came under ], 2nd century BC. Their last recorded celebration was in AD 393, under the emperor ], but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held after this date.<ref name="Perrottet2004" /><ref name="Hamlet, Ingomar 2004 pp. 53-75">Hamlet, Ingomar. "Theodosius I. And The Olympic Games". Nikephoros 17 (2004): pp. 53-75.</ref> The games likely came to an end under ], possibly in connection with a fire that burned down the temple of the ] during his reign.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Remijsen |first1=Sofie |title=The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=49}}</ref> | |||
| During the celebration of the games, the ''ekecheiria'' (an ]) was announced so that athletes and religious pilgrims could travel from their cities to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors were ] or crowns. The games became a political tool used by city-states to assert dominance over their rivals. Politicians would announce political alliances at the games, and in times of war, priests would offer sacrifices to the gods for victory. The games were also used to help spread Hellenistic culture throughout the Mediterranean. The Olympics also featured religious celebrations. The ] was counted as one of the ]. Sculptors and poets would congregate each Olympiad to display their works of art to would-be patrons. | |||
| The ancient Olympics had fewer events than the modern games, and only freeborn Greek men were allowed to participate,<ref>David Sansone, ''Ancient Greek civilization'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2003, p.32</ref> although there were victorious women chariot owners. As long as they met the entrance criteria, athletes from any Greek ] and kingdom were allowed to participate. The games were always held at ] rather than moving between different locations as is the practice with the modern ].<ref name=perseus>{{cite web |title = The Ancient Olympics |publisher = Tufts University |work = The Perseus Project |url = https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics |access-date = 12 February 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100210170341/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics |archive-date = 10 February 2010 |url-status = live }}</ref> Victors at the Olympics were honored, and their feats chronicled for future generations. | |||
| == Origin mythology == | |||
| To the Ancient Greeks, it was important to root the Olympic Games in mythology.<ref>Kyle, 1999, p.101</ref> During the time of the ancient games their origins were attributed to the gods, and competing legends persisted as to who actually was responsible for the genesis of the games.<ref>Kyle, 1999, pp.101–102</ref> | |||
| These origin traditions have become nearly impossible to untangle, yet a chronology and patterns have arisen that help people understand the story behind the games.<ref>Kyle, 1999, p.102</ref> Greek historian, ] provides a story about the ] Heracles (not to be confused with the son of ] and the Roman god ]) and four of his brothers, Paeonaeus, ], ] and ], who raced at ] to entertain the newborn Zeus. He crowned the victor with an ] (which thus became a peace symbol), which also explains the four-year interval, bringing the games around every fifth year (counting inclusively).<ref>Spivey, 2005, pp.225–226</ref><ref>], Description of Greece, 5.7.6–9</ref> The other Olympian gods (so named because they lived permanently on ]) would also engage in wrestling, jumping and running contests.<ref>Spivey, 2005, p.226</ref> | |||
| Another myth of the origin of the games is the story of ], a local ] hero. ], the king of ], had a daughter named ], and according to an oracle, the king would be killed by her husband. Therefore, he decreed that any young man who wanted to marry his daughter was required to drive away with her in his chariot, and Oenomaus would follow in another chariot, and spear the suitor if he caught up with them. Now, the king's chariot horses were a present from the god ] and therefore supernaturally fast. The king's daughter fell in love with a man called Pelops. Before the race however, Pelops persuaded Oenomaus' charioteer ] to replace the bronze axle pins of the king's chariot with wax ones. Naturally, during the race, the wax melted and the king fell from his chariot and was killed. After his victory, Pelops organized chariot races as a thanksgiving to the gods and as funeral games in honor of King Oenomaus, in order to be purified of his death. It was from this funeral race held at Olympia that the beginnings of the Olympic Games were inspired. Pelops became a great king, a local hero, and he gave his name to the ]. | |||
| One (later) myth, attributed to ], states that the festival at Olympia involved ], the son of Zeus: According to Pindar, Heracles established an athletic festival to honor his father, Zeus, after he had completed his ]. | |||
| The patterns that emerge from these myths are that the Greeks believed the games had their roots in religion, that athletic competition was tied to worship of the gods, and the revival of the ancient games was intended to bring peace, harmony and a return to the origins of Greek life.<ref>Kyle, 1999, p.102–104</ref> | |||
| == History == | |||
| The Olympic games were held to be one of the two central rituals in ], the other being the much older religious festival, the ].<ref name="HickokSports">{{cite web |url = http://www.hickoksports.com/history/olancien.shtml |title = The Ancient Olympic Games |publisher = HickokSports |date = 4 February 2005 |access-date = 13 May 2007 |archive-url = http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020222234145/http://www.hickoksports.com/history/olancien.shtml |archive-date = 22 February 2002 |url-status = dead |df = dmy-all }}</ref> | |||
| ===Prehistory=== | |||
| Areas around the Mediterranean had a long tradition of athletic events. Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians depicted athletic scenes in tombs of kings and their nobles. They did not, however, hold regular competitions, and those events that occurred were probably the preserve of kings and upper classes. Minoans culture held gymnastics in high esteem, with ], tumbling, running, wrestling and boxing shown on their frescoes. The Mycenaeans adopted Minoan games and also raced chariots in religious or funerary ceremonies.<ref>Young, pp. 5–6</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Wendy J. Raschke |title=Archaeology Of The Olympics: The Olympics & Other Festivals In Antiquity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DwU1IlTEhrYC&pg=PA22 |access-date=12 August 2012 |date=15 June 1988 |publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-299-11334-6 |pages=22– |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012003844/http://books.google.com/books?id=DwU1IlTEhrYC&pg=PA22 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> ]'s heroes participate in athletic competitions to honor the dead. In the ''Iliad'' there are chariot races, boxing, wrestling, a foot race, as well as fencing, archery, and spear throwing. The ''Odyssey'' adds to these a long jump and discus throw.<ref>Young, p. 6</ref> | |||
