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| <!--NOTE TO EDITORS: Please read the talk page before editing the two introductory paragraphs. These paragraphs represent a consensus on how best to present the essential information in the introduction. Other issues are discussed later in the article.--> | |||
| {{Infobox_Scientist | |||
| | name = Nicolaus Copernicus | |||
| | image = Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg|300px | |||
| | image_width = 300px | |||
| | caption = Portrait from ], beginning of ] | |||
| | birth_date = February 19, 1473 | |||
| | birth_place = ] (''Thorn''), ], (]) | |||
| | death_date = May 24, 1543 | |||
| | death_place = ] (''Frauenburg''), ], (]) | |||
| | nationality = | |||
| | field = Catholic cleric, ], ] | |||
| | work_institution = | |||
| | alma_mater = ] | |||
| | doctoral_advisor = | |||
| | doctoral_students = | |||
| | known_for = The first modern formulation of a ] theory of the solar system. | |||
| | societies = | |||
| | prizes = | |||
| | spouse = | |||
| | children = (celibate cleric, no children) | |||
| | religion = Roman Catholic | |||
| | website = | |||
| | footnotes = | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Nicolaus Copernicus''' (], ] – ], ]) was the | |||
| <!--found consensus (please edit if you disagree): | |||
| '''Nicolaus Copernicus''' ({{lang-de|'''Nikolas Koppernigk'''}}, {{lang-pl|Mikołaj Kopernik}}; <br> | |||
| <nowiki>*</nowiki> ], ] in ] (''Thorn''), ]; † ], ] in ] (''Frauenburg''), ]) was a ] --> | |||
| ] who formulated the first modern ] theory of the solar system. His epochal text, '']'' (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), is often conceived as the starting point of modern ], as well as a central and defining epiphany in the history of all science. | |||
| Among the great ]s of the ], Copernicus was a ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ]. Amid these extensive responsibilities, astronomy served as no more than an avocation. Although it was discovered by Indians and Muslims centuries before him, his reiteration that the sun (rather than the ]) is at the center of the ] is considered among the most important ]s in the Western ]. | |||
| ==Biography== | |||
| Copernicus was born in ] in the city of (as then spelled) '']'' in ], a province of the Polish Kingdom. He was educated at ], ] and ], and spent most of his working life in the town of (as then spelled) '']'', in ], where he died in 1543. | |||
| === Childhood=== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| When he was ten years old, his father, a wealthy businessman, ] trader, and respected citizen of Toruń, died. Little is known of Copernicus' mother, Barbara Watzenrode. She was born into a rich merchant's family. It appears she predeceased her husband. Copernicus' maternal uncle, ], a church ] and later ] governor of the ], reared him and his three siblings after the death of his father. His uncle's position helped Copernicus in the pursuit of a career within the Church, enabling him to devote much time to his astronomy studies. Copernicus had a brother and two sisters: | |||
| * Andreas became a ] at Frombork (Frauenburg). | |||
| * Barbara became a ] nun. | |||
| * Katharina married Barthel Gertner, a businessman and city councilor. | |||
| ===Education=== | |||
| In ], Copernicus enrolled at the ] (today the Jagiellonian University), where he probably first encountered ]. This science soon fascinated him, as shown by his books, which would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes, during ], to the ]. After four years at Cracow, followed by a brief stay back home at Toruń, he went to ], where he studied law and medicine at the universities of ] and ]. His bishop-uncle financed his education and wished for him to become a ] as well. However, while studying ] and ] at ], Copernicus met the famous ], ]. Copernicus attended Novara's lectures and became his disciple and assistant. The first observations that Copernicus made in ], together with Novara, are recorded in Copernicus' epochal book, '']''. | |||
| ]'s statue of a seated Copernicus holding an ], before the ], ].]] | |||
| In ] Copernicus' uncle was ordained ], and Copernicus was named a ] at ] Cathedral, but he waited in Italy for the great ] of ]. Copernicus went to ], where he observed a lunar ] and gave some lectures in astronomy and mathematics. | |||
| He would thus have visited Frombork (Frauenburg) only in 1501. As soon as he arrived, he requested and obtained permission to return to Italy to complete his studies at Padua (with ] and ]) and at Ferrara (with ]), where in ] he received his doctorate in canon law. It has been surmised that it was in Padua that he encountered passages from ] and ] about opinions of the ancients on the movement of the Earth, and formed the first intuition of his own future theory. It was in 1504 that Copernicus began collecting observations and ideas pertinent to his theory. | |||
| ===Work=== | |||
| Having left Italy at the end of his studies, he came to live and work at Frombork (Frauenburg). Some time before his return to Warmia, he had received a position at the ''Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross'' in ''] in ] in Germania'' , which he would attend to for many years and only resign for health reasons shortly before his death. Through the rest of his life, he performed astronomical observations and calculations, but only as time permitted and never in a professional capacity. | |||
