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Julius Evola
Evola in the early 1940s
Born	Giulio Cesare Andrea Evola (1898-05-19)19 May 1898 Rome, Kingdom of Italy
Died	11 June 1974(1974-06-11) (aged 76) Rome, Republic of Italy
Nationality	Italian
Education	Istituto Tecnico Leonardo da Vinci, Rome (no degree)
Notable work	Revolt Against the Modern World (1934)
Era	20th-century philosophy
Region	Western philosophy Western esotericism
School	Perennialism Traditionalism
Institutions	School of Fascist Mysticism
Main interests	Comparative religion Esotericism Hermeticism Metaphysics History Political philosophy Symbology Mythology
Notable ideas	transcendental realism magical idealism
Website	fondazionejuliusevola.it

Giulio Cesare Andrea Evola (Italian: [ˈɛːvola]; 19 May 1898  – 11 June 1974), better known as Julius Evola, was an Italian philosopher, poet, painter, and esotericist. Evola regarded his perspectives and spiritual values as aristocratic, masculine, traditionalist, heroic and defiantly reactionary.

Born in Rome, little is known about Evola's early upbringing. He served as an artillery officer on the Asiago plateau during the First World War. As a painter, Evola was attracted to the avant-garde, and briefly with Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's Futurist movement. Evola considered suicide at the age of 23 but avoided it due to a revelation he had while reading an early Buddhist text concerning shedding all forms of identity other than absolute transcendence. Evola's interests in the early 1920s led him deeper into the occult; he wrote fastidiously on Western esotericism and of Eastern mysticism, ultimately developing the doctrine of "magical idealism".

The central postulation of Evola's theories and writings is centred on his own idiosyncratic spiritualism and mysticism; the inner life. The philosophy covers themes such as Hermeticism, the metaphysics of war and of sex, Tantra, Buddhism, Taoism, mountaineering, the Holy Grail, the essence and history of civilisations, decadence and various philosophic and religious traditions dealing with both the Classics and the Orient. Evola believed that mankind is living in the Kali Yuga, a Dark Age of unleashed materialistic appetites, spiritual oblivion and organised deviancy. To counter this and call in a primordial rebirth, Evola presented his world of tradition. The core trilogy of Evola's works are generally regarded as Revolt Against the Modern World, Men Among the Ruins and Ride the Tiger. According to scholar Franco Ferraresi, Evola’s thought can be considered one of the most consistently "antiegalitarian, antiliberal, antidemocratic, and antipopular systems in the twentieth century".

Evola was ostracised during Fascist Italy. Although he publicly criticised fascism and was never affiliated with the Italian National Fascist Party nor the Italian Social Republic, Evola labelled himself a "superfascista". He regarded his position as that of a sympathetic right-wing intellectual, seeing potential in the movement and wishing to reform its errors to allign with his own views. One of his successes was in regards to the racial laws; his advocacy of a spiritual consideration of race won out in the debate in Italy, rather than a solely materialist reductionism concept popular in Germany. Since the Second World War many Perennialist and some neo-fascist groups have taken inspiration from him, as well as several apolitical occultists, such as Thomas Karlsson and Massimo Scaligero.

Early life

Giulio Cesare Evola was born in Rome on 19 May 1898, the second son of Vincenzo Evola (born 1854), a telegraphic mechanic chief, and Concetta Mangiapane (born 1865), a landowner. As per the Sicilian naming convention of the era, Evola was partly named after his maternal grandfather. Both his parents were born in Cinisi, a small town in the Province of Palermo on the north-western coast of Sicily, and married there on 25 November 1892. The paternal grandparents of Evola were Giuseppe Evola, a joiner by trade, and Maria Cusumano. Evola's maternal grandparents were Cesare Mangiapane, reported as being a shopkeeper, and his wife Caterina Munacó. Giulio Cesare Evola had an elder brother, Giuseppe Gaspare Dinamo Evola, born in 1895 in Rome. His family were devout Roman Catholics.

Evola has been often been reported as being a baron, probably in reference to a purported distant relationship with a minor aristocratic family, the Evoli, who were the barons of Castropignano in the Kingdom of Sicily in the late Middle Ages.

Little is known about Evola's early upbringing except that he considered it irrelevant. He studied engineering at the Istituto Tecnico Leonardo da Vinci in Rome, but did not complete his course, later claiming this was because he did not want to be associated with "bourgeois academic recognition" and titles such as "doctor and engineer". In his teenage years, Evola immersed himself in painting—which he considered one of his natural talents—and literature, including Oscar Wilde and Gabriele d'Annunzio. He was introduced to philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Otto Weininger. Other early philosophical influences included Italian man of letters Carlo Michelstaedter and German post-Hegelian thinker Max Stirner.

He was attracted to the avant-garde, and briefly associated with Filippo Tommaso Marinetti's Futurist movement during his time at university. He broke with Marinetti in 1916 as Evola was perturbed by his extreme nationalism. In the First World War, Evola served as an artillery officer on the Asiago plateau. Despite his dislike of populism associated with the Italian war effort, and reservations of Italy fighting on the wrong side, Evola volunteered in 1917, briefly seeing frontline service the following year. Evola returned to civilian life after the war and became a leading painter in the Dadaist movement. Through his painting and poetry, and work on the short-lived journal Revue Bleue, he became a prominent representative of Dadaism in Italy. In 1922, after concluding that avant-garde art was becoming commercialised and stiffened by academic conventions, he narrowed his focus towards artistic expression such as painting and poetry. Evola was also a keen mountaineer, describing it as a source of revelatory spiritual experience.

Evola purportedly went through a "spiritual crisis" through the intolerance of civilian life and his need to "transcend the emptiness" of normal human activity. When he was 23 years old, Evola considered suicide. His depression led him to experiment with hallucinogenics and magic, which almost brought him to madness. He claimed that he avoided suicide thanks to a revelation he had while reading an early Buddhist text that dealt with shedding all forms of identity other than absolute transcendence. Evola would later publish the text The Doctrine of Awakening, which he regarded as a repayment of his debt to Buddhism for saving him from suicide. By this time his interests led him into spiritual, transcendental, and "supra-rational" studies. He began reading various esoteric texts and gradually delved deeper into the occult, alchemy, magic, and Oriental studies, particularly Tibetan Tantric yoga.

Writing career

Christianity

In 1928, Evola wrote an attack on Christianity titled Pagan Imperialism, which proposed transforming fascism into a system consistent with ancient Roman values and Western esotericism. Evola proposed that fascism should be a vehicle for reinstating the caste system and aristocracy of antiquity. Although he invoked the term "fascism" in this text, his diatribe against the Catholic Church was criticised by both Mussolini's fascist regime and the Vatican itself. A. James Gregor argued that the text was an attack on fascism as it stood at the time of writing, but noted that Mussolini made use of it to threaten the Vatican with the possibility of an "anti-clerical fascism". On account of Evola's anti-Christian proposals, in April 1928 the Vatican-backed right wing Catholic journal Revue Internationale des Sociétés Secrètes published an article entitled "Un Sataniste Italien: Julius Evola", accusing him of satanism.

In his The Mystery of the Grail (1937), Evola discarded Christian interpretations of the Holy Grail and wrote that it

symbolizes the principle of an immortalizing and transcendent force connected to the primordial state ... The mystery of the Grail is a mystery of a warrior initiation.

He held that the Ghibellines, who had fought the Guelph for control of Northern and Central Italy in the thirteenth century, had within them the residual influences of pre-Christian Celtic and Nordic traditions that represented his conception of the Grail myth. He also held that the Guelph victory against the Ghibellines represented a regression of the castes, since the merchant caste took over from the warrior caste. In the epilogue to this book, Evola argued that the fictitious The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, regardless of whether it was authentic or not, was a cogent representation of modernity. The historian Richard Barber said,

Evola mixes rhetoric, prejudice, scholarship, and politics into a strange version of the present and future, but in the process he brings together for the first time interest in the esoteric and in conspiracy theory which characterize much of the later Grail literature.