| ===First games=== | |||
| Aristotle reckoned the date of the first Olympics to be 776 BC, a date largely accepted by most, though not all, subsequent ancient historians.<ref>Nelson, Max. (2006) "The First Olympic Games" in Gerald P. Schaus and Stephen R. Wenn, eds. ''Onward to the Olympics: Historical Perspectives on the Olympic Games'' (Waterloo), pp. 47–58</ref> It is still the traditionally given date and archaeological finds confirm, approximately, the Olympics starting at or soon after this time.<ref>Young, pp. 16–17</ref> | |||
| ====Olympiad calendar==== | |||
| The historian ], who lived in the fourth century BC, is one potential candidate for establishing the use of Olympiads to count years, although credit for codifying this particular epoch usually falls to ], to ], or even to Timaeus, whom Eratosthenes may have imitated.<ref>Plutarch, ''Numa Pompilius 1.4''</ref><ref>Dionysius, ''1.74–1–3''. Little remains of Eratosthenes' ''Chronographiae'', but its academic influence is clearly demonstrated here in the ''Roman Antiquities'' by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.</ref><ref>Denis Feeney in ''Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History''. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2007), 84.</ref> The Olympic Games were held at four-year intervals, and later, the ancient historians' method of counting the years even referred to these games, using '']'' for the period between two games. Previously, the local dating systems of the Greek states were used (they continued to be used by everyone except the historians), which led to confusion when trying to determine dates. For example, Diodorus states that there was a solar eclipse in the third year of the 113th Olympiad, which must be the eclipse of 316 BC. This gives a date of (mid-summer) 765 BC for the first year of the first Olympiad.<ref>"The Athletics of the Ancient Olympics: A Summary and Research Tool" by Kotynski, p.3 (Quote used with permission). For the calculation of the date, see Kotynski footnote 6.</ref> Nevertheless, there is disagreement among scholars as to when the games began.<ref>See, for example, Alfred Mallwitz's article "Cult and Competition Locations at Olympia" p.101 in which he argues that the games may not have started until about 704 BC. Hugh Lee, on the other hand, in his article "The 'First' Olympic Games of 776 B.C.E" p.112, follows an ancient source that claims that there were twenty-seven Olympiads before the first one was recorded in 776. There are no records of Olympic victors extant from earlier than the fifth century BC.</ref> | |||
| ] reserved for the judges at Olympia on the south embankment of the stadium. Today, this is where the ] is passed on to the first torchbearer of the upcoming Olympic Games.]] | |||
| According to the later Greek traveller ], who wrote in 175 AD, the only competition held at first was the '']'', a race over about {{convert|190|m|abbr=off}}. The word ''stadium'' is derived from this event. | |||
| ===Early history=== | |||
| Several groups fought over control of the sanctuary at Olympia, and hence the games, for prestige and political advantage. Pausanias later writes that in 668 BC, Pheidon of ] was commissioned by the town of ] to capture the sanctuary from the town of ], which he did and then personally controlled the games for that year. The next year, Elis regained control. | |||
| In the first 200 years of the games' existence, they only had regional religious importance. Only Greeks in proximity to Olympia competed in these early games. This is evidenced by the dominance of Peloponnesian athletes in the victors' rolls.<ref>Spivey, 2005, p.172</ref> | |||
| Over time, the Olympic Games gained increasing recognition and became part of the ], four separate games held at two- or four-year intervals, but arranged so that there was at least one set of games every year. The other Panhellenic Games were the ], ], and ], though the Olympic Games were considered the most prestigious. | |||
| ===Imperial period=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ====Roman conquest of Greece==== | |||
| After the Roman conquest of Greece the Olympics continued but the event declined in popularity throughout the pre-Augustan era. During this period, Romans largely concentrated on domestic problems, and paid less attention to their provinces. The fact that all equestrian victors were from the immediate locality and that there is a "paucity of victor statues in the Altis" from this period suggests the games were somewhat neglected.<ref name="Young, p. 131">Young, p. 131</ref> | |||
| In 86 BC the Roman general ] robbed Olympia and other Greek treasuries to finance a war. He was the only Roman to commit violence against Olympia.<ref name="Young, p. 131"/> Sulla hosted the games in 80 BC as a celebration of his victories over ]. Supposedly the only contest held was the stadion race because all the athletes had been called to Rome.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2cTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |title=Greek Athletics in the Roman World: Victory and Virtue |last=Newby |first=Zahra |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2005 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=978-0-19-927930-2 |page=26}}</ref> | |||
| ====Augustus==== | |||
| Under the rule of emperor ] the Olympics underwent a revival. Before he came to full power, Augustus' right-hand man ] restored the damaged temple of Zeus and in 12 BC Augustus asked King ] to subsidize the games. While no Roman ever entered an athletic event at Olympia, in the early years of Augustus reign some of his associates, including future emperor Tiberius, won equestrian events.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} | |||
| After Augustus was declared a god by the Senate after his death, a statue of his likeness was commissioned at Olympia.<ref>Drees, p. 119</ref> Subsequent divine emperors also had statues erected within the sacred Altis. The stadium was renovated at his command and Greek athletics in general were subsidized.<ref name="Young, p. 132">Young, p. 132</ref> | |||
| ====Nero==== | |||
