Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 10:56, 19 April 2022

60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W / 60; -110

Canada
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin) "From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"
Capital	Ottawa 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W / 45.400; -75.667
Largest city	Toronto
Official languages	English French
Demonym(s)	Canadian
Government	Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Charles III
• Governor General	Mary Simon
• Prime Minister	Justin Trudeau
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Commons
Independence from the United Kingdom
• Confederation	July 1, 1867
• Statute of Westminster	December 11, 1931
• Patriation	April 17, 1982
Area
• Total area	9,984,670 km (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)	11.76 (as of 2015)
• Total land area	9,093,507 km (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• Q1 2022 estimate	38,526,760 (37th)
• 2021 census	36,991,981
• Density	4.2/km (10.9/sq mi) (185th)
GDP (PPP)	2021 estimate
• Total	$2.027 trillion (15th)
• Per capita	$53,089 (24th)
GDP (nominal)	2021 estimate
• Total	$2.016 trillion (9th)
• Per capita	$52,791 (15th)
Gini (2018)	30.3 medium inequality
HDI (2019)	0.929 very high (16th)
Currency	Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone	UTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)	UTC−2.5 to −7
Date format	yyyy-mm-dd (AD)
Drives on	Right
Calling code	+1
Internet TLD	.ca

Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Its southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world's longest bi-national land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister—who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons—and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch, who serves as head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual at the federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture.

A highly developed country, Canada has the 24th highest nominal per-capita income globally and the sixteenth-highest ranking in the Human Development Index. Its advanced economy is the ninth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the Group of Ten, the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Commonwealth of Nations, the Arctic Council, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the Organization of American States.

Etymology

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.

From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title. By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth". The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day. The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.

History

Indigenous peoples

Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis, the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared. The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity, conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade. The Crown and Indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers. However, from the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged Indigenous peoples to assimilate into their own culture. These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations. A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.

European colonization

It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson. In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small encampment that only lasted a few years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland. No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I. The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast. In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp. In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.

British North America

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances. Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.

Confederation and expansion

Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated southwards, to the U.S.

To open the West and encourage European immigration, Parliament approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory. This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves", clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements. This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land. The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves. During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.

Early 20th century

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war. Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers. The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain, and the Statute of Westminster 1931 affirmed Canada's independence.

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s. On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded. Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the UK's Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, although the monarch is retained as sovereign. In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970 and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students; and the Oka Crisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups. Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia. Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War, and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with wide social and economic disruption. In 2021, the remains of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools. Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.

Geography

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes. Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory. Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi). In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a maritime boundary with Greenland to the northeast and with the France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast. Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.

The physical geography of Canada is widely varied. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are greater than 100 km (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water. There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley massif, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.

Biodiversity

Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones. These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Due to human activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost. Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development. The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas. Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas. Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi) of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes. Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers. Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of islands and mainland. Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi) and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia's seabirds. Canada's 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).

Climate

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada. Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.

Government and politics

Canada is described as a "full democracy", with a tradition of liberalism, and an egalitarian, moderate political ideology. An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture. Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics", the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors). The historically predominant Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum, with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left. Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society. Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberal Party, who currently form a minority government; the Conservative Party, who are the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party of Canada.

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The reigning monarch is King Charles III, who is also monarch of 14 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's 10 provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the British monarch, although the two institutions are separate. The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, with the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of her federal royal duties in Canada.

While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada, in practice its position is mainly symbolic. The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau), the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.

Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime minister or if the government loses a confidence vote in the House. The Constitution Act, 1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces. The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. In addition, the minister of finance and minister of innovation, science and industry utilize the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development. The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes. The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.

Law

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982 ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada. Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada. Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples. Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921. These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and accommodate. The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. These rights may include provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.

Foreign relations and military

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions. Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions. Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image. The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.

Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization, the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs. Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976. Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001. Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner. Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy. For example, it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Canada maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945). Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize. As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept. Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989, and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force. In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925. In September 2020, Canada joined the COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access (COVAX) program, which aims to ensure equal access to a potential COVID-19 vaccine for all member countries and to help lower-income countries secure doses.

The nation employs a professional, volunteer military force of approximately 79,000 active personnel and 32,250 reserve personnel. The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force. In 2013, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately CA$19 billion, or around one percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). Following the 2016 Defence Policy Review, called "Strong, Secure and Engaged", the Canadian government announced a 70 percent increase to the country's defence budget over the next decade. The Canadian Forces will acquire 88 fighter planes and 15 naval surface combatants based on the Type 26 frigate design, the latter as part of the National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy. Canada's total military expenditure is expected to reach CA$32.7 billion by 2027. Canada's military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas, including in Iraq, Ukraine, and the Caribbean Sea.

Provinces and territories

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare, as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867 are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.

Economy

Canada is the world's ninth-largest economy as of 2021, with a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.015 trillion. It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world, and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. Canada has a mixed economy ranking above the U.S. and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom, and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity. The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.

In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached CA$2.016 trillion. Canada's exports totalled over CA$637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over CA$631 billion, of which approximately CA$391 billion originated from the United States, CA$216 billion from non-U.S. sources. In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of CA$22 billion and a trade deficit in services of CA$25 billion.

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce. However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA). In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada, to encourage foreign investment. The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement). Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy. Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13 percent share of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia. Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains. The federal Department of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium. Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.

Science and technology

In 2019, Canada spent approximately CA$40.3 billion on domestic research and development, of which over $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments. As of 2020, the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine, and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists. It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms. Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population. Canada was ranked 16th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 and 17th in 2019 and 2020.

Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery and the polio vaccine and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus. Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex, the development of the electron microscope, plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1. Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites. Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch. Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle. Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST. Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.

Demographics

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure. Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth. The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.

Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world, driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification. The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, support the current level of immigration. A record number of 405,000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021. India, Philippines and China are the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada. New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.

Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world. Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north. About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States. The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.

The majority of Canadians (67.7 percent) live in family households, 28.2 percent report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 4.1 percent. 6.3 percent of households are multigenerational with 34.7 percent of young adults aged 20 to 34 living with their parents. 69.0 percent of households own their dwellings with 58.6 percent of those homes having an ongoing mortgage.

Health

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare. It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984, and is universal. Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country." However, 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector. This mostly goes towards services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry. Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or utilizes secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a cost increase due to a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years; within twelve years it had risen to 42.4 years, with a life expectancy of 81.1 years. A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health". 80 percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use. Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries attributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined). Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.

In 2017, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $242 billion, or 11.5 percent of Canada's GDP for that year. Canada's per-capita spending ranks as seventh on the list of countries by total health expenditure per capita in the OECD and above the average of 8.8 percent of GDP. Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s. In 2017 Canada ranked above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources. A comprehensive study from 2017 of the top 11 countries ranked Canada's health care system third-to-last. Identified weaknesses of Canada's system were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.

Education

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province. Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada. Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education provision. Canada has a large number of Universities, almost all of which are publicly funded. Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada. The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students. Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.

According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world; the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree. Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education. The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student). As of 2014, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.

The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years, contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent. Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled as of 2016. In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent. The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading, ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.

Ethnicity

According to the 2016 Canadian Census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32 percent of the population), followed by English (18.3 percent), Scottish (13.9 percent), French (13.6 percent), Irish (13.4 percent), German (9.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent), Italian (4.6 percent), First Nations (4.4 percent), Indian (4.0 percent), and Ukrainian (3.9 percent). There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,525,565 people. The Indigenous population in Canada is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed an Indigenous identity in 2006. Another 22.3 percent of the population belonged to a non-Indigenous visible minority. In 2016, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian (5.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent) and Black (3.5 percent). Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent. In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups. Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations.

Languages

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 56 percent and 21 percent of Canadians, respectively. As of the 2016 Census, just over 7.3 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language speakers), Punjabi (501,680), Spanish (458,850), Tagalog (431,385), Arabic (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645). Canada's federal government practises official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.

The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec. Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec. New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official. There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects. Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.

Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous. American Sign Language (ASL) is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools. Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is spoken primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.

Religion

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism. Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference. The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state. With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state. The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, but still believe in God.

According to the 2011 National Household Survey, 67.3 percent of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, Roman Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7 percent of the population. Much of the remainder is made up of Protestants, who accounted for approximately 27 percent in a 2011 survey. The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1 percent of Canadians), followed by the Anglican Church of Canada (5.0 percent), and various Baptist sects (1.9 percent). Secularization has been growing since the 1960s. In 2011, 23.9 percent declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5 percent in 2001. Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Canada, constituting 3.2 percent of its population. It is also the fastest growing religion in Canada. 1.5 percent of the Canadian population is Hindu and 1.4 percent is Sikh.

Culture

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected. Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people. Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments, and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture. However, as a whole, Canada is, in theory, a cultural mosaic—a collection of regional ethnic subcultures.

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support. Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control—alongside legislation with a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination), LGBTQ rights, assisted euthanasia and cannabis use—are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values. Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity. During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture. Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.

Symbols

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism. Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, cold climate, lifestyles and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada. Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling. The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.

Other prominent symbols include the national motto "A Mari Usque Ad Mare" ("From Sea to Sea"), the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies, and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk. Material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian. Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, the beaver on the nickel. The penny, removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf. The Queen's image appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.

Literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration. This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality. In recent decades, Canada's literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world. Since the 1980s, Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity has been openly reflected in its literature. By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.

Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards, including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes; Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English; and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture. L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children's novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.

Media

Canada's media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse and very regionalized. The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich and strengthen the cultural, political, social and economic fabric of Canada". Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States. As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).

Canadian mass media, both print and digital and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a "handful of major media corporations". The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French. In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France. In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing. Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.

Visual arts

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its indigenous peoples. Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in New France and early Canada, especially Quebec, and in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism. The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.

The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage, by giving grants to art galleries, as well as establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts (established in 1957), the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada's cultural works. Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as painter Tom Thomson and by the Group of Seven. The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the group in 1926. Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.

Music

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes. Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations and television music video channels. Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music. The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles. Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970. The Canadian Music Hall of Fame, established in 1976, honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812. "The Maple Leaf Forever" written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and for many years served as an unofficial national anthem. The official national anthem, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.

Sports

The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s, culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, curling, basketball, baseball, association football and Canadian football. Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse. Other sports such as golf, volleyball, skiing, cycling, swimming, badminton, tennis, bowling and the study of martial arts are all widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame, while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete by a panel of journalists. There are numerous other sport "halls of fame" in Canada, such as the Hockey Hall of Fame.

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States. Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada, such as Tim Hortons Brier and Scotties Tournament of Hearts.

Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics, though particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation", and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics, the 1988 Winter Olympics, the 2010 Winter Olympics and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup. Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto, the former being one of the largest sporting event hosted by the country. The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.

See also

• Index of Canada-related articles
• Outline of Canada
• Topics by provinces and territories

Notes

1. "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe." "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology"
2. All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.