Buddhism

In his The Doctrine of Awakening (1943), Evola argued that the Pāli Canon could be held to represent true Buddhism. His interpretation of Buddhism is that it was intended to be anti-democratic. He believed that Buddhism revealed the essence of an "Aryan" tradition that had become corrupted and lost in the West. He believed it could be interpreted to reveal the superiority of a warrior caste. Harry Oldmeadow described Evola's work on Buddhism as exhibiting a Nietzschean influence, but Evola criticised Nietzsche's purported anti-ascetic prejudice. Evola claimed that the book "received the official approbation of the Pāli Society", and was published by a reputable Orientalist publisher. Evola's interpretation of Buddhism, as put forth in his article "Spiritual Virility in Buddhism", is in conflict with the post-WWII scholarship of the Orientalist Giuseppe Tucci, who argues that the viewpoint that Buddhism advocates universal benevolence is legitimate. Arthur Versluis stated that Evola's writing on Buddhism was a vehicle for his own theories, but was a far from accurate rendition of the subject, and he held that much the same could be said of Evola's writing on Hermeticism. Ñāṇavīra Thera was inspired to become a bhikkhu from reading Evola's text The Doctrine of Awakening in 1945 while hospitalised in Sorrento.

Modernity

Evola's Revolt Against the Modern World (1934) promotes the mythology of an ancient Golden Age which gradually declined into modern decadence. In this work, Evola described the features of his idealised traditional society in which religious and temporal power were created and united not by priests, but by warriors expressing spiritual power. In mythology, he saw evidence of the West's superiority over the East. Moreover, he claimed that the traditional elite had the ability to access power and knowledge through a hierarchical magic which differed from the lower "superstitious and fraudulent" forms of magic. Evola insists that only "nonmodern forms, institutions, and knowledge" could produce a "real renewal ... in those who are still capable of receiving it." The text was "immediately recognized by Mircea Eliade and other intellectuals who allegedly advanced ideas associated with Tradition." Eliade was one of the most influential twentieth-century historians of religion, a fascist sympathiser associated with the Romanian Christian right wing movement Iron Guard. Evola was aware of the importance of myth from his readings of Georges Sorel, one of the key intellectual influences on fascism. Hermann Hesse described Revolt Against the Modern World as "really dangerous."

During the 1960s Evola thought the right could no longer reverse the corruption of modern civilisation. E. C. Wolff noted that this is why Evola wrote Ride the Tiger, choosing to distance himself completely from active political engagement, without excluding the possibility of action in the future. He argued that one should stay firm and ready to intervene when the tiger of modernity "is tired of running." Goodrick-Clarke notes that, "Evola sets up the ideal of the 'active nihilist' who is prepared to act with violence against modern decadence."

Other writings

In the posthumously published collection of writings, Metaphysics of War, Evola, in line with the conservative revolutionary Ernst Jünger, explored the viewpoint that war could be a spiritually fulfilling experience. He proposed the necessity of a transcendental orientation in a warrior.

From 1934 to 1943 Evola was also responsible for 'Diorama Filosofico', the cultural page of Il Regime Fascista, a daily newspaper owned by Roberto Farinacci. He would also contribute during the same period to Giovanni Preziosi magazine La vita italiana.

Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke has written that Evola's 1945 essay "American 'Civilization'" described the United States as "the final stage of European decline into the 'interior formlessness' of vacuous individualism, conformity and vulgarity under the universal aegis of money-making." According to Goodrick-Clarke, Evola argued that the U.S. "mechanistic and rational philosophy of progress combined with a mundane horizon of prosperity to transform the world into an enormous suburban shopping mall."

Evola translated some works of Oswald Spengler and Ortega y Gasset to Italian.

Philosophy

Evola wrote prodigiously on stern mysticism, Tantra, Hermeticism, the myth of the Holy Grail and Western esotericism. German Egyptologist and esoteric scholar Florian Ebeling has noted that Evola's The Hermetic Tradition is viewed as an "extremely important work on Hermeticism" in the eyes of esotericists. Evola gave particular focus to Cesare della Riviera's text Il Mondo Magico degli Heroi, which he later republished in modern Italian. He held that Riviera's text was consonant with the goals of "high magic" – the reshaping of the earthly human into a transcendental 'god man'. According to Evola, the alleged "timeless" Traditional science was able to come to lucid expression through this text, in spite of the "coverings" added to it to prevent accusations from the church. Though Evola rejected Carl Jung's interpretation of alchemy, Jung described Evola's The Hermetic Tradition as a "magisterial account of Hermetic philosophy". In Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition, the philosopher Glenn Alexander Magee favoured Evola's interpretation over that of Jung's. In 1988, a journal devoted to Hermetic thought published a section of Evola's book and described it as "Luciferian."

Evola later confessed that he was not a Buddhist, and that his text on Buddhism was meant to balance his earlier work on the Hindu tantras. Evola's interest in tantra was spurred on by correspondence with John Woodroffe. Evola was attracted to the active aspect of tantra, and its claim to provide a practical means to spiritual experience, over the more "passive" approaches in other forms of Eastern spirituality. In Tantric Buddhism in East Asia, Richard K. Payne, Dean of the Institute of Buddhist Studies, argued that Evola manipulated Tantra in the service of right wing violence, and that the emphasis on "power" in The Yoga of Power gave insight into his mentality.

Evola advocated that "differentiated individuals" following the Left-Hand Path use dark violent sexual powers against the modern world. For Evola, these "virile heroes" are both generous and cruel, possess the ability to rule, and commit "Dionysian" acts that might be seen as conventionally immoral. For Evola, the Left Hand path embraces violence as a means of transgression.

According to A. James Gregor Evola's definition of spirituality can be found in Meditations on the Peaks: "what has been successfully actualized and translated into a sense of superiority which is experienced inside by the soul, and a noble demeanor, which is expressed in the body." Goodrick-Clarke wrote that Evola's "rigorous New Age spirituality speaks directly to those who reject absolutely the leveling world of democracy, capitalism, multi-racialism and technology at the outset of the twenty-first century. Their acute sense of cultural chaos can find powerful relief in his ideal of total renewal." Thomas Sheehan wrote that to "read Evola is to take a trip through a weird and fascinating jungle of ancient mythologies, pseudo-ethnology, and transcendental mysticism that is enough to make any southern California consciousness-tripper feel quite at home."

Magical idealism

Thomas Sheehan wrote that "Evola's first philosophical works from the 'twenties were dedicated to reshaping neo-idealism from a philosophy of Absolute Spirit and Mind into a philosophy of the "absolute individual" and action." Accordingly, Evola developed the doctrine of "magical idealism", which held that "the Ego must understand that everything that seems to have a reality independent of it is nothing but an illusion, caused by its own deficiency." For Evola, this ever-increasing unity with the "absolute individual" was consistent with unconstrained liberty, and therefore unconditional power. In his 1925 work Essays on Magical Idealism, Evola declared that "God does not exist. The Ego must create him by making itself divine."

According to Sheehan, Evola discovered the power of metaphysical mythology while developing his theories. This led to his advocacy of supra-rational intellectual intuition over discursive knowledge. In Evola's view, discursive knowledge separates man from Being. Sheehan stated that this position is a theme in certain interpretations of Western philosophers such as Plato, Thomas Aquinas, and Martin Heidegger that was exaggerated by Evola. Evola would later write:

The truths that allow us to understand the world of Tradition are not those that can be "learned" or "discussed." They either are or are not. We can only remember them, and that happens when we are freed from the obstacles represented by various human constructions (chief among these are the results and methods of the authorized "researchers") and have awakened the capacity to see from the nonhuman viewpoint, which is the same as the Traditional viewpoint ... Traditional truths have always been held to be essentially non-human.

Evola developed a doctrine of the "two natures": the natural world and the primordial "world of 'Being'". He believed that these "two natures" impose form and quality on lower matter and create a hierarchical "great chain of Being." He understood "spiritual virility" as signifying orientation towards this postulated transcendent principle. He held that the State should reflect this "ordering from above" and the consequent hierarchical differentiation of individuals according to their "organic preformation". By "organic preformation" he meant that which "gathers, preserves, and refines one's talents and qualifications for determinate functions."

Ur Group

Among Evola's chief contacts was Arturo Reghini, a critic of democracy and advocate for the ancient Roman aristocracy. Reghini welcomed the rise of Fascist Italy and sought to return to pre-Christian spirituality through the promotion of a "cultured magic". Through Reghini Evola was introduced to René Guénon, regarded at the time as the leading figure of traditionalism and one of the few writers whom Evola respected sufficiently to engage in debate with. In 1927, Reghini and Evola, along with other Italian esotericists, founded the Gruppo di Ur ("Ur Group"). The purpose of this group was to attempt to bring the members' individual identities into such a superhuman state of power and awareness that they would be able to exert a magical influence on the world. The group employed techniques from Buddhist, Tantric, and rare Hermetic texts. They aimed to provide a "soul" to the burgeoning Fascist movement of the time through the revival of ancient Roman religion, and to influence the fascist regime through esotericism.