| One of the most infamous events of Olympic history occurred under the rule of ]. He desired victory in all chariot races of the Panhellenic Games in a single year, so he ordered the four main hosts to hold their games in 67 and therefore the scheduled Olympics of 65 were postponed. At Olympia he was thrown from his chariot, but still claimed victory. Nero also considered himself a talented musician, so he added contests in music and singing to those festivals that lacked them, including the Olympics. Despite his terrible singing, he won all the contests, no doubt because judges were afraid to award victory to anyone else. After his assassination, the Olympic judges had to repay the bribes he had bestowed and declared the "Neronian Olympiad" to be void.<ref name="Young, p. 132"/> | |||
| ====Renaissance==== | |||
| In the first half of the second century, the Philhellenic emperors, ] and ] oversaw a new and successful phase in the history of the games. The Olympics attracted a great number of spectators and competitors and the victors' fame spread across the Roman Empire. The renaissance endured for most of the second century. Once again, "philosophers, orators, artists, religious proselytizers, singers, and all kinds of performers went to the festival of Zeus."<ref>Young, p. 133</ref> | |||
| ===Decline=== | |||
| The 3rd century saw a decline in the popularity of the games. The victory list of ] ends at the Olympiad of 217 and no surviving text of subsequent authors mention any new Olympic victors. Excavated inscriptions show the games continued, however. Until recently the last securely datable winner was Publius Asclepiades of Corinth who won the pentathlon in 241. In 1994 a bronze plaque was found inscribed with victors of the combative events hailing from the mainland and Asia Minor; proof that an international Olympic Games continued until at least 385.<ref>Young, p. 135</ref> | |||
| The games continued past 385, by which time flooding and earthquakes had damaged the buildings and invasions by barbarians had reached Olympia.<ref name="Young2008">{{cite book |author = David C. Young |title = A Brief History of the Olympic Games |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gMuuQZubxDIC&pg=PA135 |access-date = 1 April 2013 |date = 15 April 2008 |publisher = John Wiley & Sons |isbn = 978-0-470-77775-6 |pages = 135– |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140103071351/http://books.google.com/books?id=gMuuQZubxDIC&pg=PA135 |archive-date = 3 January 2014 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> The last recorded games were held under ] in 393, but archeological evidence indicates that some games were still held.<ref name="Perrottet2004">{{cite book |author = Tony Perrottet |title = The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games |url = https://archive.org/details/nakedolympicstru00perr |url-access = registration |access-date = 1 April 2013 |date = 8 June 2004 |publisher = Random House Digital, Inc. |isbn = 978-1-58836-382-4 |pages = – |df = dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Hamlet, Ingomar 2004 pp. 53-75"/> | |||
| == Location == | |||
| ], 4: ], 5: ], 10: ], 15: ], 20: ], 21: ], 26: ], 29: ], 31: ]</p>]] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] lies in the valley of the ] (Romanized as Alpheus) in the western part of the ], today around 18 km away from the ] but perhaps, in antiquity, half that distance.<ref name="sciencedaily1">{{cite web|title=Olympia Hypothesis: Tsunamis Buried the Cult Site On the Peloponnese|publisher=Science Daily|date=July 11, 2011|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110710204240.htm|access-date=12 July 2011}}</ref> The Altis, as the sanctuary as was originally known, was an irregular quadrangular area more than 180 meters on each side and walled except to the North where it was bounded by the Mount Kronos.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/17740/Altis|title = Altis {{pipe}} ancient site, Greece}}</ref> It consisted of a somewhat disordered arrangement of buildings, the most important of which are the ], the ], the ] and the area of the great altar of Zeus, where the largest sacrifices were made. The name Altis was derived from a corruption of the ] word also meaning "the grove" because the area was wooded, olive and plane trees in particular.<ref>Wilson; </ref> | |||
| Uninhabited throughout the year, when the games were held the site became over congested. There were no permanent living structures for spectators, who, rich or poor, made do with tents. Ancient visitors recall being plagued by summer heat and flies; such a problem that sacrifices were made to Zeus Averter of Flies. The site's water supply and sanitation were finally improved after nearly a thousand years, by the mid-second century AD.<ref>Young, p. 134 <p>"A very wealthy Greek, Herodes Atticus, and his very wealthy Roman wife, Regilla, funded an elaborate fountain which was both a practical solution and a work of art. Water, piped in from a tributary of the Alpheus, entered into a large semi-circular basin. Emerging from 83 gargoyle fountains, it was then channeled all around the site. Behind the basin rose a semi-circular colonnade more than 100 feet high, with a series of niches built into its upper level."</p></ref> | |||
| {{blockquote|But you may say, there are some things disagreeable and troublesome in life. And are there none at Olympia? Are you not scorched? Are you not pressed by a crowd? Are you not without comfortable means of bathing? Are you not wet when it rains? Have you not abundance of noise, clamour, and other disagreeable things? But I suppose that setting all these things off against the magnificence of the spectacle, you bear and endure.| author =], 1st century AD}} | |||
| == Culture == | |||
| ]'' is a copy of a Greek statue c. 5th century BC. It represents an ancient Olympic discus thrower]] | |||
| The ancient Olympics were as much a religious festival as an athletic event. The games were held in honor of the Greek god ], and on the middle day of the games, ] would be sacrificed to him.<ref name=perseus /> Over time, Olympia, the site of the games, became a central spot for the worship of the head of the Greek ] and a temple, built by the Greek architect ], was erected on the mountaintop. The temple was one of the largest ] temples in Greece.<ref name=perseus /> The sculptor ] created a statue of Zeus made of gold and ivory. It stood {{convert|42|ft}} tall. It was placed on a throne in the temple. The statue became one of the ].<ref name=perseus /> As the historian ] put it, | |||