| ===Copernicus as monetary reformer=== | |||
| {{main|Copernicus and coin reform}} | |||
| Copernicus worked for years with the ] ] on monetary reform and wrote studies on the value of ]; as governor of Warmia, he administered taxes and dealt out justice. Beginning in 1519, the year of ]'s birth, Copernicus formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called "]," that 'bad' (debased) money drives 'good' (un-debased) money out of circulation. During these years, he also traveled extensively on government business and as a ], on behalf of the ] of Warmia. | |||
| ===Development of his Heliocentric model=== | |||
| In ] he made his '']'' (Little Commentary) — a short handwritten text describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis — available to friends. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work. During the war between the ] and the Kingdom of Poland (]–]), Copernicus at the head of royal troops successfully defended ], besieged by the forces of ]. | |||
| ] ]] | |||
| In ], ] delivered a series of lectures in Rome, outlining Copernicus' theory. These lectures were heard with interest by several Catholic ] and ]. | |||
| By ], Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. From many parts of the continent, Copernicus was urged to publish. | |||
| In a letter dated ''], ] ]'', the ] ] asked Copernicus to communicate his ideas more widely and requested a copy for himself: | |||
| :"''Therefore, learned man, without wishing to be inopportune, I beg you most emphatically to communicate your discovery to the learned world, and to send me as soon as possible your theories about the Universe, together with tables and whatever else you have pertaining to the subject.''" | |||
| It has been suggested that this letter may have made Copernicus leery of publication<ref> Koyré, A. The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus-Kepler-Borelli. New York: Dover, 1973. ISBN 0-486-27095-5</ref>, while others have suggested that it indicated that the Church wanted to ensure that his ideas were published{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. | |||
| Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed with the publication of his book — perhaps from fear of criticism delicately expressed in the "]" associated with ]. About this, ] David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers wrote: | |||
| :"''If Copernicus had any genuine fear of publication, it was the reaction of scientists, not clerics, that worried him. Other churchmen before him — ] (a French bishop) in the fourteenth century and ] (a German ]) in the fifteenth — had freely discussed the possible motion of the earth, and there was no reason to suppose that the reappearance of this idea in the sixteenth century would cause a religious stir.''" . | |||
| ===Publication of ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium''=== | |||
| Copernicus was still working on '']'' (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in ] ], a ] from ], arrived in Frombork. ] had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them. Rheticus became a pupil of Copernicus, staying with him for two years, during which he wrote a book, '']'' (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In ], Rheticus published a treatise on ] by Copernicus (later included in the second book of '']''). Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give the book to his close friend, ], ] of ] (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by ] at ] (Nürnberg). | |||
| Legend has it that the first printed copy of '']'' was placed in Copernicus' hands on the very day he died, allowing him to take farewell of his ''opus vitae'' (life's work). He is reputed to have woken from a ]-induced ], looked at his book, and died peacefully. | |||
| Copernicus was buried in Frombork Cathedral. Archeologists had long searched vainly for his remains when, on ], ], it was announced that in August that year Copernicus' skull had been discovered (see ] below). | |||
| ==The Copernican heliocentric system== | |||
| {{main|Copernican heliocentrism}} | |||
| ===Earlier theories=== | |||
| Much has been written about earlier ] theories. Early traces of a heliocentric model are found in several ] texts composed in ] before the ]. Therefore, some state that ] in ] anticipated Copernicus' work by over 1,000 years. | |||
| ] in the ] had developed some theories of ] (speaking of a revolution by Earth on its axis) to propose what was, so far as is known, the first serious model of a heliocentric solar system. His work about a heliocentric system has not survived, so one may only speculate about what led him to his conclusions. It is notable that, according to ], a contemporary of Aristarchus accused him of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion." | |||
| Copernicus cited ] and ] in an early manuscript of his book which survives, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of ] was of that opinion." For reasons unknown (although possibly out of reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), he did not include this passage in the publication of his book. It has been argued that in developing the mathematics of heliocentrism Copernicus drew on, not just the Greek, but the ]ic tradition of ] and astronomy, especially the works of ], ] and ibn al-Shatir. | |||
