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'''Phenothiazine''', abbreviated '''PTZ''', is an ] that has the formula S(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH and is related to the ]-class of ]s. Derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history.
'''Phenothiazine''', abbreviated '''PTZ''', is an ] that has the formula S(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH and is related to the ]-class of ]s. Derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history.
The derivatives ] and ] revolutionized the fields of ] and ] treatment, respectively. An earlier derivative, ], was one of the first ], and derivatives are under investigation as possible anti-infective drugs. Phenothiazine is a prototypical pharmaceutical ] in ].
The derivatives ] and ] revolutionized the fields of ] and ] treatment, respectively. An earlier derivative, ], was one of the first ], and derivatives of phenothiazine are under investigation as possible anti-infective drugs. Phenothiazine is a prototypical pharmaceutical ] in ].
==Uses==
==Uses==
Phenothiazine itself is only of theoretical interest, but its derivatives revolutionized psychiatry, other fields of medicine, and pest management. Other derivatives have been studied for possible use in advanced batteries and fuel cells.<ref name=DDD>{{cite journal|author=M. J. Ohlow |author2=B. Moosmann |title= Phenothiazine: the seven lives of pharmacology's first lead structure|journal=Drug Discov. Today|year=2011|volume=16|issue= 3–4|pages=119–31|pmid=21237283|doi=10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.001}}</ref>
Phenothiazine itself is only of theoretical interest, but derivatives of it revolutionized psychiatry, other fields of medicine, and pest management. Other derivatives have been studied for possible use in advanced batteries and fuel cells.<ref name=DDD>{{cite journal|author=M. J. Ohlow |author2=B. Moosmann |title= Phenothiazine: the seven lives of pharmacology's first lead structure|journal=Drug Discov. Today|year=2011|volume=16|issue= 3–4|pages=119–31|pmid=21237283|doi=10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.001}}</ref>
=== Phenothiazine-derived drugs ===
=== Phenothiazine-derived drugs ===
Revision as of 22:59, 11 October 2023
Heterocyclic compound containing a ring of four carbon, one nitrogen and one sulfur atom
Phenothiazine, abbreviated PTZ, is an organic compound that has the formula S(C6H4)2NH and is related to the thiazine-class of heterocyclic compounds. Derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history.
Phenothiazine itself is only of theoretical interest, but derivatives of it revolutionized psychiatry, other fields of medicine, and pest management. Other derivatives have been studied for possible use in advanced batteries and fuel cells.
Phenothiazine-derived drugs
In 1876, methylene blue, a derivative of phenothiazine, was synthesized by Heinrich Caro at BASF. The structure was deduced in 1885 by Heinrich August Bernthsen. Bernthsen synthesized phenothiazine in 1883. In the mid 1880s, Paul Ehrlich began to use methylene blue in his cell staining experiments that led to pioneering discoveries about different cell types. He was awarded a Nobel Prize based in part on that work. He became particularly interested in its use to stain bacteria and parasites such as Plasmodiidae – the genus that includes the malaria pathogen – and found that it could be stained with methylene blue. He thought methylene blue could possibly be used in the treatment of malaria, tested it clinically, and by the 1890s methylene blue was being used for that purpose.
For the next several decades, research on derivatives lapsed until phenothiazine itself came to market as an insecticide and deworming drug. In the 1940s, chemists working with Paul Charpentier at Rhone-Poulenc Laboratories in Paris (a precursor company to Sanofi), began making derivatives. This work led to promethazine which had no activity against infective organisms, but did have good antihistamine activity, with a strong sedative effect. It went to market as a drug for allergies and for anesthesia. As of 2012 it was still on the market. At the end of the 1940s the same lab produced chlorpromazine which had an even stronger sedative and soothing effect, and Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker attempted to use it on their psychiatric patients, publishing their results in the early 1950s. The strong effects they found opened the door of the modern field of psychiatry and led to a proliferation of work on phenothiazine derivatives. The systematic research conducted by chemists to explore phenothiazine derivatives and their activity was a pioneering example of medicinal chemistry; phenothiazine is often discussed as a prototypical example of a pharmaceutical lead structure.
A number of phenothiazines other than methylene blue have been shown to have antimicrobial effects. In particular, thioridazine has been shown to make extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) drug-susceptible again and make methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) susceptible to beta-lactam antibiotics. The major reason why thioridazine has not been utilized as an antimicrobial agent is due to adverse effects on the central nervous system and cardiovascular system (particularly QT interval prolongation).