| {{blockquote|... the glory of the temple persisted ... on account both of the festal assembly and of the Olympian Games, in which the prize was a crown and which were regarded as sacred, the greatest games in the world. The temple was adorned by its numerous offerings, which were dedicated there from all parts of Greece.<ref name=perseus />}} | |||
| Artistic expression was a major part of the games. Sculptors, poets, painters and other artisans would come to the games to display their works in what became an artistic competition. Poets would be commissioned to write poems in praise of the Olympic victors. Such victory songs or epinicians, were passed on from generation to generation and many of them have lasted far longer than any other honor made for the same purpose.<ref>Golden, Mark, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504112937/https://books.google.com/books?id=HLORxPo6asUC&pg=PA77 |date=4 May 2016 }}</ref> ], one of the founders of the modern ], wanted to fully imitate the ancient Olympics in every way. Included in his vision was an artistic competition modeled on the ancient Olympics and held every four years, during the celebration of the Olympic Games.<ref>Stanton, 2000, pp.3–4</ref> His desire came to fruition at the Olympics held in ] in ].<ref>Stanton, 2000, p. 17</ref> | |||
| == Politics == | |||
| ] in ], one of the leading city-states of the ancient world]] | |||
| Power in ] became centered around the ] in the 8th century BC.<ref>Hansen, 2006, p. 9</ref> The city-state was a population center organized into a self-contained political entity.<ref>Hansen, 2006, pp.9–10</ref> These city-states often lived in close proximity to each other, which created competition for limited resources. Though conflict between the city-states was ubiquitous, it was also in their self-interest to engage in trade, military alliances and cultural interaction.<ref>Hansen, 2006, p.10</ref> The city-states had a dichotomous relationship with each other: on one hand, they relied on their neighbors for political and military alliances, while on the other they competed fiercely with those same neighbors for vital resources.<ref>Hansen, 2006, p.114</ref> The Olympic Games were established in this political context and served as a venue for representatives of the city-states to peacefully compete against each other.<ref>Raschke, 1988, p. 23</ref> | |||
| The spread of Greek colonies in the 5th and 6th centuries BC is repeatedly linked to successful Olympic athletes. For example, Pausanias recounts that ] was founded c. 630 BC by settlers from ] with ]n support. The support Sparta gave was primarily the loan of three-time Olympic champion Chionis. The appeal of settling with an Olympic champion helped to populate the colonies and maintain cultural and political ties with the city-states near Olympia. Thus, ] culture and the games spread while the primacy of Olympia persisted.<ref>Spivey, 2005, pp.182–183</ref> | |||
| The games faced a serious challenge during the ], which primarily pitted Athens against Sparta, but, in reality, touched nearly every Hellenic city-state.<ref>{{cite web |title = Peloponnesian War |last = Lendering |first = Jona |publisher = Livius, Articles on Ancient History |url = https://www.livius.org/pb-pem/peloponnesian_war/peloponnesian_war.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100213095957/https://www.livius.org/pb-pem/peloponnesian_war/peloponnesian_war.html |archive-date = 13 February 2010 |url-status = live }}</ref> The Olympics were used during this time to announce alliances and offer sacrifices to the gods for victory.<ref name=perseus /><ref name=thucydides>{{cite book |title = The History of the Peloponnesian War |last = Thucydides |volume = 5 |publisher = The Internet Classics Archive |url = https://archive.org/details/athensatwar00warn |others = Translated by ] |year = 1971 |isbn = 978-0-525-26035-6 }}</ref> | |||
| During the Olympic Games, a truce, or ''ekecheiria'' was observed. Three runners, known as ''spondophoroi'', were sent from ] to the participant cities at each set of games to announce the beginning of the truce.<ref name=swaddling11>Swaddling, 1999, p.11</ref> During this period, armies were forbidden from entering Olympia. Legal disputes and the use of the death penalty were forbidden. The truce — primarily designed to allow athletes and visitors to travel safely to the games — was, for the most part, observed.<ref name=swaddling11 /> ] wrote of a situation when the ]ns were forbidden from attending the games, and the violators of the truce were fined 2,000 ] for assaulting the city of ] during the period of the ''ekecheiria''. The Spartans disputed the fine and claimed that the truce had not yet taken hold.<ref name=thucydides /><ref>Strassler & Hanson, 1996, pp. 332–333</ref> | |||
| While a martial truce was observed by all participating city-states, no such reprieve from conflict existed in the political arena. The Olympic Games evolved the most influential athletic and cultural stage in ancient Greece, and arguably in the ancient world.<ref>Kyle, 2007, p. 8</ref> As such the games became a vehicle for city-states to promote themselves. The result was political intrigue and controversy. For example, ], a Greek historian, explains the situation of the athlete Sotades, {{blockquote|quote=Sotades at the ninety-ninth Festival was victorious in the long race and proclaimed a Cretan, as in fact he was. But at the next Festival he made himself an Ephesian, being bribed to do so by the Ephesian people. For this act he was banished by the Cretans.<ref name=perseus />}} | |||
| == Events == | |||
| ] | |||
| {| class="wikitable | |||
| |- | |||
| !colspan=3| Events at the Olympics | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Olympiad | |||
| ! Year | |||
| ! Event first introduced | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1st | |||
| | 776 BC | |||
| | '']'' | |||
| |- | |||
| | 14th | |||
| | 724 BC | |||
| | '']'' | |||
| |- | |||
| | 15th | |||
| | 720 BC | |||
| | Long-distance race ('']'') | |||
| |- | |||
| | 18th | |||
| | 708 BC | |||
| | ], wrestling | |||
| |- | |||
| | 23rd | |||
| | 688 BC | |||
| | Boxing ('']'') | |||
| |- | |||
| | 25th | |||
| | 680 BC | |||
| | Four horse chariot race ('']'') | |||
| |- | |||
| | 33rd | |||
| | 648 BC | |||
| | Horse race (''keles''), ] | |||
| |- | |||
| | 37th | |||
| | 632 BC | |||
| | Boys' ''stade'' and wrestling | |||
| |- | |||
| | 38th | |||
| | 628 BC | |||
| | Boys' pentathlon (Discontinued same year) | |||
| |- | |||
| | 41st | |||
| | 616 BC | |||
| | Boys' boxing | |||
| |- | |||
| | 65th | |||
| | 520 BC | |||
| | Hoplite race ('']'') | |||
| |- | |||
| | 70th | |||
| | 500 BC | |||