| ===The Ptolemaic system=== | |||
| The prevailing theory in Europe as Copernicus was writing was that created by ] in his '']'', dating from about ]. The ] drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between — a separate one for each planet. | |||
| ===Copernican theory=== | |||
| Copernicus' major theory was published in the book, '']'' (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) during the year of his death, ], though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier. | |||
| The Copernican system can be summarized in seven propositions, as Copernicus himself collected them in a Compendium of '']'' that was found and published in ]. | |||
| The major parts of Copernican theory are: | |||
| # Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles (epicycles). | |||
| # The center of the universe is near the Sun. | |||
| # Around the Sun, in order, are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. | |||
| # The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis. | |||
| # Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion. | |||
| # The distance from the Earth to the sun is small compared to the distance to the stars. | |||
| The work itself was then divided into six books: | |||
| # General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World | |||
| # Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books) | |||
| # Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena | |||
| # Description of the Moon and its orbital motions | |||
| # Concrete exposition of the new system | |||
| # Concrete exposition of the new system (continued) | |||
| ==Copernicus and Copernicanism== | |||
| ] | |||
| Copernicus' theory is of extraordinary importance in the history of human knowledge. Many authors suggest that only a few other persons have exerted a comparable influence on human culture in general and on ] in particular.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} There are clear parallels with the life of ], in that both produced a short early description of their theories, but held back on a definitive publication until late in life, against a backdrop of controversy, particularly with regard to religion. | |||
| Many meanings have been ascribed to Copernicus' theory, apart from its strictly scientific import. His work affected religion as well as science, ] as well as ] of scientific inquiry. Copernicus' rank as a scientist is often compared with that of ]. | |||
| Copernicus' work contradicted then-accepted religious dogma: it could be inferred that there was no need of an entity (God) that granted a ], power and life to the World and to human beings — science could explain everything that was attributed to Him. | |||
| Copernicanism, however, also opened a way to ], the view that a divine force, or a divine being, pervades all things that exist — a view that has since been developed further in modern philosophy. Immanentism also leads to ]: to the theory that it is perception that creates reality, that there is no underlying reality that exists independent of perception. Thus some argue that Copernicanism demolished the foundations of medieval science and ]. | |||
| A corollary of Copernicanism is that scientific law need not be congruent with appearance. This contrasts with ]'s system, which placed much more importance on the derivation of knowledge through the senses. | |||
| Copernicus' concept marked a scientific revolution. The publication of his '']'' is often taken to be the beginning of the ], together with the publication of the '']'' by Andreas ] . | |||
| ==Quotes== | |||
| ''']''': | |||
| :"Of all discoveries and opinions, none may have exerted a greater effect on the human spirit than the doctrine of Copernicus. The world had scarcely become known as round and complete in itself when it was asked to waive the tremendous privilege of being the center of the universe. Never, perhaps, was a greater demand made on mankind — for by this admission so many things vanished in mist and smoke! What became of our Eden, our world of innocence, piety and poetry; the testimony of the senses; the conviction of a poetic — religious faith? No wonder his contemporaries did not wish to let all this go and offered every possible resistance to a doctrine which in its converts authorized and demanded a freedom of view and greatness of thought so far unknown, indeed not even dreamed of." | |||
| ''']''': | |||
| :"I was pleased to think of the right of the Polish nobleman to upset with its simple veto the resolution of a (parliament) meeting; and the Pole Copernikus seemed to have made from this right against the resolution and all appearances of other people the largest and worthiest use." | |||
| '''Copernicus''': | |||
| :"For I am not so enamored of my own opinions that I disregard what others may think of them. I am aware that a philosopher's ideas are not subject to the judgment of ordinary persons, because it is his endeavor to seek the truth in all things, to the extent permitted to human reason by God. Yet I hold that completely erroneous views should be shunned. Those who know that the consensus of many centuries has sanctioned the conception that the earth remains at rest in the middle of the heaven as its center would, I reflected, regard it as an insane pronouncement if I made the opposite assertion that the earth moves. | |||