Articles on occultism from the Ur Group were later published in Introduction to Magic. Reghini's support of Freemasonry would however prove a bone of contention for Evola; accordingly, Reghini left the Ur Group in 1928. Reghini himself broke from Evola, accusing Evola of plagiarising his thoughts in the book Pagan Imperialism. Evola, on the other hand, blamed Reghini for the premature publication of Pagan Imperialism. Evola's later work owed a considerable debt to René Guénon's text Crisis of the Modern World, though he diverged from Guénon on the issue of the relationship between warriors and priests.

Views on sex and gender roles

Julius Evola believed that the alleged higher qualities expected of a man of a particular race were not those expected of a woman of the same race. He held that "just relations between the sexes" involved women acknowledging their "inequality" with men. In 1925, he wrote an article titled "La donna come cosa" ("Woman as Thing"). Evola later quoted Joseph de Maistre's statement that "Woman cannot be superior except as woman, but from the moment in which she desires to emulate man she is nothing but a monkey." Evola believed that women's liberation was "the renunciation by woman of her right to be a woman". A woman "could traditionally participate in the sacred hierarchical order only in a mediated fashion through her relationship with a man." He held, as a feature of his idealised gender relations, the Hindu sati, which for him was a form of sacrifice indicating women's respect for patriarchal traditions. For the "pure, feminine" woman, "man is not perceived by her as a mere husband or lover, but as her lord." Women would find their true identity in total subjugation to men.

Evola regarded matriarchy and goddess religions as a symptom of decadence, and preferred a hyper-masculine, warrior ethos.

Evola was influenced by Hans Blüher; he was a proponent of the Männerbund concept as a model for his proposed ultra-fascist "Order". Goodrick-Clarke noted the fundamental influence of Otto Weininger's book Sex and Character on Evola's dualism of male-female spirituality. According to Goodrich-Clarke, "Evola's celebration of virile spirituality was rooted in Weininger's work, which was widely translated by the end of the First World War." Unlike Weininger, Evola believed that women needed to be conquered, not ignored. Evola denounced homosexuality as "useless" for his purposes. He did not neglect sadomasochism, so long as sadism and masochism "are magnifications of an element potentially present in the deepest essence of eros." Then, it would be possible to "extend, in a transcendental and perhaps ecstatic way, the possibilities of sex."

Evola held that women "played" with men, threatened their masculinity, and lured them into a "constrictive" grasp with their sexuality. He wrote that "It should not be expected of women that they return to what they really are ... when men themselves retain only the semblance of true virility", and lamented that "men instead of being in control of sex are controlled by it and wander about like drunkards". He believed that in Tantra and in sex magic, in which he saw a strategy for aggression, he found the means to counter the "emasculated" West. According to Annalisa Merelli, Evola "went so far as to justify rape" because he saw it "as a natural expression of male desire". Evola also said that the "ritual violation of virgins", and "whipping women" were a means of "consciousness raising", so long as these practices were done to the intensity required to produce the proper "liminal psychic climate". He wrote that "as a rule, nothing stirs a man more than feeling the woman utterly exhausted beneath his own hostile rapture."

Evola translated Weininger's Sex and Character into Italian. Dissatisfied with simply translating Weininger's work, he wrote the text Eros and the Mysteries of Love: The Metaphysics of Sex (1958), where his views on sexuality were dealt with at length. Arthur Versluis described this text as Evola's "most interesting" work aside from Revolt Against the Modern World. This book remains popular among many 'New Age' adherents.

Race

Evola's dissent from standard biological concepts of race had roots in his aristocratic elitism, since Nazi völkisch ideology inadequately separated aristocracy from "commoners." According to European studies professor Paul Furlong, Evola developed "the law of the regression of castes" in Revolt Against the Modern World and other writings on racism from the 1930s and World War II period. In Evola's view "power and civilization have progressed from one to another of the four castes—sacred leaders, warrior nobility, bourgeoisie (economy, 'merchants') and slaves". Furlong explains: "for Evola, the core of racial superiority lay in the spiritual qualities of the higher castes, which expressed themselves in physical as well as in cultural features, but were not determined by them. The law of the regression of castes places racism at the core of Evola's philosophy, since he sees an increasing predominance of lower races as directly expressed through modern mass democracies."

In 1941, Evola's book Synthesis of the Doctrine of Race (Italian: Sintesi di Dottrina della Razza) was published by Hoepli. It provides an overview of his ideas concerning race and eugenics, introducing the concept of "spiritual racism", and "esoteric-traditionalist racism".

Prior to the end of the War, Evola had frequently used the term "Aryan" to mean the nobility, who in his view were imbued with traditional spirituality. Wolff notes that Evola seems to have stopped writing about race in 1945, but adds that the intellectual themes of Evola's writings were otherwise unchanged. Evola continued to write about elitism and his contempt for the weak. His "doctrine of the Aryan-Roman super-race was simply restated as a doctrine of the 'leaders of men' ... no longer with reference to the SS, but to the mediaeval Teutonic knights of the Knights Templar, already mentioned in Rivolta."

Evola spoke of "inferior non-European races". Peter Merkl wrote that "Evola was never prepared to discount the value of blood altogether". Evola wrote: "a certain balanced consciousness and dignity of race can be considered healthy" in a time where "the exaltation of the negro and all the rest, anticolonialist psychosis and integrationist fanaticism all parallel phenomena in the decline of Europe and the West."

Spiritual racism

For his spiritual interpretation of the different racial psychologies, Evola found the work of German race theorist Ludwig Ferdinand Clauss invaluable. Like Evola, Clauss believed that physical race and spiritual race could diverge as a consequence of miscegenation. Evola's racism included racism of the body, soul, and spirit, giving primacy to the latter factor, writing that "races only declined when their spirit failed."

Like René Guénon, Evola believed that mankind is living in the Kali Yuga of the Hindu tradition—the Dark Age of unleashed materialistic appetites. He argued that both Italian fascism and Nazism represented hope that the "celestial" Aryan race would be reconstituted. He drew on mythological accounts of super-races and their decline, particularly the Hyperboreans, and maintained that traces of Hyperborean influence could be felt in Indo-European man. He felt that Indo-European men had devolved from these higher mythological races. Gregor noted that several contemporary criticisms of Evola's theory were published: "In one of Fascism's most important theoretical journals, Evola's critic pointed out that many Nordic-Aryans, not to speak of Mediterranean Aryans, fail to demonstrate any Hyperborean properties. Instead, they make obvious their materialism, their sensuality, their indifference to loyalty and sacrifice, together with their consuming greed. How do they differ from 'inferior' races, and why should anyone wish, in any way, to favor them?"

Concerning the relationship between "spiritual racism" and biological racism, Evola put forth the following viewpoint, which Furlong described as pseudo-scientific:

The factor of "blood" or "race" has its importance, because it is not psychologically—in the brain or the opinions of the individual—but in the very deepest forces of life that traditions live and act as typical formative energies. Blood registers the effects of this action, and indeed offers through heredity, a matter that is already refined and pre-formed ... />

Views on Jews

Evola denounced Adolf Hitler's fanatical antisemitism as a paranoid idée fixe that damaged the reputation of the Third Reich. Evola's conception did not emphasise the Nazi racial conception of Jews as "representatives of a biological race"—in Evola's view the Jews were "the carriers of a world view ... a spirit corresponded to the 'worst' and 'most decadent' features of modernity: democracy, egalitarianism and materialism." Evola rejected the views of chief Nazi theorist Alfred Rosenberg and others on biological racism as being reductionist and materialistic. Evola endorsed Otto Weininger's views on the Jews. Although Evola viewed Jews as corrosive and anti-traditional, Jewry was for Evola, as for Weininger, a symbol for the rule of money and individualism.

Evola argued that the fabricated antisemitic text The Protocols of the Elders of Zion—whether or not a forgery—accurately reflect the conditions of modernity. He believed that the Protocols "contain the plan for an occult war, whose objective is the utter destruction, in the non-Jewish peoples, of all tradition, class, aristocracy, and hierarchy, and of all moral, religious, and spiritual values." He wrote the foreword to the second Italian edition of the Protocols, which was published by the Fascist Giovanni Preziosi in 1938.