| | Mule-cart race (''apene'') | |||
| |- | |||
| | 71st | |||
| | 496 BC | |||
| | Mare horse race (''calpe'') | |||
| |- | |||
| | 84th | |||
| | 444 BC | |||
| | Mule-cart race (''apene'') and Mare horse race (''calpe'') both discontinued | |||
| |- | |||
| | 93rd | |||
| | 408 BC | |||
| | Two-horse chariot race ('']'') | |||
| |- | |||
| | 96th | |||
| | 396 BC | |||
| | Competition for ] | |||
| |- | |||
| | 99th | |||
| | 384 BC | |||
| | Tethrippon for horse over one year | |||
| |- | |||
| | 128th | |||
| | 266 BC | |||
| | Chariot for horse over one year | |||
| |- | |||
| | 131st | |||
| | 256 BC | |||
| | Race for horses older than one year | |||
| |- | |||
| | 145th | |||
| | 200 BC | |||
| | Pankration for boys | |||
| |} | |||
| Apparently starting with just a single foot race, the program gradually increased to twenty-three contests, although no more than twenty featured at any one Olympiad.<ref>Crowther</ref> Participation in most events was limited to male athletes, except for women who were allowed to take part by entering horses in the ] events. Youth events are recorded as starting in 632 BC. Our knowledge of how the events were performed primarily derives from the paintings of athletes found on many vases, particularly those of the Archaic and Classical periods.<ref>Young, p. 18</ref> | |||
| Competitors had access to two gymnasiums for training purposes: the Xystos for the runners and pentathletes, and the Tetragono for wrestlers and boxers.<ref> Foundation of the Hellenic World</ref> | |||
| For most of its history, Olympic events were performed in the ]. Pausanias says that the first naked runner was ], winner of the ''stadion'' race in 720 BC, who simply lost his garment on purpose because running without it was easier.<ref>Pausanias 1.44.1. Trans. W. H. S. Jones</ref> The 5th-century BC historian ] credits the ] with introducing the custom of "publicly stripping and anointing themselves with oil in their gymnastic exercises. Formerly, even in the Olympic contests, the athletes who contended wore belts across their middles; and it is but a few years since that the practice ceased."<ref>] (431 BC) '''' 1.1 (Trans. R. Crawley)</ref> | |||
| === Running === | |||
| ] | |||
| The only event recorded at the first thirteen games was the '']'', a straight-line sprint of just over 192 metres.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC |page = 33 |title = Ancient Greek Athletics |first = Stephen G. |last = Miller |date = 8 January 2006 |publisher = Yale University Press |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Google Books |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171115124102/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&PA=33 |archive-date = 15 November 2017 |df = dmy-all |isbn = 978-0300115291 }}</ref> | |||
| The '']'' (lit. "double pipe"), or two-stade race, is recorded as being introduced at the 14th Olympiad in 724 BC. It is thought that competitors ran in lanes marked out with lime or gypsum for the length of a stade then turned around separate posts (''kampteres''), before returning to the start line.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&pg=PA44 |page = 44 |title = Ancient Greek Athletics |first = Stephen G. |last = Miller |date = 8 January 2006 |publisher = Yale University Press |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Google Books |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171115124102/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&pg=PA44 |archive-date = 15 November 2017 |df = dmy-all |isbn = 978-0300115291 }}</ref> ] wrote that "Victory by speed of foot is honored above all." | |||
| A third foot race, the '']'' ("long race"), was introduced in the next Olympiad. Accounts of the race's distance differ; it seems to have been from twenty to twenty-four laps of the track, around 7.5 km to 9 km, although it may have been lengths rather than laps and thus half as far.<ref>Golden, p. 55. "The ''dolichos'' varied in length from seven to twenty-four lengths of the stadium – from 1,400 to 4,800 Greek feet."</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115124102/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&pg=PA32 |date=15 November 2017 }} "The sources are not unanimous about the length of this race: some claim that it was twenty laps of the stadium track, others that it was twenty-four. It may have differed from site to site, but it was in the range of 7.5 to 9 kilometers."</ref> | |||
| The last running event added to the Olympic program was the '']'', or "] race", introduced in 520 BC and traditionally run as the last race of the games. Competitors ran either a single or double ''diaulos'' (approximately 400 or 800 metres) in full military armour.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&pg=PA33 |page = 33 |title = Ancient Greek Athletics |first = Stephen G. |last = Miller |date = 8 January 2006 |publisher = Yale University Press |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Google Books |isbn = 978-0-300-11529-1 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160918002901/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC |archive-date = 18 September 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> The hoplitodromos was based on a war tactic of soldiers running in full armor to surprise the enemy. | |||
| === Combat === | |||
| ] {{circa|490–480}} BC, ] ]] | |||
| Wrestling ('']'') is recorded as being introduced at the 18th Olympiad. Three throws were necessary for a win. A throw was counted if the body, hip, back or shoulder (and possibly knee) touched the ground. If both competitors fell nothing was counted. Unlike its modern counterpart ], it is likely that tripping was allowed.<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402">{{cite web |url = https://archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |title = Greek athletic sports and festivals |first = Edward Norman |last = Gardiner |date = 15 November 2017 |publisher = London : Macmillan |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Internet Archive |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120311004156/http://www.archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |archive-date = 11 March 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> | |||