| :"For when a ship is floating calmly along, the sailors see its motion mirrored in everything outside, while on the other hand they suppose that they are stationary, together with everything on board. In the same way, the motion of the earth can unquestionably produce the impression that the entire universe is rotating. | |||
| :"Therefore alongside the ancient hypotheses, which are no more probable, let us permit these new hypotheses also to become known, especially since they are admirable as well as simple and bring with them a huge treasure of very skillful observations. So far as hypotheses are concerned, let no one expect anything certain from astronomy, which cannot furnish it, lest he accept as the truth ideas conceived for another purpose, and depart from this study a greater fool than when he entered it. Farewell." | |||
| ''' Declaration of the Polish ] issued on 12th of June 2003.''' | |||
| :"At the time of five hundred and thirtieth anniversary of the birth and four hundred sixtieth anniversary of the death of Mikołaj Kopernik, the Senate of the Republic of Poland expresses its highest respect and praise for this exceptional ], one of the greatest scientists in the history of the world. Mikołaj Kopernik, world-famous astronomer and author of the breakthrough work ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'', is the one who "Held the Sun and moved the Earth". He distinguished himself for the country as exceptional mathematician, economist, lawyer, doctor and priest, as well as defender of the ] Castle during Polish-Teutonic war. May the memory of his achievements endure and be a source of inspiration for future generations." | |||
| ''']''': | |||
| :"The nationality question was a subject of different writings; an honouring controversy over the claim to the founder of our current world view is led between Poles and Germans, but it is already mentioned that over the nationality of parents of the Copernicus nothing sure could be determined; the father seems to be of Slavic birth, the mother to be a German; he was born in a city, whose municipal authorities and educated inhabitants were Germans, which however at present of his birth was under Polish rule; he studied in ] in the Polish capital, then in Italy and lived to his end in ] as a capitular; he wrote Latin and German. In the science he is a man, who does not belong to a nation, his working, his striving belongs to the whole world, and we do not honour the Pole, not the German, in Copernicus but the man of free spirit, the great astronomer, the father of the new astronomy, the author of the true world view." | |||
| ''']''' (at that time ]) addresses the Polish people in 1999: | |||
| :''"Poles and Germans have a common history of great scientists: Today we no longer perceive Copernicus, ], ], and ] as the property of one nation but as representatives of one transnational culture."'' | |||
| ==Grave== | |||
| ] | |||
| In August 2005, a team of archeologists led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an ] and ] institute in ], discovered what they believe to be Copernicus' grave and remains, after scanning beneath the floor of ] Cathedral. The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus". | |||
| ] expert of the used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features — including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye — on a Copernicus self-portrait . The expert also determined that the skull had belonged to a man who had died about age 70 — Copernicus' age at the time of his death. | |||
| The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains were found. The archeologists hoped to find deceased relatives of Copernicus in order to attempt ] identification. | |||
| == Historical background to the question of Copernicus' nationality == | |||
| ] | |||
| It remains to this day a matter of dispute whether Copernicus should be called German or Polish.<ref name="Understanding Contemporary Germany">Stuart Parkes, Understanding Contemporary Germany. ISBN 0-415-14123-0</ref> | |||
| Copernicus' father, likewise named Nicolaus, might have had the surname ''Koppernigk'', which could have been derived from a village in ] near ] (Neiße) which was called until 1945, and is called since. A Polish theory says that the original ending ''–nik'' in Copernicus' name indicates its Polish form, meaning a person who works with ]. The Polish modern word for copper is ''Miedź'', though, while the German is ''Kupfer''. However, "Kopernik" may as well refer to a Polish word "koper" which stands for a herb - fennel(Foeniculum vulgare) | |||
| In the title of his famous book, his name is written as "Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI", roughly meaning "Nicolaus' Copernicus' of Torin six books on ...". In the {{lang-de|Nikolaus Kopernikus}}, each C was substituted with K to clarify pronunciation (not Z as in the German pronunciation of ] or ]). In Poland, {{lang-pl|Mikołaj Kopernik}} is used (or claimed to be his original name). | |||