References

1. "Royal Anthem". Government of Canada. August 11, 2017. Retrieved December 18, 2020.
2. Dowding, Keith; Dumont, Patrick (2014). The Selection of Ministers around the World. Taylor & Francis. p. 395. ISBN 978-1-317-63444-7.
3. "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved October 11, 2020.
4. "Population estimates, quarterly". March 17, 2022. Archived from the original on March 17, 2022. Retrieved March 17, 2022. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; February 11, 2022 suggested (help)
5. "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population". February 9, 2022. Archived from the original on February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 9, 2022.
6. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database". International Monetary Fund. October 2021. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
7. "Income inequality". OECD. Retrieved July 16, 2021.
8. "Human Development Report 2020" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2020. Retrieved December 15, 2020.
9. The Government of Canada and Standards Council of Canada prescribe ISO 8601 as the country's official all-numeric date format: Public Works and Government Services Canada Translation Bureau (1997). "5.14: Dates". The Canadian style: A guide to writing and editing (Revised ed.). Dundurn Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-55002-276-6. The dd/mm/yy and mm/dd/yy formats also remain in common use; see Date and time notation in Canada.
10. Olson, James Stuart; Shadle, Robert (1991). Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-313-26257-9.
11. ^ Rayburn, Alan (2001). Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names. University of Toronto Press. pp. 14–22. ISBN 978-0-8020-8293-0.
12. Magocsi, Paul R. (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 1048. ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.
13. "An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada". J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble. 1841. p. 20.
14. O'Toole, Roger (2009). "Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context". In Hvithamar, Annika; Warburg, Margit; Jacobsen, Brian Arly (eds.). Holy Nations and Global Identities: Civil Religion, Nationalism, and Globalisation. Brill. p. 137. ISBN 978-90-04-17828-1.
15. Morra, Irene (2016). The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II. I.B.Tauris. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-85772-867-8.
16. "November 8, 1951 (21st Parliament, 5th Session)". Canadian Hansard Dataset. Retrieved April 9, 2019.
17. Bowden, J.W.J. (2015). "'Dominion': A Lament". The Dorchester Review. 5 (2): 58–64.
18. McLean, Janet; Quentin-Baxter, Alison (December 11, 2017). This Realm of New Zealand: The Sovereign, the Governor-General, the Crown. Auckland University Press. ISBN 978-1-77558-963-1. OCLC 1007929877.
19. ^ Buckner, Philip, ed. (2008). Canada and the British Empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125. ISBN 978-0-19-927164-1.
20. Courtney, John; Smith, David (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics. Oxford University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-19-533535-4.
21. ^ Graber, Christoph Beat; Kuprecht, Karolina; Lai, Jessica C. (2012). International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 366. ISBN 978-0-85793-831-2.
22. Dillehay, Thomas D. (2008). The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory. Basic Books. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7867-2543-4.
23. Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2016). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-317-34244-1.
24. Rawat, Rajiv (2012). Circumpolar Health Atlas. University of Toronto Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4426-4456-4.
25. Hayes, Derek (2008). Canada: An Illustrated History. Douglas & Mcintyre. pp. 7, 13. ISBN 978-1-55365-259-5.
26. Macklem, Patrick (2001). Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-8020-4195-1.
27. Sonneborn, Liz (January 2007). Chronology of American Indian History. Infobase Publishing. pp. 2–12. ISBN 978-0-8160-6770-1.
28. ^ Wilson, Donna M; Northcott, Herbert C (2008). Dying and Death in Canada. University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-1-55111-873-4.
29. Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall (eds.). A population history of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13, 380. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7.
30. O'Donnell, C. Vivian (2008). "Native Populations of Canada". In Bailey, Garrick Alan (ed.). Indians in Contemporary Society. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 2. Government Printing Office. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-16-080388-8.
31. Marshall, Ingeborg (1998). A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 442. ISBN 978-0-7735-1774-5.
32. True Peters, Stephanie (2005). Smallpox in the New World. Marshall Cavendish. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7614-1637-1.
33. Laidlaw, Z.; Lester, Alan (2015). Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World. Springer. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-137-45236-8.
34. Ray, Arthur J. (2005). I Have Lived Here Since The World Began. Key Porter Books. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-55263-633-6.
35. Preston, David L. (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
36. Miller, J.R. (2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-4426-9227-5.
37. Tanner, Adrian (1999). "3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'". Innu Culture. Department of Anthropology, Memorial University of Newfoundland. Archived from the original on December 30, 2014. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
38. Asch, Michael (1997). Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference. UBC Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-7748-0581-0.
39. Kirmayer, Laurence J.; Guthrie, Gail Valaskakis (2009). Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada. UBC Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7748-5863-2.
40. "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. 2015. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2015. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
41. Wallace, Birgitta (October 12, 2018). "Leif Eriksson". The Canadian Encyclopedia.
42. Johansen, Bruce E.; Pritzker, Barry M. (2007). Encyclopedia of American Indian History. ABC-CLIO. pp. 727–728. ISBN 978-1-85109-818-7.
43. ^ Cordell, Linda S.; Lightfoot, Kent; McManamon, Francis; Milner, George (2009). "L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site". Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 27, 82. ISBN 978-0-313-02189-3.
44. Blake, Raymond B.; Keshen, Jeffrey; Knowles, Norman J.; Messamore, Barbara J. (2017). Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4426-3553-1.
45. Cartier, Jacques; Biggar, Henry Percival; Cook, Ramsay (1993). The Voyages of Jacques Cartier. University of Toronto Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-8020-6000-6.
46. Kerr, Donald Peter (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada: From the beginning to 1800. University of Toronto Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8020-2495-4.
47. Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
48. Wynn, Graeme (2007). Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History. ABC-CLIO. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-85109-437-0.
49. Rose, George A (October 1, 2007). Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries. Breakwater Books. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-55081-225-1.
50. Kelley, Ninette; Trebilcock, Michael J. (September 30, 2010). The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy. University of Toronto Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8020-9536-7.
51. LaMar, Howard Roberts (1977). The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West. University of Michigan Press. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-690-00008-5.
52. Tucker, Spencer C; Arnold, James; Wiener, Roberta (September 30, 2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 394. ISBN 978-1-85109-697-8.
53. Buckner, Phillip Alfred; Reid, John G. (1994). The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History. University of Toronto Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0-8020-6977-1.
54. Hornsby, Stephen J (2005). British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces of power in early modern British America. University Press of New England. pp. 14, 18–19, 22–23. ISBN 978-1-58465-427-8.
55. Nolan, Cathal J (2008). Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization. ABC-CLIO. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-313-33046-9.
56. Allaire, Gratien (May 2007). "From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2007 (185): 25–52. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.024. S2CID 144657353.
57. Hicks, Bruce M (March 2010). "Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation". British Journal of Canadian Studies. 23 (1): 87–117. doi:10.3828/bjcs.2010.5.
58. Hopkins, John Castell (1898). Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country: The Canadian Dominion Considered in Its Historic Relations, Its Natural Resources, Its Material Progress and Its National Development, by a Corps of Eminent Writers and Specialists. Linscott Publishing Company. p. 125.
59. Nellis, Eric (2010). An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America. University of Toronto Press. p. 331. ISBN 978-1-4426-0403-2.
60. Stuart, Peter; Savage, Allan M. (2011). The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience. WestBow Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-1-4497-2084-1.
61. Leahy, Todd; Wilson, Raymond (September 30, 2009). Native American Movements. Scarecrow Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-8108-6892-2.
62. Newman, Peter C (2016). Hostages to Fortune: The United Empire Loyalists and the Making of Canada. Touchstone. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-4516-8615-9.
63. McNairn, Jeffrey L (2000). The capacity to judge. University of Toronto Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8020-4360-3.
64. Harrison, Trevor; Friesen, John W. (2010). Canadian Society in the Twenty-first Century: An Historical Sociological Approach. Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-1-55130-371-0.
65. Harris, Richard Colebrook; et al. (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada: The land transformed, 1800–1891. University of Toronto Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8020-3447-2.
66. Gallagher, John A. (1936). "The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences". CCHA Report: 43–57. Archived from the original on July 7, 2014.
67. Read, Colin (1985). Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-7735-8406-8.
68. Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture". Law and History Review. 7 (1): 121–174. doi:10.2307/743779. JSTOR 743779.
69. Evenden, Leonard J; Turbeville, Daniel E (1992). "The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier". In Janelle, Donald G (ed.). Geographical Snapshots of North America. Guilford Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-89862-030-6.
70. Farr, DML; Block, Niko (August 9, 2016). "The Alaska Boundary Dispute". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on December 15, 2017.
71. Dijkink, Gertjan; Knippenberg, Hans (2001). The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World. Amsterdam University Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-90-5629-188-4.
72. Bothwell, Robert (1996). History of Canada Since 1867. Michigan State University Press. pp. 31, 207–310. ISBN 978-0-87013-399-2.
73. Bumsted, JM (1996). The Red River Rebellion. Watson & Dwyer. ISBN 978-0-920486-23-8.
74. "Railway History in Canada | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved March 15, 2021.
75. ^ "Building a nation". Canadian Atlas. Canadian Geographic. Archived from the original on March 3, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
76. Denison, Merrill (1955). The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story. McClelland & Stewart Limited. p. 8.
77. "Sir John A. Macdonald". Library and Archives Canada. 2008. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
78. Cook, Terry (2000). "The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior". The Archivist. Library and Archives Canada. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
79. Hele, Karl S. (2013). The Nature of Empires and the Empires of Nature: Indigenous Peoples and the Great Lakes Environment. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-55458-422-2.
80. Gagnon, Erica. "Settling the West: Immigration to the Prairies from 1867 to 1914". Canadian Museum of Immigration. Retrieved December 18, 2020.
81. Armitage, Derek; Plummer, Ryan (2010). Adaptive Capacity and Environmental Governance. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 183–184. ISBN 978-3-642-12194-4.
82. Daschuk, James William (2013). Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. University of Regina Press. pp. 99–104. ISBN 978-0-88977-296-0.
83. Hall, David John (2015). From Treaties to Reserves: The Federal Government and Native Peoples in Territorial Alberta, 1870–1905. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 258–259. ISBN 978-0-7735-4595-3.
84. Jackson, Robert J.; Jackson, Doreen; Koop, Royce (2020). Canadian Government and Politics (7th ed.). Broadview Press. p. 186. ISBN 978-1-4604-0696-0.
85. Tennyson, Brian Douglas (2014). Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation. Scarecrow Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8108-8860-9.
86. ^ Morton, Desmond (1999). A military history of Canada (4th ed.). McClelland & Stewart. pp. 130–158, 173, 203–233, 258. ISBN 978-0-7710-6514-9.
87. Granatstein, J. L. (2004). Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace. University of Toronto Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-8020-8696-9.
88. ^ McGonigal, Richard Morton (1962). "Intro". The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism. Harvard University Press.
89. Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
90. Bryce, Robert B. (June 1, 1986). Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression. McGill-Queen's. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-7735-0555-1.
91. Mulvale, James P (July 11, 2008). "Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility". Basic Income Studies. 3 (1). doi:10.2202/1932-0183.1084. S2CID 154091685.
92. Humphreys, Edward (2013). Great Canadian Battles: Heroism and Courage Through the Years. Arcturus Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-78404-098-7.
93. ^ Goddard, Lance (2005). Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands. Dundurn Press. pp. 225–232. ISBN 978-1-55002-547-7.
94. Bothwell, Robert (2007). Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945–1984. UBC Press. pp. 11, 31. ISBN 978-0-7748-1368-6.
95. Alfred Buckner, Phillip (2008). Canada and the British Empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-0-19-927164-1.