Phenothiazine antipsychotics are classified into three groups that differ with respect to the substituent on nitrogen: the aliphatic compounds (bearing acyclic groups), the "piperidines" (bearing piperidine-derived groups), and the piperazine (bearing piperazine-derived substituents).
Phenothiazine is used as an anaerobic inhibitor for acrylic acid polymerization, often used as an in-process inhibitor during the purification of acrylic acid.
Trade names
Like many commercially significant compounds, phenothiazine has numerous trade names, including AFI-Tiazin, Agrazine, Antiverm, Biverm, Dibenzothiazine, Orimon, Lethelmin, Souframine, Nemazene, Vermitin, Padophene, Fenoverm, Fentiazine, Contaverm, Fenothiazine, Phenovarm, Ieeno, ENT 38, Helmetina, Helmetine, Penthazine, XL-50, Wurm-thional, Phenegic, Phenovis, Phenoxur, and Reconox.
Former uses
Phenothiazine was formerly used as an insecticide and as a drug to treat infections with parasitic worms (anthelminthic) in livestock and people, but its use for those purposes has been superseded by other chemicals.
Phenothiazine was introduced by DuPont as an insecticide in 1935. About 3,500,000 pounds were sold in the US in 1944. However, because it was degraded by sunlight and air, it was difficult to determine how much to use in the field, and its use waned in the 1940s with the arrival of new pesticides like DDT that were more durable. As of July 2015 it is not registered for pesticide use in the US, Europe, or Australia.
It was introduced as anthelminthic in livestock in 1940 and is considered, with thiabendazole, to be the first modern anthelminthic. The first instances of resistance were noted in 1961. Among anthelmintics, Blizzard et al. 1990 found only paraherquamide to have similar activity to phenothiazine. It is possible that they share the same mode of action. Uses for this purpose in the US are still described but it has "virtually disappeared from the market."
In the 1940s it also was introduced as antihelminthic for humans; since it was often given to children, the drug was often sold in chocolate, leading to the popular name, "worm chocolate." Phenothiazine was superseded by other drugs in the 1950s.
Structure and synthesis
The central C4SN ring is folded in phenothiazines.
The compound was originally prepared by Bernthsen in 1883 via the reaction of diphenylamine with sulfur, but more recent syntheses rely on the cyclization of 2-substituted diphenyl sulfides. Few pharmaceutically significant phenothiazines are prepared from phenothiazine, although some of them are.
Phenothiazines are electron donors, forming charge-transfer salts with many acceptors.
^ M. J. Ohlow; B. Moosmann (2011). "Phenothiazine: the seven lives of pharmacology's first lead structure". Drug Discov. Today. 16 (3–4): 119–31. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2011.01.001. PMID21237283.
Chi, Qijin; Dong, Shaojun (1994-01-20). "Electrocatalytic oxidation of reduced nicotinamide coenzymes at Methylene Green-modified electrodes and fabrication of amperometric alcohol biosensors". Analytica Chimica Acta. 285 (1–2): 125–133. doi:10.1016/0003-2670(94)85016-X.
Karyakin, Arkady A.; Karyakina, Elena E.; Schuhmann, Wolfgang; Schmidt, Hanns-Ludwig (1999). "Electropolymerized Azines: Part II. In a Search of the Best Electrocatalyst of NADH Oxidation". Electroanalysis. 11 (8): 553–557. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-4109(199906)11:8<553::AID-ELAN553>3.0.CO;2-6.
Sokic-Lazic, Daria; Minteer, Shelley D. (December 2008). "Citric acid cycle biomimic on a carbon electrode". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 24 (4): 939–944. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2008.07.043. PMID18774285.
Levy, Leon B. (1992-03-30). "Inhibition of acrylic acid polymerization by phenothiazine and p‐methoxyphenol. II. Catalytic inhibition by phenothiazine". Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry. 30 (4): 569–576. Bibcode:1992JPoSA..30..569L. doi:10.1002/pola.1992.080300407.
Heinz Mehlhorn, Philip M. Armstrong. Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology: Diseases, Treatment, Therapy, Volume 2. Springer Science & Business Media, 2001 ISBN9783540668299
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