Following the murder of his friend Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the leader of the Fascist Romanian Iron Guard, Evola expressed anticipation of a "Talmudic, Israelite tyranny." However, Evola believed that Jews had this "power" only because of European "decadence" in modernity. He also believed that one could be "Aryan", but have a "Jewish" soul, just as one could be "Jewish", but have an "Aryan" soul. In Evola's view, Otto Weininger and Carlo Michelstaedter were Jews of "sufficiently heroic, ascetic, and sacral" character to fit the latter category.

"Caste" and class

Julius Evola believe that society develops a "regression of castes" where classes he viewed as superior were replaced by those he viewed as inferior. He believed that the rule of spiritual leaders (the highest class) was replaced by that of warriors (the second highest) then by merchants and finally by the proletariat (whom he described as "spiritual eunuchs", quoting another philosopher). He believed that each aspect of society was effected by the dominant "caste", for example, war in the first type was "holy war" and in the second type "defending the honour of one's lord". In addition, bourgeois rule makes "usury" socially acceptable.

Fascism

Evola developed a line of argument, closely related to the spiritual orientation of Traditionalist writers such as René Guénon and the political concerns of the European authoritarian right. Evola's first published political work was an anti-fascist piece in 1925. In this work, Evola called Italy's fascist movement a "laughable revolution," based on empty sentiment and materialistic concerns. He applauded Mussolini's anti-bourgeois orientation and his goal of making Italian citizens into hardened warriors, but criticised Fascist populism, party politics, and elements of leftism that he saw in the fascist regime. Evola saw Mussolini's Fascist Party as possessing no cultural or spiritual foundation. He was passionate about infusing it with these elements in order to make it suitable for his ideal conception of Übermensch culture which, in Evola's view, characterised the imperial grandeur of pre-Christian Europe. He expressed anti-nationalist sentiment, stating that to become "truly human," one would have to "overcome brotherly contamination" and "purge oneself" of the feeling that one is united with others "because of blood, affections, country or human destiny." He also opposed the futurism that Italian fascism was aligned with, along with the "plebeian" nature of the movement. Accordingly, Evola launched the journal La Torre (The Tower), to voice his concerns and advocate for a more elitist fascism. Evola's ideas were poorly received by the fascist mainstream as it stood at the time of his writing.

Evola admired SS head Reichsführer Heinrich Himmler, whom he once met. Autobiographical remarks by Evola allude to his having worked for the Sicherheitsdienst, or SD, the intelligence agency of the SS and the Nazi Party.

Mussolini

Scholars disagree about why Benito Mussolini embraced racist ideology in 1938—some scholars have written that Mussolini was more motivated by political considerations than ideology when he introduced antisemitic legislation in Italy. Other scholars have rejected the argument that the racial ideology of Italian fascism could be attributed solely to Nazi influence. A more recent interpretation is that Mussolini was frustrated by the slow pace of fascist transformation and, by 1938, had adopted increasingly radical measures including a racial ideology. Aaron Gillette has written that "Racism would become the key driving force behind the creation of the new fascist man, the uomo fascista."

Mussolini read Evola's Synthesis of the Doctrine of Race in August 1941, and met with Evola to offer him his praise. Evola later recounted that Mussolini had found in his work a uniquely Roman form of Fascist racism distinct from that found in Nazi Germany. With Mussolini's backing, Evola started preparing the launch of a minor journal Sangue e Spirito (Blood and Spirit) which never appeared. While not always in agreement with German racial theorists, Evola travelled to Germany in February 1942 and obtained support for German collaboration on Sangue e Spirito from "key figures in the German racial hierarchy." Fascists appreciated the palingenetic value of Evola's "proof" "that the true representatives of the state and the culture of ancient Rome were people of the Nordic race." Evola eventually became Italy's leading racial philosopher.

Evola blended Sorelianism with Mussolini's eugenics agenda. Evola has written that "The theory of the Aryo-Roman race and its corresponding myth could integrate the Roman idea proposed, in general, by fascism, as well as give a foundation to Mussolini's plan to use his state as a means to elevate the average Italian and to enucleate in him a new man."

In May 1951, Evola was arrested and charged with promoting the revival of the Fascist Party, and of glorifying Fascism. Defending himself at trial, Evola stated that his work belonged to a long tradition of anti-democratic writers who certainly could be linked to fascism—at least fascism interpreted according to certain Evolian criteria—but who certainly could not be identified with the Fascist regime under Mussolini. Evola then declared that he was not a Fascist but was instead "superfascista" (lit. 'superfascist'). He was acquitted of all charges.

Third Reich

Finding Italian fascism too compromising, Evola began to seek recognition in Nazi Germany. Evola spent a considerable amount of time in Germany in 1937 and 1938, and gave a series of lectures to the German–Italian Society in 1938. Evola took issue with Nazi populism and biological materialism. SS authorities initially rejected Evola's ideas as supranational and aristocratic though he was better received by members of the conservative revolutionary movement. The Nazi Ahnenerbe reported that many considered his ideas to be pure "fantasy" which ignored "historical facts.". Evola admired Heinrich Himmler, whom he knew personally, but he had reservations about Adolf Hitler because of Hitler's reliance on völkisch nationalism. Himmler's Schutzstaffel ("SS") kept a dossier on Evola—dossier document AR-126 described his plans for a "Roman-Germanic Imperium" as "utopian" and described him as a "reactionary Roman," whose goal was an "insurrection of the old aristocracy against the modern world." The document recommended that the SS "stop his effectiveness in Germany" and provide him with no support, particularly because of his desire to create a "secret international order".

Despite this opposition, Evola was able to establish political connections with pan-Europeanist elements inside the Reich Security Main Office. Evola subsequently ascended to the inner circles of Nazism as the influence of pan-European advocates overtook that of Völkisch proponents, due to military contingencies. Evola wrote the article Reich and Imperium as Elements in the New European Order for the Nazi-backed journal European Review. He spent World War II working for the Sicherheitsdienst. The Sicherheitsdienst bureau Amt VII, a Reich Security Main Office research library, helped Evola acquire arcane occult and Masonic texts.

Italian Fascism went into decline when, in 1943, Mussolini was deposed and imprisoned. At this point, Evola fled to Germany with the help of the Sicherheitsdienst. Although not a member of the National Fascist Party, and despite his apparent problems with the fascist regime, Evola was one of the first people to greet Mussolini when the latter was broken out of prison by Otto Skorzeny in September 1943. Subsequently, Evola helped welcome Mussolini to Adolf Hitler's Wolf's Lair. Following this, Evola involved himself in Mussolini's Italian Social Republic. It was Evola's custom to walk around the city of Vienna during bombing raids in order to better "ponder his destiny". During one such raid in 1945, a shell fragment damaged his spinal cord and he became paralysed from the waist down, remaining so for the rest of his life.

About the alliance during World War II between Allies and the Soviet Union, Evola wrote:

The democratic powers repeated the error of those who think they can use the forces of subversion for their own ends without cost. They do not know that, by a fatal logic, when exponents of two different grades of subversion meet or cross paths, the one representing the more developed grade will take over in the end.

The political model Evola selected after 1945 was neither Mussolini nor Hitler. Evola cited and encouraged the youth to read Plato (with reference in particular to The Republic), Dante (with reference in particular to De Monarchia), Joseph de Maistre, Donoso Cortés, Bismarck, Metternich, Gaetano Mosca, Pareto and Michels.After the Second World War, Evola continued his work in esotericism. He wrote a number of books and articles on sex magic and various other esoteric studies, including The Yoga of Power: Tantra, Shakti, and the Secret Way (1949), Eros and the Mysteries of Love: The Metaphysics of Sex (1958), and Meditations on the Peaks: Mountain Climbing as Metaphor for the Spiritual Quest (1974). He also wrote his two explicitly political books Men Among the Ruins: Post-War Reflections of a Radical Traditionalist (1953), Ride the Tiger: A Survival Manual for the Aristocrats of the Soul (1961), and his autobiography, The Path of Cinnabar (1963). He also expanded upon critiques of American civilisation and materialism, as well as increasing American influence in Europe, collected in the posthumous anthology Civiltà Americana. Evola had been partially paralysed after a Soviet bombing raid in Vienna in 1945, and returned to Rome after seeking treatment elsewhere.

Later years

After the Second World War, Evola continued his work in esotericism. He wrote a number of books and articles on sex magic and various other esoteric studies, including The Yoga of Power: Tantra, Shakti, and the Secret Way (1949), Eros and the Mysteries of Love: The Metaphysics of Sex (1958), and Meditations on the Peaks: Mountain Climbing as Metaphor for the Spiritual Quest (1974). He also wrote his two explicitly political books Men Among the Ruins: Post-War Reflections of a Radical Traditionalist (1953), Ride the Tiger: A Survival Manual for the Aristocrats of the Soul (1961), and his autobiography, The Path of Cinnabar (1963). He also expanded upon critiques of American civilisation and materialism, as well as increasing American influence in Europe, collected in the posthumous anthology Civiltà Americana. Evola had been partially paralysed after a Soviet bombing raid in Vienna in 1945, and returned to Rome after seeking treatment elsewhere.