96. Boyer, J. Patrick (1996). Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums. Dundurn Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-4597-1884-5.
97. Mackey, Eva (2002). The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8020-8481-1.
98. Landry, Rodrigue; Forgues, Éric (May 2007). "Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2007 (185): 1–9. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.022. S2CID 143905306.
99. Esses, Victoria M; Gardner, RC (July 1996). "Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 28 (3): 145–152. doi:10.1037/h0084934.
100. Sarrouh, Elissar (January 22, 2002). "Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development" (PDF). Social Policy Series, No. 1. United Nations. pp. 14–16, 22–37. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 17, 2010.
101. "Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982". Government of Canada. May 5, 2014. Archived from the original on February 11, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
102. "A statute worth 75 cheers". The Globe and Mail. March 17, 2009. Archived from the original on February 11, 2017.
103. Couture, Christa (January 1, 2017). "Canada is celebrating 150 years of... what, exactly?". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
104. Trepanier, Peter (2004). "Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical Tradition" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
105. Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain, eds. (2004). Canadian Politics (4th ed.). Broadview Press. pp. 250–254, 344–347. ISBN 978-1-55111-595-5.
106. Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (2–3): 335–367. doi:10.1163/157181108X332659. JSTOR 24674996.
107. Roberts, Lance W.; Clifton, Rodney A.; Ferguson, Barry (2005). Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 415. ISBN 978-0-7735-7314-7.
108. Munroe, HD (2009). "The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice". Terrorism and Political Violence. 21 (2): 288–305. doi:10.1080/09546550902765623. S2CID 143725040.
109. ^ Sorens, J (December 2004). "Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy". Electoral Studies. 23 (4): 727–752. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003.
110. Leblanc, Daniel (August 13, 2010). "A brief history of the Bloc Québécois". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on September 1, 2010. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
111. Betz, Hans-Georg; Immerfall, Stefan (1998). The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies. St. Martin's Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-312-21134-9.
112. Schmid, Carol L. (2001). The Politics of Language: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-803150-5.
113. "Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on June 22, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
114. Sourour, Teresa K (1991). "Report of Coroner's Investigation" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 28, 2016. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
115. "The Oka Crisis". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2000. Archived from the original on August 4, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
116. Roach, Kent (2003). September 11: consequences for Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 15, 59–61, 194. ISBN 978-0-7735-2584-9.
117. Cohen, Lenard J.; Moens, Alexander (1999). "Learning the lessons of UNPROFOR: Canadian peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia". Canadian Foreign Policy Journal. 6 (2): 85–100. doi:10.1080/11926422.1999.9673175.
118. Jockel, Joseph T; Sokolsky, Joel B (2008). "Canada and the war in Afghanistan: NATO's odd man out steps forward". Journal of Transatlantic Studies. 6 (1): 100–115. doi:10.1080/14794010801917212. S2CID 144463530.
119. Hehir, Aidan; Murray, Robert (2013). Libya, the Responsibility to Protect and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-137-27396-3.
120. Juneau, Thomas (2015). "Canada's Policy to Confront the Islamic State". Canadian Global Affairs Institute. Archived from the original on December 11, 2015. Retrieved December 10, 2015.
121. "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19)". Government of Canada. 2021.
122. "Catholic group to release all records from Marievel, Kamloops residential schools". CTVNews. June 25, 2021. Retrieved June 25, 2021.
123. Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada (January 1, 2016). Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1, Origins to 1939: The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Volume I. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-0-7735-9818-8.
124. Brescia, Michael M.; Super, John C. (2009). North America: An Introduction. University of Toronto Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-8020-9675-3.
125. Battram, Robert A. (2010). Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation. Trafford Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4269-3393-6.
126. ^ McColl, R. W. (September 2005). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Infobase Publishing. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-8160-5786-3.
127. "Geography". Statistics Canada. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
128. "The Boundary". International Boundary Commission. 1985. Archived from the original on August 1, 2008. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
129. Gallay, Alan (2015). Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 429–. ISBN 978-1-317-48718-0.
130. Canadian Geographic. Royal Canadian Geographical Society. 2008. p. 20.
131. Bailey, William G; Oke, TR; Rouse, Wayne R (1997). The surface climates of Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-7735-1672-4.
132. "Physical Components of Watersheds". The Atlas of Canada. December 5, 2012. Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
133. Sandford, Robert William (2012). Cold Matters: The State and Fate of Canada's Fresh Water. Biogeoscience Institute at the University of Calgary. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-927330-20-3.
134. Etkin, David; Haque, CE; Brooks, Gregory R (April 30, 2003). An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada. Springer. pp. 569, 582, 583. ISBN 978-1-4020-1179-5.
135. "Introduction to the Ecological Land Classification (ELC) 2017". Statistics Canada. January 10, 2018. Retrieved November 9, 2020.
136. "Wild Species 2015: The General Status of Species in Canada" (PDF). National General Status Working Group: 1. Canadian Endangered Species Conservation Council. 2016. p. 2. The new estimate indicates that there are about 80,000 known species in Canada, excluding viruses and bacteria
137. "COSEWIC Annual Report". Species at Risk Public Registry. 2019.
138. "State of Canada's Biodiversity Highlighted in New Government Report". October 22, 2010.
139. Raven, Peter H.; Berg, Linda R.; Hassenzahl, David M. (2012). Environment. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-470-94570-4.
140. National Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. 2005. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7705-1198-2.
141. Luckert, Martin K.; Haley, David; Hoberg, George (2012). Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices. UBC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7748-2069-1.
142. ^ "Canada's conserved areas". Environment and Climate Canada. 2020.
143. "The Mountain Guide – Banff National Park" (PDF). Parks Canada. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 15, 2006.
144. Price, Martin F. (2013). Mountain Area Research and Management: Integrated Approaches. Earthscan. pp. 217–218. ISBN 978-1-84977-201-3.
145. "Algonquin Provincial Park Management Plan". Queen’s Printer for Ontario. 1998.
146. Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (December 13, 2017). "Spotlight on Marine Protected Areas in Canada". www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca.
147. "Scott Islands Marine National Widllife Area". Protected Planet. Retrieved September 25, 2020.
148. Canada, Environment and Climate Change (February 7, 2013). "Proposed Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area: regulatory strategy". aem.
149. "UNESCO Biosphere Reserves of Canada". e CanadianBiosphere Reserves Association and the Canadian Commission for UNESCO. 2018. PDF
150. "Statistics, Regina SK". The Weather Network. Archived from the original on January 5, 2009. Retrieved January 18, 2010.
151. "Regina International Airport". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada. September 25, 2013. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 12, 2015.
152. Bush, E.; Lemmen, D.S. (2019). "Canada's Changing Climate Report" (PDF). Government of Canada. p. 84.
153. ^ Zhang, X.; Flato, G.; Kirchmeier-Young, M.; Vincent, L.; Wan, H.; Wang, X.; Rong, R.; Fyfe, J.; Li, G.; Kharin, V.V. (2019). Bush, E.; Lemmen, D.S. (eds.). "Changes in Temperature and Precipitation Across Canada; Chapter 4" (PDF). Canada's Changing Climate Report. Government of Canada. pp. 112–193.
154. Boyd, David R (2011). Unnatural Law: Rethinking Canadian Environmental Law and Policy. UBC Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-7748-4063-7.
155. "Democracy Index 2017". The Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved November 29, 2017.
156. Westhues, Anne; Wharf, Brian (2014). Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-1-55458-409-3.
157. Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain (2009). Canadian Politics. University of Toronto Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-4426-0121-5.
158. Johnson, David (2016). Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada (4th ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 13–23. ISBN 978-1-4426-3521-0.
159. McQuaig, L. (2010). Holding the Bully's Coat: Canada and the U.S. Empire. Doubleday Canada. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-385-67297-9. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
160. Fierlbeck, Katherine (2006). Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History. University of Toronto Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-55111-711-9.
161. Dixon, John; P. Scheurell, Robert (March 17, 2016). Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries. Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-317-36677-5.
162. Boughey, Janina (2017). Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada: The Newest Despotism?. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-5099-0788-5.
163. Marland, Alex; Giasson, Thierry; Lees-Marshment, Jennifer (2012). Political Marketing in Canada. UBC Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7748-2231-2.
164. Courtney, John; Smith, David (2010). The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics. Oxford University Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-19-533535-4.
165. Christopher Cochrane . (2010). Left/Right Ideology and Canadian Politics. Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne De Science Politique, 43(3), 583–605. Retrieved January 21, 2021,
166. Brooks, Stephen (2004). Canadian Democracy: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-19-541806-4. Two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics
167. Smith, Miriam (2014). Group Politics and Social Movements in Canada: Second Edition. University of Toronto Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4426-0695-1. Canada's party system has long been described as a "brokerage system" in which the leading parties (Liberal and Conservative) follow strategies that appeal across major social cleavages in an effort to defuse potential tensions.
168. Johnson, David (2016). Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition. University of Toronto Press. pp. 13–23. ISBN 978-1-4426-3521-0. ...most Canadian governments, especially at the federal level, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...
169. Baumer, Donald C.; Gold, Howard J. (2015). Parties, Polarization and Democracy in the United States. Taylor & Francis. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-317-25478-2.
170. Bittner, Amanda; Koop, Royce (March 1, 2013). Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics. UBC Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-7748-2411-8.
171. Evans, Geoffrey; de Graaf, Nan Dirk (2013). Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective. Oxford University Press. pp. 166–167. ISBN 978-0-19-966399-6.
172. Johnston, Richard (2017). The Canadian Party System: An Analytic History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3610-4.
173. Ambrose, Emma; Mudde, Cas (2015). "Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 21 (2): 213–236. doi:10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033. S2CID 145773856.
174. Taub, Amanda (June 27, 2017). "Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave". The New York Times.
175. "Election 2015 roundup". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on October 22, 2015.
176. "Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble". Queen's Printer. March 29, 1867. Archived from the original on February 3, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
177. Smith, David E (June 10, 2010). "The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy?" (PDF). The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options. Queen's University. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2010.
178. ^ MacLeod, Kevin S (2012). A Crown of Maples (PDF) (2nd ed.). Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 4, 2016. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
179. Johnson, David (2018). Battle Royal: Monarchists vs. Republicans and the Crown of Canada. Dundurn Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-4597-4015-0.
180. "The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities". Queen's Printer. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
181. Commonwealth public administration reform 2004. Commonwealth Secretariat. 2004. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-0-11-703249-1.
182. ^ Forsey, Eugene (2005). How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF) (6th ed.). Queen's Printer. pp. 1, 16, 26. ISBN 978-0-662-39689-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 29, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
183. ^ Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille. "House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions". Queen's Printer. Archived from the original on August 28, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
184. Edwards, Peter (November 4, 2015). "'A cabinet that looks like Canada:' Justin Trudeau pledges government built on trust". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on January 28, 2017.
185. Johnson, David (2006). Thinking government: public sector management in Canada (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 134–135, 149. ISBN 978-1-55111-779-9.
186. "The Opposition in a Parliamentary System". Library of Parliament. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
187. "About Elections and Ridings". Library of Parliament. Archived from the original on December 24, 2016. Retrieved September 3, 2016.