| Boxing ('']'') was first listed in 688 BC,<ref name="Miller, p. 51">{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&pg=PA51 |title = Ancient Greek Athletics |first = Stephen G. |last = Miller |date = 8 January 2006 |publisher = Yale University Press |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Google Books |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160918002901/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC |archive-date = 18 September 2016 |df = dmy-all |isbn = 978-0300115291 }}</ref> the boys' event sixty years later. The laws of boxing were ascribed to the first Olympic champion ].<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402"/> It appears that body-blows were either not permitted or not practised.<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402"/><ref>To judge from the story of Damoxenos and Kreugas who boxed at the ], after a long battle with no result combatants could agree to a free exchange of hits. ( {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817023933/http://www.archive.org/stream/greekathleticspo00garduoft |date=17 August 2009 }})</ref> The Spartans, who claimed to have invented boxing, quickly abandoned it and did not take part in boxing competitions.<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402" /> At first the boxers wore ''himantes'' (sing. ''himas''), long leather strips which were wrapped around their hands.<ref name="Miller, p. 51" /> | |||
| The ] was introduced in the 33rd Olympiad (648 BC).<ref>{{cite web |url = https://archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |page = 435 |title = Greek athletic sports and festivals |first = Edward Norman |last = Gardiner |date = 15 November 2017 |location = London |publisher=Macmillan |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Internet Archive |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120311004156/http://www.archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |archive-date = 11 March 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Boys' pankration became an Olympic event in 200 BC, in the 145th Olympiad.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&pg=PA60 |page = 60 |title = Ancient Greek Athletics |first = Stephen G. |last = Miller |date = 8 January 2006 |publisher = Yale University Press |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Google Books |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171115124102/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC&pg=PA60 |archive-date = 15 November 2017 |df = dmy-all |isbn = 978-0300115291 }}</ref> | |||
| As well as techniques from boxing and wrestling, athletes used kicks,<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817023933/http://www.archive.org/stream/greekathleticspo00garduoft |date=17 August 2009 }} "Galen, in his skit on the Olympic games, awards the prize to the donkey, as the best of all animals in kicking."</ref> locks, and chokes on the ground. Although the only prohibitions were against biting and gouging, the pankration was regarded as less dangerous than boxing.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=s_HjZ3JpPYIC&pg=PA41 |title = The Olympic Games: The First Thousand Years |first1 = M. I. |last1 = Finley |first2 = H. W. |last2 = Pleket |date = 24 May 2012 |publisher = Courier Corporation |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Google Books |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171115124102/https://books.google.com/books?id=s_HjZ3JpPYIC&pg=PA41 |archive-date = 15 November 2017 |df = dmy-all |isbn = 9780486149417 }}</ref> | |||
| It was one of the most popular events: Pindar wrote eight odes praising victors of the pankration.<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402"/> A famous event in the sport was the posthumous victory of ] of Phigalia who "expired at the very moment when his opponent acknowledged himself beaten".<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402"/> | |||
| === Discus === | |||
| The ] (''diskos'') event was similar to the modern competition. Stone and iron ''diskoi'' have been found, although the most commonly used material appears to be bronze. To what extent the diskos was standardized is unclear, but the most common weight seems to be 2 kg size with a diameter of approximately 21 cm, roughly equivalent to the modern discus.<ref>Miller, p. 60</ref> | |||
| === Long jump=== | |||
| ] ] {{circa|470 to 460 BC}}]] | |||
| In the long jump (''halma'') competitors swung a pair of weights called ''halteres''. There was no set design; jumpers tended to use either spherical weights made of stone carved to fit the hand or longer lead weights.<ref>Miller, p. 63</ref><ref></ref> It is debated whether the jump was performed from a standing start or after a run-up. In his analysis of the event based on vase paintings, Hugh Lee concluded that there was probably a short run-up.<ref>Lee, Hugh M. (2009) in ''Onward to the Olympics: Historical Perspectives on the Olympic Games''</ref> | |||
| === Pentathlon === | |||
| {{Main|Ancient Olympic pentathlon}} | |||
| The pentathlon was a competition made up of five events: running, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw, and wrestling.<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402"/> The pentathlon is said to have first appeared at the 18th Olympiad in 708 BC.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC |title = Ancient Greek Athletics |first = Stephen G. |last = Miller |date = 8 January 2006 |publisher = Yale University Press |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Google Books |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160918002901/https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC |archive-date = 18 September 2016 |df = dmy-all |isbn = 978-0300115291 }}</ref> The competition was held on a single day,<ref>Young, p. 32</ref> but it is not known how the victor was decided,<ref>Young, p. 19</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |pages = 362–365 |title = Greek athletic sports and festivals |first = Edward Norman |last = Gardiner |date = 15 November 2017 |location = London |publisher= Macmillan |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Internet Archive |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120311004156/http://www.archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |archive-date = 11 March 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> or in what order the events occurred,<ref name="Gardiner, p. 402"/> except that it finished with the wrestling.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |page = 363 |title = Greek athletic sports and festivals |first = Edward Norman |last = Gardiner |date = 15 November 2017 |location = London |publisher= Macmillan |access-date = 15 November 2017 |via = Internet Archive |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120311004156/http://www.archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |archive-date = 11 March 2012 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> | |||