Evola was arrested along with thirty-six others in April 1951 by the Political Office of the Rome Police Headquarters and charged on suspicion that he was an ideologist of the militant neofascist organisation Fasci di Azione Rivoluzionaria (FAR). Evola was defended by Francesco Carnelutti. During his trial, Evola denied being a fascist and instead referred to himself as "superfascista" (lit. 'superfascist'). Concerning this statement, historian Elisabetta Cassina Wolff wrote that it is unclear whether this meant that Evola was placing himself "above or beyond Fascism". The judges agreed with Evola's argument that his anti-democratic ideological stance could not be construed as a practical crime. On 20 November 1951, Evola was acquitted of all charges.

While trying to distance himself from Nazism, Evola wrote in 1955 that the Nuremberg trials were a farce. Evola also disassociated himself from totalitarianism, preferring the concept of the "organic" state, which he put forth in his text Men Among the Ruins, as well as in his autodifesa. Evola sought to develop a strategy for the implementation of a "conservative revolution" in post-World War II Europe. He rejected nationalism, advocating instead for a European Imperium, which could take various forms according to local conditions, but should be "organic, hierarchical, anti-democratic, and anti-individual". Evola endorsed Francis Parker Yockey's neo-fascist manifesto Imperium, but disagreed with it because he believed that Yockey had a "superficial" understanding of what was immediately possible. Evola believed that his conception of neo-fascist Europe could best be implemented by an elite of "superior" men who operated outside normal politics.

Evola's occult ontology exerted influence over post-war neo-fascism. After 1945, Evola was considered the most important Italian theoretician of the conservative revolutionary movement and the "chief ideologue" of Italy's post-war radical right. According to Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm, Evola's most significant post-war political texts are Orientamenti and Men Among the Ruins. In the opening phrase in the first edition of Men Among the Ruins, Evola said:

Our adversaries would undoubtedly want us, in a Christian spirit, under the banner of progress or reform, having been struck on one cheek to turn the other. Our principle is different: "Do to others what they would like to do to you: but do it to them first.

Orientamenti was a text against "national fascism"—instead, it advocated for a European Community modelled on the principles of the Waffen-SS. The Italian neo-fascist group Ordine Nuovo adopted Orientamenti as a guide for action in postwar Italy. The European Liberation Front, who were affiliated with Francis Parker Yockey, called Evola "Italy's greatest living authoritarian philosopher" in the April 1951 issue of their publication Frontfighter.

Evola died unmarried on 11 June 1974 in Rome from congestive heart failure. His ashes, per his will, were deposited in a hole cut in a glacier on Monte Rosa in the Pennine Alps.

Political influence

In Men Among the Ruins, Evola defines the Fourth Estate as being the last stage in the cyclical development of the social elite, the first beginning with the monarchy. Expanding the concept in an essay in 1950, the Fourth State according to Evola would be characterised by "the collectivist civilization... the communist society of the faceless-massman".

Giuliano Salierni was an activist in the neo-Fascist Italian Social Movement during the early 1950s. He later recalled Evola's calls to violence. Roberto Fiore and his colleagues in the early 1980s helped the National Front's "Political Soldiers" forge a militant elitist philosophy based on Evola's "most militant tract", The Aryan Doctrine of Battle and Victory. The Aryan Doctrine called for a "Great Holy War" that would be fought for spiritual renewal and fought in parallel to the physical "Little Holy War" against perceived enemies.

At one time Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini, the Nazi Grail seeker Otto Rahn, and the Romanian fascist sympathiser and religious historian Mircea Eliade admired Julius Evola. After World War II, Evola's writings continued to influence many European far-right political, racist and neo-fascist movements. He is widely translated in French, Spanish, partly in German, and mostly in Hungarian (the largest number of his translated works).

Umberto Eco referred to Evola as the "most influential theoretical source of the theories of the new Italian right", and as "one of the most respected fascist gurus".

Giorgio Almirante referred to him as "our Marcuse—only better." According to one leader of the neofascist "black terrorist" Ordine Nuovo, "Our work since 1953 has been to transpose Evola's teachings into direct political action."

English orator and political commentator Jonathan Bowden gave lectures on Evola's philosophy.

Evola has influenced Russian political analyst and fascist Aleksander Dugin.

The Greek neo-Nazi party Golden Dawn includes his works on its suggested reading list, and the leader of Jobbik, the Hungarian nationalist party, admires Evola and wrote an introduction to his works.

Donald Trump's former chief adviser Steve Bannon has pointed to Evola's influence on the Eurasianism movement; According to Joshua Green's book Devil's Bargain, Evola's Revolt Against the Modern World had initially drawn Bannon's interest to the ideas of the Traditionalist School. Alt-right leader and white nationalist Richard Spencer said that Bannon's awareness of Evola "means a tremendous amount". Some members of the alt-right expressed hope that Bannon might have been open to Evola's ideas, and that through Bannon, Evola's ideas could become influential. According to multiple historians cited by The Atlantic, this is contradictory, as Bannon cited Evola in defence of the "Judeo-Christian west", while Evola hated and opposed Judaism and Jews, Christianity in general, Anglo-Saxon Protestantism specifically, and the culture of the United States. In a leaked email sent by Bannon in March 2016, he told Milo Yiannopoulos, "I do appreciate any piece that mentions Evola." Evola has also influenced the alt-right movement.

Works

Books

• L'individuo e il divenire del mondo (1926; The Individual and the Becoming of the World).
• L'uomo come potenza (1927; Man as Potency).
• Teoria dell'individuo assoluto (1927; The Theory of the Absolute Individual).
• Imperialismo pagano (1928; second edition 1932) – English translation: Pagan Imperialism. Gornahoor Press. 2017. ISBN 9780999086001.
• Fenomenologia dell'individuo assoluto (1930; The Phenomenology of the Absolute Individual).
• La tradizione ermetica (1931; second edition 1971) – English translation: The Hermetic Tradition: Symbols and Teachings of the Royal Art. Inner Traditions/Bear. 1995. ISBN 9780892814510.
• Maschera e volto dello spiritualismo contemporaneo: Analisi critica delle principali correnti moderne verso il sovrasensibile (1932) – English translation: The Mask and Face of Contemporary Spiritualism. Arktos. 2018. ISBN 9781912079346. And: The Fall of Spirituality: The Corruption of Tradition in the Modern World. Inner Traditions/Bear. 2021. ISBN 9781620559789.
• Heidnischer Imperialismus (1933) – English translation: Heathen Imperialism. Cariou Publishing. 2020.
• Rivolta contro il mondo moderno (1934; second edition 1951; third edition 1970) – English translation: Revolt Against the Modern World: Politics, Religion, and Social Order in the Kali Yuga. Inner Traditions/Bear. 1995. ISBN 9780892815067.
• Il Mistero del Graal e la Tradizione Ghibellina dell'Impero (1937) – English translation: The Mystery of the Grail: Initiation and Magic in the Quest for the Spirit. Inner Traditions/Bear. 1996. ISBN 9780892815739.
• Il mito del sangue. Genesi del Razzismo (1937; second edition 1942) – English translation: The Myth of the Blood: The Genesis of Racialism. Arktos. 2018. ISBN 9781912079421.
• Sintesi di dottrina della razza (1941) – English translation: Synthesis of the Doctrine of Race. Cariou Publishing. 2020.
• Indirizzi per una educazione razziale (1941) – English translation: The Elements of Racial Education. Cariou Publishing. 2005.
• La dottrina del risveglio (1943) – English translation: The Doctrine of Awakening: The Attainment of Self-Mastery According to the Earliest Buddhist Texts. Inner Traditions/Bear. 1996. ISBN 9780892815531.
• Lo Yoga della potenza (1949; second edition 1968) – English translation: The Yoga of Power: Tantra, Shakti, and the Secret Way. Inner Traditions/Bear. 1993. ISBN 9780892813681.
• Gli uomini e le rovine (1953; second edition 1972) – English translation: Men Among the Ruins: Post-War Reflections of a Radical Traditionalist. Inner Traditions/Bear. 2002. ISBN 9780892819058.
• Metafisica del sesso (1958; second edition 1969) – English translations: 1983–1991: Eros and the Mysteries of Love: The Metaphysics of Sex. Inner Traditions/Bear. 1991. ISBN 9780892813155.
• L'operaio nel pensiero di Ernst Jünger (1960; The Worker in the Thought of Ernst Jünger). Excerpts in English
• Cavalcare la tigre (1961) – English translation: Ride the Tiger: A Survival Manual for the Aristocrats of the Soul. Inner Traditions/Bear. 2003. ISBN 9780892811250.
• Il cammino del cinabro (1963; second edition 1970) – English translation: The Path of Cinnabar. Arktos. 2009. ISBN 9781907166020.
• Il Fascismo. Saggio di una analisi critica dal punto di vista della Destra (1964; second edition 1970) – English translation: Fascism Viewed from the Right. Arktos. 2013. ISBN 9781907166853. And: Notes on the Third Reich. Arktos. 2013. ISBN 9781907166860.