188. O'Neal, Brian; Bédard, Michel; Spano, Sebastian (April 11, 2011). "Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers". Library of Parliament. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved June 2, 2011.
189. Griffiths, Ann L.; Nerenberg, Karl (2003). Handbook of Federal Countries. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-7735-7047-4.
190. "Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories". Intergovernmental Affairs Canada. 2010. Archived from the original on December 1, 2015. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
191. "Differences from Provincial Governments". Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories. 2008. Archived from the original on February 3, 2014. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
192. "About". Statistics Canada. 2014. Archived from the original on January 15, 2015. Retrieved March 8, 2017.
193. Gilbert, Emily; Helleiner, Eric (2003). Nation-States and Money: The Past, Present and Future of National Currencies. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-134-65817-6.
194. Cuhaj, George S.; Michael, Thomas (2011). Coins of the World: Canada. Krause Publications. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4402-3129-2.
195. Dodek, Adam (2016). The Canadian Constitution. Dundurn – University of Ottawa Faculty of Law. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-4597-3505-7.
196. Olive, Andrea (2015). The Canadian Environment in Political Context. University of Toronto Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-1-4426-0871-9.
197. Bhagwan, Vishnoo; Vidya, Bhushan (2004). World Constitutions. Sterling Publishers. pp. 549–550. ISBN 978-81-207-1937-8.
198. Bakan, Joel; Elliot, Robin M (2003). Canadian Constitutional Law. Emond Montgomery Publications. pp. 3–8, 683–687, 699. ISBN 978-1-55239-085-6.
199. "Current and Former Chief Justices". Supreme Court of Canada. December 18, 2017. Archived from the original on January 16, 2018. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
200. Yates, Richard; Bain, Penny; Yates, Ruth (2000). Introduction to Law in Canada. Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-13-792862-0.
201. Hermida, Julian (May 9, 2018). Criminal Law in Canada. Kluwer Law International B.V. pp. 10–. ISBN 978-90-411-9627-9.
202. Sworden, Philip James (2006). An introduction to Canadian law. Emond Montgomery Publications. pp. 22, 150. ISBN 978-1-55239-145-7.
203. "Who we are". Ontario Provincial Police. 2009. Archived from the original on August 26, 2016. Retrieved October 24, 2012.
204. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. "Keeping Canada and Our Communities Safe and Secure" (PDF). Queen's Printer. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 6, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
205. Reynolds, Jim (2015). Aboriginal Peoples and the Law: A Critical Introduction. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-8023-7.
206. ^ Patterson, Lisa Lynne (2004). Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006 (PDF) (Report). 1. Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 26, 2014. Retrieved October 23, 2014.
207. "Treaty areas". Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. October 7, 2002. Archived from the original on January 7, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
208. Isaac, Thomas (2012). Aboriginal Law (4th ed.). UBC Press. p. 349. ISBN 978-1-895830-65-1.
209. Madison, Gary Brent (2000). Is There a Canadian Philosophy?: Reflections on the Canadian Identity. University of Ottawa Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-7766-0514-2.
210. ^ Chapnick, Adam (2011). The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations. UBC Press. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-7748-4049-1.
211. Sens, Allen; Stoett, Peter (2013). Global Politics (5th ed.). Nelson Education. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-17-648249-7.
212. "Plans at a glance and operating context". Global Affairs Canada. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
213. Sorenson, David S.; Wood, Pia Christina (2005). The Politics of Peacekeeping in the Post-cold War Era. Psychology Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-7146-8488-8.
214. Sobel, Richard; Shiraev, Eric; Shapiro, Robert (2002). International Public Opinion and the Bosnia Crisis. Lexington Books. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7391-0480-4.
215. "Millennium Development Goals: A sprint to 2015 and the way forward". Canadian Government Executive. 2014. Archived from the original on November 13, 2016. Retrieved November 12, 2016.
216. "International Organizations and Forums". Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada. 2013. Archived from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
217. Clément, Dominique (2016). Human Rights in Canada: A History. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-77112-164-4.
218. McKenna, Peter (2012). Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas Policy. University of Toronto Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-4426-1108-5.
219. Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations, Activities. International Business Publications. July 31, 2015. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-7397-1615-1.
220. Haglung, David G (Autumn 2003). "North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security". Orbis. 47 (4): 675–691. doi:10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3.
221. "Canada". United States Department of State. 2014. Retrieved February 13, 2015.
222. See Congressional Research Service. Canada-U.S. Relations (Congressional Research Service, 2021) 2021 Report, by an agency of the U.S. Congress; Updated February 10, 2021.
223. Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain-G. (2014). Canadian Politics (6th ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 423. ISBN 978-1-4426-0703-3.
224. James, Patrick (2006). Michaud, Nelson; O'Reilly, Marc J (eds.). Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy. Lexington Books. pp. 213–214, 349–362. ISBN 978-0-7391-1493-3.
225. DeRouen, Karl R. (2005). Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies. University of Alabama Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-85109-781-4.
226. Teigrob, Robert (September 2010). "'Which Kind of Imperialism?' Early Cold War Decolonization and Canada–US Relations". Canadian Review of American Studies. 37 (3): 403–430. doi:10.3138/cras.37.3.403.
227. Canada's International Policy Statement: a role of pride and influence in the world. Government of Canada. 2005. ISBN 978-0-662-68608-8.
228. Finkel, Alvin (1997). Our Lives: Canada after 1945. Lorimer. pp. 105–107, 111–116. ISBN 978-1-55028-551-2.
229. Holloway, Steven Kendall (2006). Canadian Foreign Policy: Defining the National Interest. University of Toronto Press. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-1-55111-816-1.
230. Mays, Terry M. (December 16, 2010). Historical Dictionary of Multinational Peacekeeping. Scarecrow Press. pp. 218–. ISBN 978-0-8108-7516-6.
231. Farnsworth, Clyde H (November 27, 1994). "Torture by Army Peacekeepers in Somalia Shocks Canada". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 1, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
232. Klassen, Jerome; Albo, Greg (January 10, 2013). Empire's Ally: Canada and the War in Afghanistan. University of Toronto Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-1-4426-6496-8.
233. Blomfield, Adrian (August 3, 2007). "Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on April 28, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
234. Rabson, Mia (September 22, 2020). "Canada to join global coronavirus vaccine procurement program". Global News. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
235. "Military Strength of Canada". Global Firepower. 2017. Archived from the original on June 25, 2017. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
236. Berthiaume, Lee (September 3, 2014). "Canadian military spending by the numbers". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on December 28, 2014. Retrieved January 25, 2015.
237. "Military expenditure of Canada". SIPRI. 2011. Archived from the original on June 22, 2008. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
238. "Strong, Secure, Engaged: Canada's Defence Policy". Government of Canada. September 22, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
239. "Canadian fighter jet replacement project hit with another delay". Global News. The Canadian Press. February 25, 2020. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
240. Pugliese, David (February 8, 2019). "Liberals sign Canadian Surface Combatant contract: deal to be announced Friday". Ottawa Citizen. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
241. Brewster, Murray (June 7, 2017). "More soldiers, ships and planes for military in Liberal defence plan". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on August 22, 2017. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
242. "Current operations list". Government of Canada. March 27, 2013. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
243. Hamel, Pierre; Keil, Roger (2015). Suburban Governance: A Global View. University of Toronto Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-4426-6357-2.
244. Doern, G. Bruce; Maslove, Allan M.; Prince, Michael J. (2013). Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7735-8853-0.
245. Clemens, Jason; Veldhuis, Niels (2012). Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context. Fraser Institute. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-88975-215-3.
246. Oliver, Peter; Macklem, Patrick; Des Rosiers, Nathalie (2017). The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution. Oxford University Press. pp. 498–499. ISBN 978-0-19-066482-4.
247. Meligrana, John (2004). Redrawing Local Government Boundaries: An International Study of Politics, Procedures, and Decisions. UBC Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-7748-0934-4.
248. Nicholson, Norman L. (1979). The boundaries of the Canadian Confederation. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-7705-1742-7.
249. Sassen, Saskia (2018). Cities in a World Economy (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. p. 210. ISBN 978-1-5063-6260-1.
250. "World Economic Outlook Database". International Monetary Fund. April 2, 2019.
251. Rotberg, Robert I.; Carment, David (2018). Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad. Taylor & Francis. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-351-57924-7.
252. "Latest release". World Trade Organization. April 17, 2008. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
253. "Index of Globalization 2010". KOF. Archived from the original on May 31, 2012. Retrieved May 22, 2012.
254. "Index of Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation and The Wall Street Journal. 2013. Archived from the original on June 29, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
255. Kay, Jonathan (December 13, 2012). "Jonathan Kay: The Key to Canada's Economic Advantage Over the United States? Less Income Inequality". National Post. Archived from the original on May 15, 2016.
256. Better Policies Policies for Stronger and More Inclusive Growth in Canada. OECD. June 16, 2017. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-92-64-27794-6.
257. "Monthly Reports". World Federation of Exchanges.as of November 2018
258. ^ "U.S.-Canada Trade Facts". Canada's State of Trade (20 ed.). Global Affairs Canada. 2021. ISSN 2562-8313. PDF version
259. Harris, R. Cole; Matthews, Geoffrey J. (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada: Addressing the Twentieth Century, 1891–1961. University of Toronto Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8020-3448-9. Archived from the original on March 20, 2018.
260. "Employment by Industry". Statistics Canada. January 8, 2009. Archived from the original on May 24, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
261. ^ Sueyoshi, Toshiyuki; Goto, Mika (2018). Environmental Assessment on Energy and Sustainability by Data Envelopment Analysis. Wiley. p. 496. ISBN 978-1-118-97933-4.
262. Mosler, David; Catley, Bob (2013). The American Challenge: The World Resists US Liberalism. Ashgate Publishing. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4094-9852-0.
263. Kerr, William; Perdikis, Nicholas (2014). The Economics of International Commerce. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-78347-668-8.
264. Morck, Randall; Tian, Gloria; Yeung, Bernard (2005). "Who owns whom? Economic nationalism and family controlled pyramidal groups in Canada". In Eden, Lorraine; Dobson, Wendy (eds.). Governance, Multinationals, and Growth. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-84376-909-5.
265. Hale, Geoffrey (October 2008). "The Dog That Hasn't Barked: The Political Economy of Contemporary Debates on Canadian Foreign Investment Policies". Canadian Journal of Political Science. 41 (3): 719–747. doi:10.1017/S0008423908080785. JSTOR 25166298. S2CID 154319169.
266. Krieger, Joel, ed. (2001). The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 569. ISBN 978-0-19-511739-4.
267. Kobrak, Christopher; Martin, Joe (2018). From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance. University of Toronto Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-4426-1625-7.
268. Brown, Charles E (2002). World Energy Resources. Springer. pp. 323, 378–389. ISBN 978-3-540-42634-9.
269. Lopez-Vallejo, Marcela (2016). Reconfiguring Global Climate Governance in North America: A Transregional Approach. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-317-07042-9.
270. "Trade Ranking Report: Agriculture" (PDF). FCC. 2017.
271. Haldar, Swapan Kumar (2016). Platinum-Nickel-Chromium Deposits: Geology, Exploration and Reserve Base. Elsevier Science. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-12-802086-9.
272. "Mapping Canada's Top Manufacturing Industries". Industry Insider. January 22, 2015.
273. "Spending on research and development, 2019 (final), 2020 (preliminary) and 2021 (intentions)". Statistics Canada. March 4, 2022. Retrieved April 10, 2022.
274. "Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates". Science.ca. Retrieved December 19, 2020.
275. McIlroy, Anne (September 26, 2012). "Canada ranked fourth in the world for scientific research". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved October 17, 2012.
276. "Top 250 Canadian Technology Companies". Branham Group Inc. 2014. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved February 13, 2015.
277. "Internet Usage and Population in North America". Internet World Stats. June 2014. Archived from the original on February 7, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
278. "Global Innovation Index 2021". World Intellectual Property Organization. United Nations. Retrieved March 5, 2022.
279. "Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?". WIPO. Retrieved September 2, 2021.
280. "Global Innovation Index 2019". WIPO. Retrieved September 2, 2021.
281. "Lew Urry". Science.ca.
282. "Leone N. Farrell". Science.ca.
283. "Leon Katz". Science.ca.
284. Strauss, Evelyn (2005). "2005 Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award". Lasker Foundation. Archived from the original on July 16, 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2008.