| === Equestrian events === | |||
| Horse racing and chariot racing were the most prestigious competitions in the games, due to only the wealthy being able to afford the maintenance and transportation of horses. These races consisted of different events: the four-horse chariot race, the two-horse chariot race, and the horse with rider race, the rider being hand picked by the owner. The four-horse chariot race was the first equestrian event to feature in the Olympics, being introduced in 680 BC. It consisted of two horses that were harnessed under a ] in the middle, and two outer horses that were attached with a rope.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ancientolympics.arts.kuleuven.be/eng/TC008aEN.html |title=Ancient Olympics |access-date=2017-04-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106040630/http://ancientolympics.arts.kuleuven.be/eng/TC008aEN.html |archive-date=6 January 2017 |df=dmy-all }} "Four-horse chariot"</ref> The two-horse chariot was introduced in 408 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ancientolympics.arts.kuleuven.be/eng/TC008bEN.html |title=Ancient Olympics |access-date=2017-04-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105123201/http://ancientolympics.arts.kuleuven.be/eng/TC008bEN.html |archive-date=5 January 2017 |df=dmy-all }} "Two-horse chariot"</ref> The horse with rider competition, on the other hand, was introduced in 648 BC. In this race, Greeks did not use saddles or ] (the latter was unknown in Europe until about the 6th century AD), so they required good grip and balance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ancientolympics.arts.kuleuven.be/eng/TC008cEN.html |title=Ancient Olympics |access-date=2017-04-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023000347/http://ancientolympics.arts.kuleuven.be/eng/TC008cEN.html |archive-date=23 October 2015 |df=dmy-all }} "Horse with rider"</ref> | |||
| Pausanias reports that a race for carts drawn by a pair of ]s, and a ], were instituted respectively at the seventieth Festival and the seventy-first, but were both abolished by proclamation at the eighty-fourth. The trotting race was for ]s, and in the last part of the course the riders jumped off and ran beside the mares.<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' </ref> | |||
| The chariot races also saw the first woman to win an Olympic event, as the winner was deemed to be the wealthy benefactor or trainer that funded the team rather than those controlling the chariot (who could only be male). This allowed for horse trainer and spartan princess ] to be the first female Olympic victor.<ref>Millender, Ellen G., "Spartan Women" p. 500-525. In ''A Companion to Sparta,''edited by Anton Powell, Vol. 1 of ''A Companion to Sparta.'' Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell, 2018.</ref> | |||
| In 67, the Roman Emperor ] competed in the chariot race at Olympia. He was thrown from his chariot and was thus unable to finish the race. Nevertheless, he was declared the winner on the basis that he would have won if he had finished the race.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/olympics-olympic-games-no-longer-play-ancient-greece |title = Olympic Games We No Longer Play |date = 4 August 2016 |access-date = 4 August 2016 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160805194129/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/olympics-olympic-games-no-longer-play-ancient-greece/ |archive-date = 5 August 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> | |||
| == Famous athletes ==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | |||
| {{Main|List of ancient Olympic victors}} | |||
| ] | |||
| * Running: | |||
| ** ] (''stadion'', traditionally declared first Olympic champion) | |||
| ** ] (''diaulos'', first to compete naked) | |||
| ** ] (''stadion'', ''diaulos'' and ''hoplitodromos'') | |||
| ** ] (three-time ''stadion''/''diaulos'' winner and champion jumper) | |||
| ** ] (''stadion'', ''diaulos'' and ''hoplitodromos'') | |||
| ** ] (''stadion'')<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hh/hh5020.htm |page = 22 |title = The History of Herodotus, parallel English/Greek: Book 5: Terpsichore: 20 |website = www.sacred-texts.com |access-date = 15 November 2017 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160515201448/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hh/hh5020.htm |archive-date = 15 May 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> | |||
| * Combat: | |||
| ** ] (''pankratiast'', died while successfully defending his championship in the 54th Olympiad (564 BC). Described as "the most famous of all pankratiasts".) | |||
| ** ] (''wrestling'', legendary six-time victor: once as youth, the rest in the men's event) | |||
| ** ] (''boxing'' 79th Olympiad, 464 BC) and his sons Akusilaos and Damagetos (boxing and '']'') | |||
| ** Timasitheos of Croton (''wrestling'')<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3C8-9j8Zb3oC&q=Timasitheos+of+Croton&pg=PA102 |title = A Brief History of the Olympic Games |access-date = 16 April 2015 |isbn = 9780470777756 |last1 = Young |first1 = David C. |date = 2008-04-15 }}</ref> | |||
| ** ] (''boxer'', ''pankratiast'' and ''runner'') | |||
| ** ] (''pankratiast'', notorious for his finger-breaking technique) | |||
| ** ] (''pankratiast'', crowned champion by default in 336 BC when no other pankratiast dared compete. Such a victory was called ''akoniti'' (lit. without getting dusted) and remains the only one ever recorded in the Olympics in this discipline.) | |||
| ** ] (''boxing'', Prince and future King of ], last known Ancient Olympic victor (boxing) during the 291st Olympic Games in the 4th century<ref>369 according to ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece'' by Nigel Wilson, 2006, Routledge (UK) or 385 according to ''Classical Weekly'' by Classical Association of the Atlantic States</ref>) | |||
| * Equestrian: | |||
| ** ] of Sparta (owner of a four-horse chariot) (first woman to be listed as an Olympic victor) | |||
| ** ] ("the most famous racehorse in antiquity", 470s BC) | |||
| ** ] (steerer of a four-horse chariot)<ref>Tiberius, AD 1 (or earlier) – cf. Ehrenberg & Jones, Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius p. 73 (n.78)</ref> | |||
| ** ] (steerer of a ten-horse chariot) | |||
| * Other: | |||
| ** ] (ten-time ]) | |||
| == Olympic festivals in other places == | |||
| {{Main|Ancient Greek Olympic festivals}} | |||