Collections

• Saggi sull'idealismo magico (1925; Essays on Magical Idealism).
• Introduzione alla magia (1927–1929; 1971) – English translation: Introduction to Magic: Rituals and Practical Techniques for the Magus. Inner Traditions/Bear. 2001. ISBN 9780892816248. And: Introduction to Magic, Volume II: The Path of Initiatic Wisdom. Inner Traditions/Bear. 2019. ISBN 9781620557181. And: Introduction to Magic, Volume III: Realizations of the Absolute Individual. Inner Traditions/Bear. 2021. ISBN 9781620557198.
• L'arco e la clava (1968) – English translation: The Bow and the Club. Arktos. 2018. ISBN 9781912079087.
• Ricognizioni. Uomini e problemi (1974) – English translation: Recognitions: Studies on Men and Problems from the Perspective of the Right. Arktos. 2017. ISBN 9781912079179.
• Meditazioni delle vette (1974) – English translation: Meditations on the Peaks: Mountain Climbing as Metaphor for the Spiritual Quest. Inner Traditions/Bear. 1998. ISBN 9781620550380.
• Metafisica della Guerra (1996) – English translation: Metaphysics of War: Battle, Victory and Death in the World of Tradition. Arktos. 2011. ISBN 9781907166365.
• Jobboldali fiatalok kézikönyve (2012, collection of Hungarian translations of periodicals by Evola, published by Kvintesszencia Kiadó) – English translation: A Handbook for Right-Wing Youth. Arktos. 2017. ISBN 9781620559789.
• A Traditionalist Confronts Fascism. Arktos. 2015. ISBN 9781910524022.
• East & West: Comparative Studies in Pursuit of Tradition. Counter-Currents. 2018. ISBN 9781935965664.
• Metaphysics of Power. Arktos. 2021. ISBN 9781914208096.

Articles and pamphlets

• L'Homme et son devenir selon le Vedânta. (1925; Review of Guenon's work published in 1925 in L'Idealismo Realistico).
• Tre aspetti del problema ebraico (1936) – English translation: Three Aspects of the Jewish Problem. Cariou Publishing. 2014.
• La tragedia della 'Guardia di Ferro - (1938) English translation: The Tragedy of the Iron Guard. Originally published in La vita italiana 309, Dec 1938.
• On the Secret of Decay (1938) – Originally written in German and published by the Deutsches Volkstum magazine n. 14.
• Una vittima d'Israele (1939). Published in January 1939 in La vita Italiana.
• Orientamenti, undici punti (1950) – English translation: "Orientations: Eleven Points", in A Traditionalist Confronts Fascism. Arktos. 2015. ISBN 9781910524022.
• Il vampirismo ed i vampiri (1973)  – English: Vampirism and Vampires. Written for journal Roma in September 1973.

Works edited and/or translated by Evola

• Tao Tê Ching: Il libro della via e della virtù (1923; The Book of the Way and Virtue). Second edition: Il libro del principio e della sua azione (1959; The Book of the Primary Principle and of Its Action).
• La guerra occulta: armi e fasi dell'attacco ebraico-massonico alla tradizione europea by Emmanuel Malynski and Léon de Poncins (1939) – English translation: The Occult War: The Judeo-Masonic Plot to Conquer the World. Logik Förlag. 2015. ISBN 9789187339356.