285. ^ "Top ten Canadian scientific achievements". GCS Research Society. 2015.
286. "James Hillier". Inventor of the Week. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on August 8, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2008.
287. Pearce, Jeremy (January 22, 2007). "James Hillier, 91, Dies; Co-Developed Electron Microscope". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 25, 2014. Retrieved November 20, 2008.
288. Bolton, C. T. (1972). "Identification of Cygnus X-1 with HDE 226868". Nature. 235 (2): 271–273. Bibcode:1972Natur.235..271B. doi:10.1038/235271b0. S2CID 4222070.
289. Strathdee, C.A.; Gavish, H.; Shannon, W.; Buchwald, M. (1992). "Cloning of cDNAs for Fanconi's anemia by functional complementation". Nature. 356 (6372): 763–767. Bibcode:1992Natur.356..763S. doi:10.1038/356763a0. PMID 1574115. S2CID 4250632.
290. "Canadian Space Milestones". Canadian Space Agency. 2016. Archived from the original on October 8, 2009.
291. Angelo, Joseph A. (2009). Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy. Infobase Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-4381-1018-9.
292. Bidaud, Philippe; Dupuis, Erick (2012). "An overview of Canadian space robotics activities". Field Robotics: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and the Support Technologies for Mobile Machines. World Scientific. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-981-4374-27-9.
293. "The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada". Newswire. March 11, 2010. Archived from the original on June 9, 2011. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
294. Godefroy, Andrew B. (2017). The Canadian Space Program: From Black Brant to the International Space Station. Springer. p. 41. ISBN 978-3-319-40105-8.
295. ^ McMurry, Peter H.; Shepherd, Marjorie F.; Vickery, James S. (2004). Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment. Cambridge University Press. p. 391. ISBN 978-0-521-84287-7.
296. ^ Zimonjic, Peter (February 9, 2022). "Despite pandemic, Canada's population grows at fastest rate in G7: census". CBC News. Retrieved February 9, 2022.
297. Campion-Smith, Bruce (February 8, 2017). "Canada's population grew 1.7M in 5 years, latest census shows". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on February 8, 2017. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
298. "Energy Efficiency Trends in Canada, 1990 to 2008". Natural Resources Canada. 2011. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved December 13, 2015.
299. Edmonston, Barry; Fong, Eric (2011). The Changing Canadian Population. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-7735-3793-4.
300. Zimmerman, Karla (2008). Canada (10th ed.). Lonely Planet. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-74104-571-0.
301. ^ Hollifield, James; Martin, Philip; Orrenius, Pia (2014). Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (3rd ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8047-8627-0.
302. Beaujot, Roderic P.; Kerr, Donald W. (2007). The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-55130-322-2.
303. Freeman, Gary P.; Hansen, Randall; Leal, David L. (2013). Immigration and Public Opinion in Liberal Democracies. Routledge. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-136-21161-4.
304. Sangani, Priyanka (February 15, 2022). "Canada to take in 1.3 million immigrants in 2022-24". The Economic Times.
305. "Is Canada asking countries for a million immigrants?". BBC News. June 6, 2019.
306. Grubel, Herbert G. (2009). The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian Living Standards and Society. Fraser Institute. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-88975-246-7.
307. "2019 Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration" (PDF). Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship. Retrieved December 19, 2020.
308. Jason, Markusoff (January 23, 2019). "Canada now brings in more refugees than the U.S." Maclean's.
309. ^ OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004. OECD. 2014. pp. 142–. ISBN 978-92-64-10778-6.
310. Custred, Glynn (2008). "Security Threats on America's Borders". In Moens, Alexander (ed.). Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States. Fraser Institute. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-88975-235-1.
311. ^ "The Daily — Families, households and marital status: Key results from the 2016 Census". Statistics Canada. August 2, 2017.
312. Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (September 11, 2013). "The Daily — 2011 National Household Survey: Homeownership and shelter costs in Canada". www150.statcan.gc.ca.
313. "Census metropolitan area (CMA) and census agglomeration (CA)". Illustrated Glossary. November 15, 2017. Retrieved September 8, 2023.
314. Aase, Karina; Waring, Justin; Schibevaag, Lene (2017). Researching Quality in Care Transitions: International Perspectives. Springer. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-3-319-62346-7.
315. "Public vs. private health care". CBC News. December 1, 2006.
316. Bégin, Monique (1988). "Intro". Medicare: Canada's Right to Health. Optimum Pub. International. ISBN 978-0-88890-219-1.
317. Leatt, Peggy; Mapa, Joseph (2003). Government Relations in the Health Care Industry. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-56720-513-8.
318. "17.2 Universality". The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role (Report). Parliament of Canada. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
319. ^ Kroll, David J. (2012). Capitalism Revisited: How to Apply Capitalism in Your Life. Dorrance Publishing. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-4349-1768-3.
320. Chen, Tsai-Jyh (2018). An International Comparison of Financial Consumer Protection. Springer. p. 93. ISBN 978-981-10-8441-6.
321. Martel, Laurent; Malenfant, Éric Caron (September 22, 2009). "2006 Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006, by Age and Sex". Statistics Canada. Archived from the original on September 20, 2017.
322. ^ "Canada". The World Factbook. CIA. May 16, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
323. Weiss, Thomas G. (2017). "Canadian Male and Female Life Expectancy Rates by Province and Territory". Disabled World.
324. "Health Status of Canadians – How healthy are we? – Perceived health". Report of the Chief Public Health Officer. Public Health Agency of Canada. 2016.
325. ^ Gregory, David; Stephens, Tracey; Raymond-Seniuk, Christy; Patrick, Linda (2019). Fundamentals: Perspectives on the Art and Science of Canadian Nursing. Wolters Kluwer Health. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-4963-9850-5.
326. "How Healthy are Canadians?". Public Health Agency of Canada. 2017.
327. "Health at a Glance 2019" (PDF). OECD. 2019.
328. "Total health spending in Canada reaches $242 billion". Canadian Institute for Health Information. 2017. Archived from the original on April 21, 2019. Retrieved April 23, 2019.
329. "Health expenditure and financing". OECD. Choose options from dropdown menus.
330. "Health at a Glance 2017" (PDF). OECD. 2017.
331. "Health at a Glance: OECD Indicators by country". OECD. 2017.
332. ^ "International Comparison Reflects Flaws and Opportunities for Better U.S. Health Care". Commonwealth Fund. Retrieved March 6, 2020.
333. Scholey, Lucy (April 21, 2015). "2015 federal budget 'disappointing' for post-secondary students: CFS". Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
334. Canada 1956 the Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress. Canada Year Book Section Information Services Division Dominion Bureau of Statistics. 1959.
335. Epstein, Irving (2008). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Children's Issues Worldwide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-313-33617-1.
336. Montesinos, Vicente; Manuel Vela, José (2013). Innovations in Governmental Accounting. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 305. ISBN 978-1-4757-5504-6.
337. Shanahan, Theresa; Nilson, Michelle; Broshko, Li Jeen (2016). The Handbook of Canadian Higher Education. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-55339-506-5.
338. Blake, Raymond B.; Keshen, Jeffrey A.; Knowles, Norman J.; Messamore, Barbara J. (2017). Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-4426-3555-5.
339. Richards, Larry Wayne (2019). University of Toronto: An Architectural Tour (The Campus Guide) (2nd ed.). Princeton Architectural Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-61689-824-3.
340. "Academic Ranking of World Universities 2019: Canada". Shanghai Ranking. Archived from the original on February 27, 2020. Retrieved March 6, 2020.
341. ^ "Most Educated Countries 2019". World Population Review. 2019. Retrieved September 7, 2019.
342. "Government expenditure on education as % of GDP (%)". World Bank. 2015. Archived from the original on January 5, 2016. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
343. "Financial and human resources invested in Education" (PDF). OECD. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 8, 2014. Retrieved July 4, 2014.
344. "Canada". OECD Better Life Index. OECD. 2014. Archived from the original on February 18, 2015. Retrieved February 13, 2015.
345. "Overview of Education in Canada". Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. Archived from the original on February 14, 2010. Retrieved October 20, 2010.
346. "Creating Opportunities for All Canadians". Department of Finance Canada. November 14, 2005. Archived from the original on April 23, 2010. Retrieved May 22, 2016.
347. "Comparing countries' and economies' performances" (PDF). OECD. 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 7, 2012. Retrieved May 22, 2012.
348. "Canadian education among best in the world: OECD". CTV News. December 7, 2010. Archived from the original on May 28, 2013. Retrieved February 15, 2013.
349. "PISA – Results in Focus" (PDF). OECD. 2015. p. 5.
350. "Canada – Student performance (PISA 2015)". OECD. Retrieved December 18, 2020.
351. Simon, Patrick; Piché, Victor (2013). Accounting for Ethnic and Racial Diversity: The Challenge of Enumeration. Routledge. pp. 48–49. ISBN 978-1-317-98108-4.
352. Bezanson, Kate; Webber, Michelle (2016). Rethinking Society in the 21st Century (4th ed.). Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 455–456. ISBN 978-1-55130-936-1.
353. Edmonston, Barry; Fong, Eric (2011). The Changing Canadian Population. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 294–296. ISBN 978-0-7735-3793-4.
354. "Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". Statistics Canada. October 25, 2017. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017.
355. "Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data". 2006 Census: Topic-based tabulations. Statistics Canada. June 12, 2008. Archived from the original on October 18, 2011. Retrieved September 18, 2009.
356. ^ "Census Profile, 2016 Census". Statistics Canada. February 8, 2017. Archived from the original on October 15, 2017. Retrieved February 16, 2018.
357. Pendakur, Krishna. "Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market". Simon Fraser University. Archived from the original on May 16, 2011. Retrieved June 30, 2014.
358. "Classification of visible minority". Statistics Canada. July 25, 2008. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved September 18, 2009.
359. "2006 Census: The Evolving Linguistic Portrait, 2006 Census: Highlights". Statistics Canada, Dated 2006. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved October 12, 2010.
360. ^ "Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2016 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories". Statistics Canada. February 8, 2017. Archived from the original on October 15, 2017.
361. "Official Languages and You". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. June 16, 2009. Retrieved September 10, 2009.
362. Bourhis, Richard Y; Montaruli, Elisa; Amiot, Catherine E (May 2007). "Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2007 (185): 187–224. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.031. S2CID 144320961.
363. Webber, Jeremy (2015). The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-78225-631-1.
364. Auer, Peter (2010). Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and methods. Walter de Gruyter. p. 387. ISBN 978-3-11-018002-2.
365. Hayday, Matthew (2005). Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-7735-2960-1.
366. Heller, Monica (2003). Crosswords: Language, Education and Ethnicity in French Ontario. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 72, 74. ISBN 978-3-11-017687-2.
367. "Aboriginal languages". Statistics Canada. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved October 5, 2009.
368. Fettes, Mark; Norton, Ruth (2001). "Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada". In Castellano, Marlene Brant; Davis, Lynne; Lahache, Louise (eds.). Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise. UBC Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7748-0783-8.
369. Russell, Peter H (2005). "Indigenous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets?". In Hocking, Barbara (ed.). Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination. Aboriginal Studies Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-85575-466-2.
370. "Sign languages". Canadian Association of the Deaf – Association des Sourds du Canada. 2015. Archived from the original on July 30, 2017.
371. Jepsen, Julie Bakken; De Clerck, Goedele; Lutalo-Kiingi, Sam (2015). Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook. De Gruyter. p. 702. ISBN 978-1-61451-817-4.
372. Bailey, Carole Sue; Dolby, Kathy; Campbell, Hilda Marian (2002). The Canadian Dictionary of ASL Canadian Cultural Society of the Dead. University of Alberta. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-88864-300-1.
373. Moon, Richard (2008). Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada. UBC Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-7748-1497-3.
374. Scott, Jamie S. (2012). The Religions of Canadians. University of Toronto Press. p. 345. ISBN 978-1-4426-0516-9.
375. Boyle, Kevin; Sheen, Juliet (2013). Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report. Routledge. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-134-72229-7.
376. Roberts, Lance W. (2005). Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 359. ISBN 978-0-7735-2955-7.
377. Bramadat, Paul; Seljak, David (2009). Religion and Ethnicity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4426-1018-7.
378. Bowen, Kurt (2004). Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-7735-7194-5.
379. Gregory, Derek; Johnston, Ron; Pratt, Geraldine; Watts, Michael; Whatmore, Sarah (2009). The Dictionary of Human Geography. John Wiley & Sons. p. 672. ISBN 978-1-4443-1056-6.
380. Berman, Bruce J.; Bhargava, Rajeev; Lalibert, Andre (2013). Secular States and Religious Diversity. UBC Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7748-2515-3.
381. Punnett, Betty Jane (2015). International Perspectives on Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management. Routledge. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-317-46745-8.