| The father of Copernicus, possibly a ] Slav , had been a citizen of ], but left the (then) capital of ] in ] to move to ] (German/Polish). That ] was also part of the ], which, some decades before Copernicus' birth, had tried to gain independence from the ] who had ruled the area for two hundred years, but imposed high taxes that were hindering economic development. This led to the ] and the ] of 1466: Thorn/Toruń and Prussia's western part, called "]", became connected to the ], which had supported the uprising, while the eastern part remained under the administration of the ], later to become "]". Copernicus was born and has grown up in Thorn/Toruń, and was certainly fluent in the ], while no direct evidence survives of the extent to which he knew the ]. His main language for written communication was ]. | |||
| After his prolonged studies in Italy, Copernicus spent most of his working life as a cleric in ], which enjoyed substantial autonomy as part of the lands of the ] — it had its own ], monetary unit and treasury (which Copernicus famously helped to place on a sound footing) and army. Copernicus also oversaw the defense of ]/] at the head of Polish royal forces when the local castle was besieged by the forces of ], the future (]) Duke of Prussia. He became for the rest of his life a burgher of Prussian ] (]), and was a loyal subject of the Catholic ]s and the Catholic Polish king during the ] in which many parts of Germany, starting with ], became Protestant. | |||
| In 1757 Copernicus's book was removed from the ], the list of books which were banned by the Catholic Church. Ever since, Poles claimed that Copernicus was a Pole and Germans that he was a German. Before that, when Copernicus and his ideas were rejected, it was contrariwise . A ] of Copernicus is enshrined since ] in the ]. In ] attempts were made to claim that Copernicus was exclusively a German;<ref name"Majer">], Non-Germans Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and occupied Eastern Europe with special regard to occupied Poland, 1939-1945, . ISBN 0-8018-6493-3</ref> however, after 1945 those attempts have greatly diminished. Despite the acknowledgement of his connections to Poland he is certainly not considered in Germany as ''Un-German'' or ''Non-German'' either. In 2003 he was declared eligible for the '']'' ranking of outstanding Germans. | |||
| ] of 1982, with Copernicus identified, in Polish, as "MIKOŁAJ KOPERNIK." ]] | |||
| In Poland, on the other hand, his 500th birthday was celebrated in 1973, emphasizing his Polishness. A banknote with an image of Copernicus was issued, and the Polish Senate called him on 12 June 2003 an "exceptional Pole". | |||
| Today he is often classified as Polish, in part based on the location of his birthplace in then and present-day Poland, though not only limited to that. It must be remembered though that during Copernicus' lifetime, nationality was yet to play as important a role as it would later, and people generally did not think of themselves primarily as Poles or Germans.<ref name="Davies">], God's Playground: A History of Poland, . ISBN 0-231-05353-3.</ref> In fact, Copernicus might have considered himself to be both at the same time. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| <references/> | |||
| == References == | |||
| * Angus Armitage (1951). ''The World of Copernicus'', New York: Mentor Books. ISBN 0-8464-0979-8. | |||
| * ] (2004). ''The Book Nobody Read'', Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303476-6. | |||
| * ] and Colin A. Russell, eds. (1991). ''The Rise of Scientific Europe, 1500-1800''. Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder & Stoughton: The Open University. ISBN 0-340-55861-X. | |||
| * ] - ''The Sleepwalkers (A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe)'' | |||
| * ] (1973) ''The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli'', Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0504-1. | |||
| * ] (1957). ''The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-17100-4. | |||
| </div> | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| *Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: ] and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006, ISBN 0-8027-1530-3 | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wikiquote}} | |||
| {{commons|Nicolaus Copernicus}} | |||
| ;Primary Sources | |||
| * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Copernicus}} | |||
| * {{gutenberg author| id=Nicolaus+Copernicus | name=Nicolaus Copernicus}} | |||
| * — Full digital facsimile, Jagiellonian University | |||
| * {{pl icon}} | |||
| ;General | |||
| * | |||
| * Portraits of Copernicus: ; ; | |||
| * — Cambridge University: Copernicus had – of course – teachers with astrological activities and his tables were later used by astrologers. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * — BBC article including image of Copernicus using facial reconstruction based on located skull | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * with links to influences and influenced. | |||
| ;About ''De Revolutionibus'' | |||
| * | |||
| * — Full digital facsimile, Lehigh University | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| ;Legacy | |||
| * {{it icon}} — in Italian | |||
| * — Was One of the Greatest Scientific Works Really Ignored? All Things Considered. ] | |||
| * — A detailed critique of the rhetoric of De Revolutionibus | |||
| * | |||
| ;German-Polish Cooperations | |||
| * {{de icon}}{{pl icon}} | |||
| * {{de icon}}{{en icon}}{{pl icon}} | |||
| * {{de icon}}{{pl icon}} German-Polish "Copernicus Prize" awarded to German and Polish scientists () () | |||
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