| Athletic festivals under the name of "Olympic games", named in imitation of the original festival at Olympia, were established over time in various places all over the Greek world. Some of these are only known to us by inscriptions and coins; but others, as the Olympic festival at ], obtained great celebrity. After these Olympic festivals had been established in several places, the great Olympic festival itself was sometimes designated in inscriptions by the addition of ].<ref>], '']'', 1875 – {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606012307/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-dgra/0839.html |date=6 June 2011 }}</ref> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * '']'', the Roman games influenced by Greek traditions | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| '''Bibliography''' | |||
| {{refbegin}} | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://archive.org/details/greekathleticspo00garduoft |title = Greek athletic sports and festivals |last = Gardiner |first = E. N. |publisher = London : Macmillan |year = 1910 }} | |||
| * Gardiner, E. Norman, ''Athletics of the Ancient World'', 246 pages, 200+ illustrations, with new material, Oxford University Press, 1930 | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://is.muni.cz/el/1451/jaro2011/bk900/um/A_Brief_History_of_the_Olympic_Games__CuPpY_.pdf |title = A Brief History of the Olympic Games |last = Young |first = David C. |publisher = Blackwell Publishing |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-1-4051-1130-0 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3Wdh6YGXOxMC |title = Ancient Greek Athletics |last = Miller |first = Stephen G. |publisher = Yale University Press |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-0-300-11529-1 }} | |||
| * Golden, Mark, ''Sport and Society in Ancient Greece'', Cambridge University Press, 1998. | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UwFoJTJZ1wIC&q=greek+city+state |title = Polis, an Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State |last = Hansen |first = Mogens Herman |publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-0-19-920849-4 |location = Oxford, England |access-date = 12 February 2010 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pjt3ZGU61wIC&q=olympic+truce+violated&pg=PA332 |title = The Landmark Thucydides |last2 = Strassler |first2 = Robert B. |publisher = Simon & Schuster |year = 1996 |isbn = 978-1-4165-9087-3 |location = New York |last1 = Hanson |first1 = Victor Davis |access-date = 12 February 2010 }} | |||
| * ( 2009-10-25); | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tEbcu-sDkFEC&q=greek+city+state+pride+at+the+olympics&pg=PA8 |title = Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World |last = Kyle |first = Donald G. |publisher = Blackwell Publishing |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-0-631-22970-4 |location = Oxford, England |access-date = 12 February 2010 }} | |||
| * Mallowitz, Alfred. ''Cult and Competition Locations at Olympia''. Raschke 79–109. | |||
| * Miller, Stephen. "The Date of Olympic Festivals". Mitteilungen: Des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung. Vol. 90 (1975): 215–237. | |||
| * {{Cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=l582jgEACAAJ&q=patay+The+origins+of+the+olympic+games |title = The Origins of the Olympic Games |last = Patay-Horváth |first = András |publisher = Archaeolingua Foundation |year = 2015 |isbn = 978-963-9911-72-7 |location = Budapest }} | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DwU1IlTEhrYC&q=greek+city+state+olympics&pg=PA23 |title = The Archaeology of the Olympics: the Olympics and Other Festivals in Antiquity |last = Raschke |first = Wendy J. |publisher = Wisconsin University Press |year = 1988 |isbn = 978-0-299-11334-6 |location = Madison, Wisconsin |access-date = 12 February 2010 }} | |||
| * Remijsen, Sofie. ''The End of Greek Athletics in Late Antiquity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://archive.org/details/ancientolympics00spiv |url-access = registration |quote = origins of the ancient olympics. |title = The Ancient Olympics |last = Spivey |first = Nigel |publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 2005 |isbn = 978-0-19-280433-4 |location = Oxford, England |access-date = 12 February 2010 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p3Mz55M5DRwC&q=art+of+the+ancient+olympics&pg=PP8 |title = The Forgotten Olympic Art Competitions:The story of the Olympic art competitions of the 20th century |last = Stanton |first = Richard |publisher = Trafford |year = 2000 |isbn = 978-1-55212-606-6 |location = Victoria, Canada |access-date = 23 February 2010 }} | |||
| * {{cite book |url = https://archive.org/details/ancientolympicga00swad |url-access = registration |page = |quote = announcing olympic truce. |title = The ancient Olympic Games |last = Swaddling |first = Judith |publisher = University of Texas Press |year = 1999 |isbn = 978-0-292-77751-4 |location = Austin, Texas |access-date = 12 February 2010 }} | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * Christesen, Paul. 2007. ''Olympic Victor Lists and Ancient Greek History.'' Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. | |||
| * Lee, Hugh M. 2001. ''The Program and Schedule of the Ancient Olympic Games.'' Nikephoros Beihefte 6. Hildesheim, Germany: Weidmann. | |||
| * Nielsen, Thomas Heine. 2007. ''Olympia and the Classical Hellenic City-State Culture.'' Historisk-filosofiske Meddeleser 96. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. | |||
| * Sinn, Ulrich. 2000. ''Olympia: Cult, Sport, and Ancient Festival.'' Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener. | |||
| * Valavanis, Panos. 2004. ''Games and Sanctuaries in Ancient Greece: Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea, Athens.'' Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. | |||
| * Swaddling, Judith. 1984. ''The Ancient Olympic Games.'' Austin: University of Texas. | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Ancient Olympic Games |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} | |||
| {{Commons category|Ancient Olympic Games}} | |||
| {{NSRW Poster|Olympic Games}} | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * : General and detailed information | |||
| * : A special exhibit | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * . Thomas F. Scanlon, professor of Classics, University of California | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Games, Classical|volume=11|pages=443–445|first=Francis|last=Storr}} | |||
| {{Ancient Greece topics}} | |||
| {{Ancient Olympic Games}} | |||
| {{Multi-sport events}} | |||
| {{Olympic Games}} | |||
| {{authority control}} | |||
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Revision as of 20:59, 31 March 2022
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