382. Haskell, David M. (2009). Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media Perceive and Portray Evangelicals. Clements Publishing Group. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-894667-92-0.
383. "Tabulation: Religion (108), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey". Statistics Canada. January 7, 2016. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved November 15, 2016.
384. "Canada's Changing Religious Landscape". Pew Research Center. June 27, 2013. Archived from the original on March 10, 2017. Retrieved April 21, 2017.
385. ^ "2011 National Household Survey". Statistics Canada. May 8, 2013. Archived from the original on May 15, 2013.
386. Mol, Hans (1989). "The Secularization of Canada". Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion. 1: 197–215.
387. Noll, Mark A. (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. pp. 15–17. ISBN 978-0-8028-0651-2.
388. "'No Religion' Is Increasingly Popular For Canadians: Report". HuffPost. May 15, 2013. Archived from the original on June 9, 2013. Retrieved May 19, 2013.
389. "Muslims fastest growing religious population in Canada". National Post. May 8, 2013. Retrieved July 14, 2013.
390. LaSelva, Samuel Victor (1996). The Moral Foundations of Canadian Federalism: Paradoxes, Achievements, and Tragedies of Nationhood. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-7735-1422-5.
391. Dyck, Rand (2011). Canadian Politics. Cengage Learning. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-17-650343-7.
392. Newman, Stephen L. (2012). Constitutional Politics in Canada and the United States. SUNY Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-7914-8584-2.
393. Guo, Shibao; Wong, Lloyd (2015). Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, Policies and Debates. University of Calgary. p. 317. ISBN 978-94-6300-208-0.
394. Sikka, Sonia (2014). Multiculturalism and Religious Identity: Canada and India. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-7735-9220-9.
395. Johnson, Azeezat; Joseph-Salisbury, Remi; Kamunge, Beth (2018). The Fire Now: Anti-Racist Scholarship in Times of Explicit Racial Violence. Zed Books. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-78699-382-3.
396. Caplow, Theodore (2001). Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States in the New Century. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-7735-2304-3.
397. Franklin, Daniel P; Baun, Michael J (1995). Political Culture and Constitutionalism: A Comparative Approach. Sharpe. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-56324-416-2.
398. Garcea, Joseph; Kirova, Anna; Wong, Lloyd (January 2009). "Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada". Canadian Ethnic Studies. 40 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1353/ces.0.0069. S2CID 144187704.
399. Ambrosea, Emma; Muddea, Cas (2015). "Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right – Nationalism and Ethnic Politics". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 21 (2): 213–236. doi:10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033. S2CID 145773856.
400. Hollifield, James; Martin, Philip L.; Orrenius, Pia (2014). Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (3rd ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-8047-8735-2.
401. Bricker, Darrell; Wright, John (2005). What Canadians Think About Almost Everything. Doubleday Canada. pp. 8–28. ISBN 978-0-385-65985-7.
402. "Exploring Canadian values" (PDF). Nanos Research. October 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 5, 2017. Retrieved February 1, 2017.
403. "A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009". Government of Canada. 2011. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved December 18, 2015.
404. "Focus Canada (Final Report)" (PDF). The Environics Institute. Queen's University. 2010. p. 4 (PDF page 8). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 4, 2016. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
405. Magocsi, Paul R (2002). Aboriginal Peoples of Canada: a short introduction. University of Toronto Press. pp. 3–6. ISBN 978-0-8020-3630-8.
406. Tettey, Wisdom; Puplampu, Korbla P. (2005). The African Diaspora in Canada: Negotiating Identity & Belonging. University of Calgary. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-55238-175-5.
407. Nieguth, Tim (2015). The Politics of Popular Culture: Negotiating Power, Identity, and Place. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-7735-9685-6.
408. Monaghan, David (2013). "The mother beaver – Collection Profiles". The House of Commons Heritage. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
409. "Canada in the Making: Pioneers and Immigrants". The History Channel. August 25, 2005. Retrieved November 30, 2006.
410. Cormier, Jeffrey (2004). The Canadianization Movement: Emergence, Survival, and Success. University of Toronto Press. doi:10.3138/9781442680616. ISBN 9781442680616.
411. ^ Symbols of Canada. Canadian Government Publishing. 2002. ISBN 978-0-660-18615-3.
412. "Maple Leaf Tartan becomes official symbol". Toronto Star. Toronto. March 9, 2011.
413. Gough, Barry M. (2010). Historical Dictionary of Canada. Scarecrow Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8108-7504-3.
414. Nischik, Reingard M. (2008). History of Literature in Canada: English-Canadian and French-Canadian. Camden House. pp. 113–114. ISBN 978-1-57113-359-5.
415. ^ Sociology in Action (2nd Canadian ed.). Nelson Education-McGraw-Hill Education. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-17-672841-0.
416. Hutchins, Donna; Hutchins, Nigel (2006). The Maple Leaf Forever: A Celebration of Canadian Symbols. The Boston Mills Press. p. iix. ISBN 978-1-55046-474-0.
417. ^ Berman, Allen G (2008). Warman's Coins And Paper Money: Identification and Price Guide. Krause Publications. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-4402-1915-3.
418. "Phasing out the penny". Royal Canadian Mint. 2015. Archived from the original on December 12, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
419. Keith, W. J. (2006). Canadian Literature in English. The Porcupine's Quill. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-88984-283-0.
420. R.G. Moyles, ed. (September 28, 1994). Improved by Cultivation: English-Canadian Prose to 1914. Broadview Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-55111-049-3. OCLC 1016305898.
421. New, William H. (2002). Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada. University of Toronto Press. pp. 259–261. ISBN 978-0-8020-0761-2.
422. Crabtracks: Progress and Process in Teaching the New Literatures in English. Essays in Honour of Dieter Riemenschneider. BRILL. December 28, 2021. pp. 388–391. ISBN 978-90-04-48650-8. OCLC 1291314955.
423. ^ Dominic, K. V. (2010). Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature. Pinnacle Technology. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1-61820-640-4.
424. New, William H. (2012). Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-8020-0761-2.
425. Nischik, Reingard M. (2000). Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact. Camden House. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-57113-139-3.
426. Broadview Anthology of British Literature. Vol. B (Concise ed.). Broadview Press. 2006. p. 1459. GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT.
427. Giddings, Robert; Sheen, Erica (2000). From Page To Screen: Adaptations of the Classic Novel. Manchester University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-7190-5231-6.
428. L. M. Montgomery; Nemo, August (2021). Essential Novelists - L. M. Montgomery: Anne of Green Gables. Tacet Books. ISBN 978-3-9855100-5-4. OCLC 1256575785.
429. Fry, H (2017). Disruption: Change and churning in Canada's media landscape (PDF) (Report). Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage. Retrieved February 21, 2022.
430. Bannerman, Sara (May 20, 2020). Canadian Communication Policy and Law. Canadian Scholars. p. 199. ISBN 978-1-77338-172-5. OCLC 1138945553.
431. Vipond, Mary (2011). The Mass Media in Canada (4th ed.). James Lorimer Company. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-55277-658-2.
432. Edwardson, Ryan (2008). Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood. University of Toronto Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8020-9519-0.
433. Taras, David; Bakardjieva, Maria; Pannekoek, Frits, eds. (2007). How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity. University of Calgary Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-55238-224-0. OCLC 1006639327.
434. Taras, David; Bakardjieva, Maria; Pannekoek, Frits, eds. (2007). How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity. University of Calgary Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-55238-224-0. OCLC 1006639327.
435. Globerman, Steven (1983). Cultural Regulation in Canada. Institute for Research on Public Policy. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-920380-81-9.
436. Steven, Peter (2011). About Canada: Media. Fernwood. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-55266-447-6. OCLC 1069674192.
437. Beaty, Bart; Sullivan, Rebecca (2006). Canadian Television Today. University of Calgary Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-55238-222-6. OCLC 1024271072.
438. Krikorian, Jacqueline (2012). International Trade Law and Domestic Policy: Canada, the United States, and the WTO. UBC Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-7748-2306-7. OCLC 1058136992.
439. Mullen, Carol A. (2020). "Introduction". Canadian Indigenous Literature and Art: Decolonizing Education, Culture, and Society. Brill Sense. ISBN 978-90-04-41426-6. OCLC 1135561762.
440. Newlands, Anne (2000). Canadian Art: From Its Beginnings to 2000. Firefly Books. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-55209-450-1. OCLC 1008131883. During the French regime in Quebec, the Roman Catholic Church was a major patron of artists, contracting them to design the interior decoration of churches and to produce paintings and sculpture
441. Cook, Ramsay (1974). "Landscape Painting and National Sentiment in Canada". Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. 1 (2): 263–283. ISSN 0315-7997. JSTOR 41298655.
442. Kasoff, Mark J.; James, Patrick (June 17, 2013). Canadian Studies in the New Millennium (2 ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 198–204. ISBN 978-1-4426-6538-5. OCLC 1100658068.
443. as, for instance, in the following example of a show funded by the Government of Canada at the Peel Art Gallery Museum + Archives, Brampton:"Putting a spotlight on Canada's Artistic Heritage". Government of Canada. January 14, 2020.
444. Beauregard, Devin; Paquette, Jonathan, eds. (July 28, 2021). Canadian Cultural Policy in Transition. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-041721-0.
445. Stern, Pamela R. (2010). Daily life of the Inuit. ABC-CLIO. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-313-36311-5.
446. McKay, Marylin J. (2011). Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-7735-3817-7.
447. Hill, Charles C (1995). The Group of Seven – Art for a Nation. National Gallery of Canada. pp. 15–21, 195. ISBN 978-0-7710-6716-7.
448. Newlands, Anne (1996). Emily Carr. Firefly Books. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1-55209-046-6.
449. Homan, Shane, ed. (January 13, 2022). The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music Policy. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-5013-4534-0. OCLC 1268122769.
450. The Canadian Communications Foundation. "The history of broadcasting in Canada". Archived from the original on March 9, 2012. Retrieved October 28, 2009.
451. Homan, Shane; Cloonan, Martin; Cattermole, Jen, eds. (October 2, 2017). Popular Music and Cultural Policy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-65952-5.
452. Hull, Geoffrey P.; Hutchison, Thomas William; Strasser, Richard (2011). The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the 21st Century. Taylor & Francis. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-415-87560-8.
453. Acheson, Archibald Lloyd Keith; Maule, Christopher John (2009). Much Ado about Culture: North American Trade Disputes. University of Michigan Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-472-02241-0.
454. Edwardson, Ryan (2008). Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood. University of Toronto Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8020-9759-0.
455. Hoffmann, Frank (2004). Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound. Routledge. p. 324. ISBN 978-1-135-94950-1.
456. Jortner, Adam (2011). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-19-976529-4.
457. "Maple Cottage, Leslieville, Toronto". Institute for Canadian Music. Archived from the original on March 31, 2009.
458. Kallmann, Helmut; Potvin, Gilles (February 7, 2018). "O Canada". Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
459. "Hymne national du Canada". Canadian Heritage. June 23, 2008. Archived from the original on January 29, 2009. Retrieved June 26, 2008.
460. Roxborough, Henry (1975). The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada. pp. 30–43.
461. Lindsay, Peter; West, J. Thomas (September 30, 2016). "Canadian Sports History". The Canadian Encyclopedia.
462. "National Sports of Canada Act". Government of Canada. November 5, 2015. Archived from the original on November 24, 2015. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
463. "Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010)" (PDF). Government of Canada. 2013. p. 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
464. ^ Danilov, Victor J. (1997). Hall of fame museums: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-313-30000-4.
465. Zawadzki, Edward (2001). The Ultimate Canadian Sports Trivia Book. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88882-237-6.
466. Butenko, Sergiy; Gil-Lafuente, Jaime; Pardalos, Panos M. (2010). Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 42–44. ISBN 978-3-642-13205-6.
467. Morrow, Don; Wamsley, Kevin B. (2016). Sport in Canada: A History. Oxford University Press. pp. xxi–intro. ISBN 978-0-19-902157-4.
468. Mallon, Bill; Heijmans, Jeroen (2011). Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement. Scarecrow Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8108-7522-7.
469. Howell, Paul Charles (2009). Montreal Olympics: An Insider's View of Organizing a Self-financing Games. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7735-7656-8.
470. Horne, John; Whannel, Garry (2016). Understanding the Olympics. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-317-49519-2.
471. United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development (January 2006). The Economic Impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005. U.S. G.P.O. ISBN 978-0-16-076789-0.
472. Fromm, Zuzana (2006). Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-197843-0.
473. Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women's World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order. Canada Border Services Agency. 2015.
474. Peterson, David (July 10, 2014). "Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020.
475. "World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament". BBC Sport. June 13, 2018. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved June 13, 2018.