See also

• Traditionalist School
• Western esotericism
• Mysticism

References

Notes

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2. Atkins 2004, p. 89.
3. Umland, Andreas (16 January 2005). "Dugin Not a Fascist? A Debate with A. James Gregor (6 texts)" (in German). Erwägen-Wissen-Ethik. Archived from the original on 25 April 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
4. "Birth records of Rome for the year 1898" (in Italian). Archivio di Stato di Roma. Archived from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
5. "Birth records of Cinisi for the year 1854" (in Italian). Archivio di Stato di Palermo. Archived from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
6. "Birth records of Cinisi for the year 1865" (in Italian). Archivio di Stato di Palermo. Archived from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
7. Marriage records of Cinisi for the year 1892, National Archives of Palermo
8. "Birth records of Rome for the year 1895". Portale Antenati (in Italian). National Archives of Rome. Archived from the original on 21 April 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 21 December 2019 suggested (help)
9. Skorupski 2005, p. 11.
10. de Turris, Gianfranco. "Il barone immaginario" (in Italian). Milan: Ugo Mursia Editore. Archived from the original on 10 May 2019. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
11. ^ Furlong 2011, p. 2.
12. "Volume 788". Catalogus Baronum. 788: 143.
13. ^ Furlong 2011, p. 3.
14. Evola 1974, p. 13.
15. Furlong 2011, p. 4.
16. Furlong 2011, p. 32.
17. Furlong 2011, pp. 3–4.
18. Evola 1974, p. 10.
19. Evola 1974, p. 11.
20. Furlong 2011, p. 3-4.
21. Skorupski 2005, p. 13.
22. Furlong 2011, p. 15.
23. ^ Furlong 2011, p. 42.
24. Gregor, A. James (2006). The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521676397.
25. Coogan 1999, p. 293.
26. Tarannes, A. (1 April 1928) Un sataniste italien in Revue Internationale des Sociètès Secrètes v.17, n.4, pp.124, 129.
27. Sedgwick, Mark J. (2009) Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.105-106 ISBN 9780195396010
28. ^ Mark Sedgwick. Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century. Oxford University Press, 2009. p. 105
29. Barber, Richard (2004). The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief. Harvard University Press. pp. 305–306. ISBN 978-0674018150.
30. Evola, Julius (November 1996). Mystery of the Grail. Translated by Hansen, H. T. Inner Traditions. pp. 172–173. ISBN 0892815736. This Temple should be identified with the "Sacred Empire" or "Empire of the World" was mentioned so often in the so-called Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which contain the myth of a detailed conspiracy against the traditional European world. I say "myth" on purpose, thus leaving open the issue of the authenticity or falsehood of the document, which is often exploited by a vulgar anti-Semitism. The fact remains that this document, like many other similar ones, has a symptomatic value, Therefore, regardless of their authenticity, of whether they are totally conjured up, they have caught some vibrations in the air that history itself has confirmed. It is exactly in the Protocols that we see the reemergence of the idea of a universal future empire and of organizations that work underground for its advent, though in a counterfeit that I do not hesitate to call "satanic," because what is effectively happening is the destruction and the uprooting of all that is traditional, of the values of personality and true spirituality.
31. Barber, Richard (2004). The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief. Harvard University Press. p. 306. ISBN 978-0674018150.
32. Skorupski 2005, p. 9.
33. ^ T. Skorupski. The Buddhist Forum, Volume 4. Routledge, 2005, pp. 11–20
34. Harry Oldmeadow. Journeys East: 20th Century Western Encounters with Eastern Religious Traditions. World Wisdom, Inc, 2004. p. 369
35. Donald S. Lopez. Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism Under Colonialism. University of Chicago Press, 1995. p. 177
36. ^ Arthur Versluis. Magic and Mysticism: An Introduction to Western Esoteric Traditions. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007. p. 144-145
37. ^ Wolff 2016, p. 480.
38. ^ Coogan, Kevin (1999). Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International. Brooklyn, New York: Autonomedia. ISBN 9781570270390. Retrieved 11 May 2018.
39. Weitzman, Mark (2020). ""One Knows the Tree by the Fruit That It Bears:" Mircea Eliade's Influence on Current Far-Right Ideology". Religions. 11 (5): 250. doi:10.3390/rel11050250.
40. Franco Ferraresi, 'Julius Evola: Tradition, reaction, and the radical right', European Journal of Sociology, vol. 28, no. 1, 1987, 107–51 (131).
41. Wolff 2016, p. 490.
42. Goodrick-Clarke 2003, pp. 52–71.
43. Lennart Svensson. Ernst Junger – A Portrait. Manticore Books, 2016. p. 202
44. Wolff, Elisabetta Cassina (2014). "Apolitìa and Tradition in Julius Evola as Reaction to Nihilism". European Review. 22 (2): 258–273. doi:10.1017/S106279871400009X. ISSN 1062-7987. S2CID 144821530.
45. Evola, Julius (2006). I testi de La vita italiana: 1939-1943 [The texts of La vita italiana: 1939-1943] (in Italian). Edizioni di Ar. ISBN 9788889515136.
46. ^ Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2003). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of Identity. New York University Press. pp. 52–71. ISBN 978-0-8147-3155-0.
47. Evola, Julius (2009). The path of cinnabar: an intellectual autobiography. Arktos Media Ltd. p. 177. ISBN 978-1907166020. OCLC 985108552.
48. Furlong 2011, p. 13.
49. Florian Ebeling. The Secret History of Hermes Trismegistus: Hermeticism from Ancient to Modern Times. Cornell University Press, 2007. p. 138
50. ^ Lux in Tenebris: The Visual and the Symbolic in Western Esotericism. BRILL, 2016
51. Glenn Alexander Magee. Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition. Cornell University Press, 2008. p. 200
52. Coogan 1999, p. 296f.
53. ^ Gary Lachman. Politics and the Occult: The Left, the Right, and the Radically Unseen. Quest Books, 2012. p. 215
54. Kathleen Taylor. Sir John Woodroffe, Tantra and Bengal: 'An Indian Soul in a European Body?' . Routledge, 2012. p. 135
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60. Furlong 2011, p. 31.
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62. ^ Furlong 2011, p. 5.
63. Furlong 2011, pp. 5–6.
64. Furlong 2011, p. 87.
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66. LewisMelton 1992, p. 276.
67. Furlong 2011, p. 77.
68. Furlong 2011, p. 88.
69. Furlong 2011, p. 43.
70. Furlong 2011, p. 121.
71. ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1996). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-14873-7.
72. Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman. Fascism: Post-war fascisms. Taylor & Francis, 2004. p. 246
73. Franco Ferraresi. Threats to Democracy: The Radical Right in Italy after the War. Princeton University Press, 2012. p. 220
74. ^ Coogan 1999, p. 359.
75. R. Ben-Ghiat, M. Fuller. Italian Colonialism. Springer, 2016. p. 149
76. ^ Annalisa Merelli. "Steve Bannon's interest in a thinker who inspired fascism exposes the misogyny of the alt-right". Quartz. 22 February 2017
77. MeltonBaumann 2010, p. 1085.
78. ^ Coogan 1999, p. 358.
79. ^ Franco Ferraresi (2012). Threats to Democracy: The Radical Right in Italy after the War. Princeton University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-4008-2211-9.
80. Arad, Roy (3 May 2018). "How an Israeli Bookstore in Berlin Ended Up Accused of Nazi Recruitment". Haaretz. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
81. Coogan 1999, p. 343.
82. Furlong 2011, p. 123.
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84. ^ Furlong 2011, p. 40.
85. Rota (2008). Intellettuali, dittatura, razzismo di stato. FrancoAngeli. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-88-568-2094-2.
86. Cassata, Francisco (2011). Building the New Man: Eugenics, Racial Science and Genetics in Twentieth-century Italy. Central European University Press. ISBN 9789639776838.
87. Furlong 2011, p. 21.
88. Peter H. Merkl. Political Violence and Terror: Motifs and Motivations. University of California Press, 1986. p. 85
89. A. James Gregor, Mussolini's Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.
90. Furlong 2011, p. 150.
91. Furlong 2011, p. 119.
92. Wolff 2016, p. 483.
93. Barber, Richard (2004). The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief. Harvard University Press. pp. 305–306. ISBN 978-0674018150.
94. ^ Horst Junginger. The Study of Religion Under the Impact of Fascism. Brill, 2008. p. 136
95. Oren Nimni and Nathan J. Robinson. Alan Dershowitz Takes Anti-Semitism Very Seriously Indeed. Current Affairs. 16 November 2016
96. Julius Evola, "La tragedia della 'Guardia di Ferro" in La vita italiana 309 (December 1938), quoted in Franco Ferraresi, "Julius Evola: Tradition, Reaction, and the Radical Right," in European Journal of Sociology 28 (1987), 107–51 (pp. 129–30).
97. Gary Lachman. Politics and the Occult: The Left, the Right, and the Radically Unseen. Quest Books, 2012. p. 217
98. Evola, Julius. Revolt Against the Modern World.
99. Gillette, Aaron (2003). Racial Theories in Fascist Italy. Routledge. p. 156. ISBN 9781134527069. In particular, Evola had an "almost total adherence" to the principles of the SS and an "almost servile admiration" for Himmler, whom he knew personally; quoting: Raspanti, Julius Evola fra Salò e Vienna, pp. 14, 16.
100. Coogan 1999, p. 315f.
101. H. T. Hansen, 'Preface to the American Edition', in Julius Evola, Men Among the Ruins: Post-War Reflections of a Radical Traditionalist, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 978-1-620-55858-4 2018 pp-1-104, p.5. This is deduced by remarks by Evola suggesting he was an active agent for the Sicherheitsdienst, remarks that Philippe Baillet, his French translator, believes refer to the fact that the Sicherheitsdienst had been set up within the SS and had a remit to cover cultural matters, before it actually assumed a later role in Nazi counterespionage.
102. See Renzo de Felice, Storia degli ebrei; A. James Gregor; Meir Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews; contra Aaron Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy, Ch. 4
103. See Luigi Preti (1968) for discussion of miscegenation; Gene Bernardini (1977) for discussion of German influence
104. Gillette, Racial Theories, pp. 51–53
105. Gillette, Racial Theories, p. 54
106. ^ Wolff 2016.
107. Coogan 1999, p. 320.
108. H.T. Hansen, "A Short Introduction to Julius Evola" in Evola, Revolt Against the Modern World, p xviii.
109. A. James Gregor and Andreas Umland. Erwägen Wissen Ethik, 15: 3 & 4 (2004), pp. 424-429, 591-595; vol. 16: 4 (2005), pp. 566-572 Dugin Not a Fascist?
110. ^ Nigel Graddon. Otto Rahn and the Quest for the Grail: The Amazing Life of the Real Indiana Jones. SCB Distributors, 2013
111. Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman. Fascism: Post-war fascisms. Taylor & Francis, 2004. p. 223
112. Guido Stucco, "Translator's Introduction," in Evola, The Yoga of Power, pp. ix–xv
113. Evola, Rivolta contro il mondo moderno p. 385.
114. FURLONG, P. Social and Political Thought of Julius Evola, London: Routledge, 2011, p. 50. Translation from the Italian by Paul Furlong
115. Interview with Pino Rauti, in Francesco Giorgino and Nicola Rao, L'un contro l'altro armati: dieci testimonianze della guerra civile (1943–1945) (Milan: Mursia 1995), 42–3.
116. Julius Evola, 'La legge contro le idee', Meridiano d'Italia, 23 September 1951, in Evola, I testi del Meridiano d'Italia, 103–4; and Julius Evola, 'Il coraggio di dirsi antidemocratici non equivale necessariamente a dichiararsi fascisti', La rivolta ideale, 17 January 1952, in Evola, I testi de La rivolta ideale, 56–8.
117. Evola, Julius (2010). Civiltà americana. Scritti sugli Stati Uniti (1930–1968). Napoli: Controcorrente.
118. Wolff 2016, p. 488.
119. Evola, Julius (2010). Civiltà americana. Scritti sugli Stati Uniti (1930–1968). Napoli: Controcorrente.
120. Furlong 2011, p. 1.
121. Furlong 2011, p. 92.
122. Wolff 2016, pp. 490–491.
123. Wolff 2016, p. 491.
124. "Evola al processo ai F.A.R.: premessa" [Evola at the F.A.R. trial: premise]. RigenerAzione Evola (in Italian). 27 September 2016.
125. Evola |, Autore: Julius (1 January 2000). "Il significato delle SS. Ordini ed élites politiche". Centro Studi La Runa (in Italian). Retrieved 6 July 2020.
126. Furlong 2011, p. 154.
127. Furlong 2011, pp. 63, 65.
128. Egil Asprem, Kennet Granholm. Contemporary Esotericism. Routledge, 2014. p. 245
129. EVOLA, J., Gli Uomini e le Rovine, Roma: Edizioni dell'Ascia, 1953, p. 16.
130. Marlene Laruelle. Eurasianism and the European Far Right: Reshaping the Europe–Russia Relationship. Lexington Books, 2015. p. 102
131. Luca Lo Bianco (1993). "EVOLA, Giulio Cesare Andrea" [Biographical Dictionary of Italians]. Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). Vol. 43. Treccani. Retrieved 23 October 2018. Morì a Roma l'11 giugno 1974 e le ceneri, per sua volontà, furono sepolte sul Monte Rosa. [He died in Rome on 11 June 1974 and the ashes, by his will, were buried on Monte Rosa.]
132. United Press International (14 June 1974). "Julius Evola". The New York Times (in Italian). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
133. "Contemplations on the Concept of Spiritual Aristocracy". www.cakravartin.com. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
134. Ferraresi, Franco (2012). Threats to Democracy: The Radical Right in Italy after the War. Princeton University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4008-2211-9.
135. Evola, Julius (17 September 2015). A Traditionalist Confronts Fascism. Arktos Media. ISBN 9781910524022.
136. ^ Horowitz, Jason (11 February 2017). "Thinker loved by fascists like Mussolini is on Stephen Bannon's reading list". The Boston Globe. The New York Times. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
137. Wolff 2016, p. 484.
138. "Metaphysicum et Politicum" (PDF). pp. 130–154
139. Eco, Umberto. "Ur-Fascism". The New York Review of Books, Vol. 42, No. 11 (1995), accessed 12 February 2017
140. Quoted in Ferraresi, Franco. "The Radical Right in Postwar Italy." Politics & Society. 1988 16:71-119. (p.84)
141. Laruelle, Marlene Aleksandr Dugin: A Russian Version of the European Radical Right? The Keenan Institute of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Occasional Paper #294.
142. Horowitz, Jason (10 February 2017). "Taboo Italian Thinker Is Enigma to Many, but Not to Bannon". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
143. Green, Joshua (2017). Devil's Bargain. Penguin. p. 206.
144. Momigliano, Anna (21 February 2017). "The Alt-Right's Intellectual Darling Hated Christianity". The Atlantic. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
145. "Here's How Breitbart And Milo Smuggled Nazi and White Nationalist Ideas Into The Mainstream". BuzzFeed. 5 October 2017.
146. "The Alt-Right: An Introduction (Part I)". Oxford Research Group. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
147. O'Meara, Michael (2013). New Culture, New Right: Anti-Liberalism in Postmodern Europe. Arktos. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-907166-89-1.
148. Evola, Julius (2005). I testi de La vita italiana (in Italian). Edizioni di Ar. ISBN 978-88-89515-13-6.
149. Spicer, Kevin P.; Carter-Chand, Rebecca (15 January 2022). Religion, Ethnonationalism, and Antisemitism in the Era of the Two World Wars. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-2280-1020-3.
150. "I testi del Roma | Evola Julius - Edizioni di Ar". www.edizionidiar.it. Retrieved 14 November 2020.