Further reading

Overview

• Marsh, James H. (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.

Culture

• Cohen, Andrew (2007). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.
• Vance, Jonathan F. (2011). A History of Canadian Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544422-3.

Demography and statistics

• Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967. Statistics Canada. 2008.
• Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-7854-8.
• Canada Year Book, 2012 (Report). Statistics Canada. December 2012. ISSN 0068-8142. Catalogue no 11-402-XWE.

Economy

• Easterbrook, W.T.; Aitken, Hugh G. J. (2015). Canadian Economic History. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. ISBN 978-1-4426-5814-1.
• Economic Forecast Summary (December 2020). OECD. 2021. – (Previous surveys)
• Jones-Imhotep, Edward; Adcock, Tina (2018). Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3726-2.

Foreign relations and military

• Conrad, John (2011). Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55488-981-5.

Geography and climate

• Rumney, Thomas A. (2009). Canadian Geography: A Scholarly Bibliography. Plattsburgh State University. ISBN 978-0-8108-6718-5.
• Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.

Government and law

• Jacob, Joseph W. (2007). Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: Democracy for the People and for Each Person. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4269-8016-9.
• Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada (4th ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
• Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada. Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.

History

• Careless, J. M. S. (2012). Canada: A Story of Challenge (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.
• Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
• Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994). Canadian History (2 volumes). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5016-8, ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3

Social welfare

• Finkel, Alvin (2006). Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-475-1.
• Thompson, Valerie D. (2015). Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-927406-31-1.
• Burke, Sara Z.; Milewski, Patrice (2011). Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9577-0.

External links

Overviews

• Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Template:Curlie
• Canada profile from the OECD
• Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada from Library and Archives Canada
• Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures

Government

• Official website of the Government of Canada
• Official website of the Governor General of Canada
• Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada

Travel

• Canada's official website for travel and tourism
• Official website of Destination Canada

Studies

• A Guide to the Sources from International Council for Canadian Studies

Related topics

v t e Countries and dependencies of North America Sovereign states Entire Antigua and Barbuda The Bahamas Barbados Belize Canada Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago United States In part Colombia San Andrés and Providencia France Guadeloupe Martinique Caribbean Netherlands Bonaire Saba Sint Eustatius Venezuela Nueva Esparta Federal Dependencies Dependencies Denmark Greenland France Clipperton Island St. Barthélemy St. Martin St. Pierre and Miquelon Netherlands Aruba Curaçao Sint Maarten United Kingdom Anguilla Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Montserrat Turks and Caicos Islands United States Puerto Rico United States Virgin Islands North America portal v t e Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Sovereign states (members) Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belize Botswana Brunei Cameroon Canada Cyprus Dominica Eswatini (Swaziland) Fiji Gabon Gambia Ghana Grenada Guyana India Jamaica Kenya Kiribati Lesotho Malawi Malaysia Maldives Malta Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Nauru New Zealand Nigeria Pakistan Papua New Guinea Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Tanzania Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Uganda United Kingdom Vanuatu Zambia Associated states Cook Islands Niue Dependent territories Australia Ashmore and Cartier Islands Australian Antarctic Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Coral Sea Islands Heard Island and McDonald Islands Norfolk Island New Zealand Ross Dependency Tokelau United Kingdom Akrotiri and Dhekelia Anguilla Bermuda British Antarctic Territory British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Montserrat Pitcairn Islands Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands Source: Commonwealth Secretariat – Member Countries

• Canada
• 1867 establishments in Canada
• Countries in North America
• English-speaking countries and territories
• Federal monarchies
• French-speaking countries and territories
• G20 nations
• G7 nations
• Member states of NATO
• Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
• Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
• Member states of the United Nations
• States and territories established in 1867
• Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
• Northern America