Bibliography

(Publications by and about Julius Evola in the catalogue Helveticat of the Swiss National Library:)

• Aprile, Mario (1984), "Julius Evola: An Introduction to His Life and Work," The Scorpion No. 6 (Winter/Spring): 20–21.
• Atkins, Stephen E. (2004). Encyclopedia of Modern Worldwide Extremists and Extremist Groups. Greenwood Publishing Group.
• Blamires, Cyprian (2006). World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
• Coletti, Guillermo (1996), "Against the Modern World: An Introduction to the Work of Julius Evola," Ohm Clock No. 4 (Spring): 29–31.
• Coogan, Kevin (1999), Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International. Brooklyn, New York: Autonomedia, ISBN 1-57027-039-2).
• De Benoist, Alain. "Julius Evola, réactionnaire radical et métaphysicien engagé. Analyse critique de la pensée politique de Julius Evola," Nouvelle Ecole, No. 53–54 (2003), pp. 147–69.
• Drake, Richard H. (1986), "Julius Evola and the Ideological Origins of the Radical Right in Contemporary Italy," in Peter H. Merkl (ed.), Political Violence and Terror: Motifs and Motivations (University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-05605-1) 61–89.
• Drake, Richard H. (1988), "Julius Evola, Radical Fascism and the Lateran Accords," The Catholic Historical Review 74: 403–419.
• Drake, Richard H. (1989), "The Children of the Sun," in The Revolutionary Mystique and Terrorism in Contemporary Italy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-35019-0), 114–134.
• Evola, Julius (1974). Il Cammino Del Cinabro (in Italian). Milan: Vanni Scheiwiller. ISBN 9788827223444. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
• Furlong, Paul (21 April 2011). Social and Political Thought of Julius Evola. Abingdon-on-Thames: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-72549-4. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
• Faerraresi, Franco (1987), "Julius Evola: Tradition, Reaction, and the Radical Right," European Journal of Sociology 28: 107–151.
• Gelli, Frank (2012), Julius Evola: The Sufi of Rome
• Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2001), Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity (New York: New York University Press, ISBN 0-585-43467-0, ISBN 0-8147-3124-4, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4), 52–71.
• Griffin, Roger (1985), "Revolts against the Modern World: The Blend of Literary and Historical Fantasy in the Italian New Right," Literature and History 11 (Spring): 101–123.
• Griffin, Roger (1995) (ed.), Fascism (Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-289249-5), 317–318.
• Hans Thomas Hakl, "La questione dei rapporti fra Julius Evola e Aleister Crowley", in: Arthos 13, Pontremoli, Centro Studi Evoliani, 2006, pp. 269–289.
• Hansen, H. T. (1994), "A Short Introduction to Julius Evola," Theosophical History 5 (January): 11–22; reprinted as introduction to Evola, Revolt Against the Modern World, (Vermont: Inner Traditions, 1995).
• Hansen, H. T. (2002), "Julius Evola's Political Endeavors," introduction to Evola, Men Among the Ruins, (Vermont: Inner Traditions).
• Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon (1 January 1992). Perspectives on the New Age. New York City: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1213-8. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
• Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (21 September 2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes]. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
• Moynihan, Michael (2003), "Julius Evola's Combat Manuals for a Revolt Against the Modern World," in Richard Metzger (ed.), Book of Lies: The Disinformation Guide to Magick and the Occult (The Disinformation Company, ISBN 0-9713942-7-X) 313–320.
• Packer, Jeremy (2009). Secret Agents: Popular Icons Beyond James Bond. New York: Peter Lang.
• Rees, Philip (1991), Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 (New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-13-089301-3), 118–120.
• Sedgwick, Mark (2004) Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century (Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-515297-2).
• Sheehan, Thomas (1981) "Myth and Violence: The Fascism of Julius Evola and Alain de Benoist," Social Research, 48 (Spring): 45–83.
• Skorupski, Tadeusz (9 August 2005). The Buddhist Forum (4 ed.). Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-75182-1. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
• Staudenmaier, P. (2019). "Racial Ideology between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Julius Evola and the Aryan Myth, 1933–43." Journal of Contemporary History.
• Stucco, Guido (1992), "Translator's Introduction," in Evola, The Yoga of Power (Vermont: Inner Traditions), ix–xv.
• Stucco, Guido (1994), "Introduction," in Evola, The Path of Enlightenment According to the Mithraic Mysteries, Zen: The Religion of the Samurai, Rene Guenon: A Teacher for Modern Times, and Taoism: The Magic, the Mysticism (Edmonds, WA: Holmes Publishing Group)
• Stucco, Guido (2002). "The Legacy of a European Traditionalist: Julius Evola in Perspective". The Occidental Quarterly 3 (2), pp. 21–44.
• Wasserstrom, Steven M. (1995), "The Lives of Baron Evola," Alphabet City 4 + 5 (December): 84–89.
• Wolff, Elisabetta Cassina (19 October 2016). "Evola's interpretation of fascism and moral responsibility". Patterns of Prejudice. 50 (4–5): 478–494. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2016.1243662. ISSN 0031-322X. S2CID 152240495. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
• Waterfield, Robin (1990), 'Baron Julius Evola and the Hermetic Tradition', Gnosis 14, (Winter): 12–17.
• "Bibliografia di J. Evola". Fondazione Julius Evola. Retrieved 25 April 2015.

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