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| After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. | |||
| The '''United States embargo against Cuba''' prevents US businesses, and businesses organized under US law or majority-owned by US citizens, from conducting trade with Cuban interests. It is the most enduring ] in modern history.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding the Failure of the U.S. Embargo on Cuba |url=https://www.wola.org/analysis/understanding-failure-of-us-cuba-embargo/ |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=WOLA |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nouri |first=Sarah |date=November 20, 2022 |title=Time To End The US Embargo Against Cuba |url=https://www.humanrightspulse.com/mastercontentblog/time-to-end-the-us-embargo-against-cuba |access-date=November 7, 2023 |website=Human Rights Pulse}}</ref> The US first imposed an embargo on the sale of arms to Cuba on March 14, 1958, during the ] regime. Again on October 19, 1960, almost two years after the ] had led to the deposition of the Batista regime, the U.S. placed an embargo on exports to Cuba except for food and medicine after Cuba ] the US-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation. On February 7, 1962, the embargo was extended to include almost all exports. The ] has passed a resolution every year since 1992 demanding the end of the US economic embargo on Cuba, with the US and ] being the only nations to consistently vote against the resolutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/06/1094612|title=UN General Assembly calls for U.S. to end Cuba embargo for 29th consecutive year|date=June 23, 2021|publisher=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> | |||
| After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party.After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. | |||
| {{As of|2023}}, the embargo is enforced mainly through the ], the ] of 1961, the ] of 1963, the ] of 1992, the ] of 1996, and the ] of 2000.<ref name=amnesty>{{cite web|title= The US Embargo Against Cuba: Its Impact on Economic and Social Rights|url= https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr25/007/2009/en/|publisher= Amnesty International|access-date= December 29, 2013|date= September 2009|df= mdy-all}}</ref> The stated purpose of the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 is to maintain sanctions on Cuba as long as the Cuban government refuses to move toward "democratization and greater respect for human rights."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://1997-2001.state.gov/www/regions/wha/cuba/democ_act_1992.html |title= Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 |publisher= U.S. Department of State }}</ref> The Helms-Burton Act further restricted United States citizens from doing ] in or with Cuba, and mandated restrictions on giving public or private assistance to any successor government in ] unless and until certain claims against the Cuban government were met. In 1999, President ] expanded the trade embargo by also disallowing foreign subsidiaries of US companies to trade with Cuba. In 2000, Clinton authorized the sale of food and humanitarian products to Cuba.<ref>{{cite web|title= Case Studies in Economic Sanctions and Terrorism: US v. Gta 5 (1960– : Castro)|url= http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/sanctions-cuba-60-3.pdf|publisher= Peterson Institute for International Economics|access-date= December 29, 2013|date= October 2011|archive-date= March 4, 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051042/http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/sanctions-cuba-60-3.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref> | |||
| ] summarized that the embargo against Cuba is "the oldest and most comprehensive US economic sanctions regime against any country in the world" imposed over half a century ago. According to LeoGrande, "the embargo has never been effective at achieving its principal purpose: forcing Cuba's revolutionary regime out of power or bending it to Washington's will."<ref>{{cite journal|last=LeoGrande|first=William M.|date=Winter 2015|title=A Policy Long Past Its Expiration Date: US Economic Sanctions Against Cuba|journal=Social Research|volume=82|issue=4|pages=939–966|issn=0037-783X|jstor=44282148}}</ref> | |||
| ==''{{lang|es|El bloqueo}}''== | |||
| In Cuba, the embargo is commonly called '''{{lang|es|el bloqueo}}''' (the blockade).<ref>{{cite web|title=515 - The President's News Conference November 20, 1962|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKWHA-144.aspx|work=White House Audio Recordings, 1961-1963|publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum}}</ref>. The United States has threatened to stop financial aid to other countries if they trade non-food items with Cuba. The US's attempts to do so have been vocally condemned by the United Nations General Assembly as an extraterritorial measure that contravenes "the sovereign equality of States, non-intervention in their internal affairs and freedom of trade and navigation as paramount to the conduct of international affairs".<ref name="un.org3">{{cite web|title=Speakers Denounce Cuban Embargo as 'Sad Echo' of Failed Cold War Politics; General Assembly, for Twentieth Year, Demands Lifting of Economic Blockade|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/ga11162.doc.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026035155/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2011/ga11162.doc.htm|archive-date=October 26, 2011|access-date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Un.org}}</ref> Academic Nigel White writes, "While the US measures against Cuba do not amount to a blockade in a technical or formal sense, their cumulative effect is to put an economic stranglehold on the island, which not only prevents the United States intercourse but also effectively blocks commerce with other states, their citizens and companies."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=Sanctions as War: Anti-Imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-Economic Strategy |date=2023 |publisher= Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |pages=131 |oclc=1345216431|last1=Davis |first1=Stuart }}</ref> {{pb}}Despite the existence of the embargo, Cuba can, and does, conduct international trade with many countries, including many US allies; however, US-based companies, and companies that do business with the US, which trade in Cuba do so at the risk of US sanctions.<ref>{{cite web|title=European Union, Trade in goods with Cuba|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/isdb_results/factsheets/country/details_cuba_en.pdf|access-date=July 9, 2019|publisher=European Commission}}</ref> Cuba has been a member of the ] since 1995.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cuba - Member information|url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/cuba_e.htm|access-date=December 6, 2013|publisher=WTO}}</ref> The European Union is Cuba's largest trading partner, and the United States is the fifth-largest exporter to Cuba (6.6% of Cuba's imports come from the US).<ref>{{cite web|title=Cuba|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/|access-date=June 9, 2012|work=The World Factbook|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> The Cuban government must, however, pay cash for all food imports from the United States, as credit is not allowed.<ref>{{cite news|date=September 2, 2009|title=End embargo on Cuba, US is urged|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8232907.stm|access-date=May 26, 2010}}</ref> | |||
| Beyond criticisms of ], the United States holds $6 billion worth of financial claims against the Cuban government.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://jasonpoblete.com/2008/08/04/us-claims-against-cuba-buyer-beware/ |title= U.S. Claims Against Cuba Buyer Beware }} The Poblete DC, 08/04/08</ref> The pro-embargo position is that the U.S. embargo is, in part, an appropriate response to these unaddressed claims.<ref name="ctp.iccas.miami.edu">{{cite web |url= http://ctp.iccas.miami.edu/FOCUS_Web/Issue165.htm |title= Cuba's Economic Sanctions and Property Rights |work= Focus |issue= 165 |date= May 21, 2012 |access-date= June 15, 2012 |archive-date= March 4, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071206/http://ctp.iccas.miami.edu/FOCUS_Web/Issue165.htm |url-status= dead }}</ref> The ] argues that ], whose votes are crucial in the US state of ], have swayed many politicians to adopt views similar to their own.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.usaengage.org/storage/usaengage/Publications/2004_04_lawg_ignoredmajority.pdf |title= Ignored Majority – The Moderate Cuban-American Community |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090327011953/http://www.usaengage.org/storage/usaengage/Publications/2004_04_lawg_ignoredmajority.pdf |archive-date= March 27, 2009}}</ref> Some business leaders, including James E. Perrella, Dwayne O. Andreas, and Peter Blyth, have opposed the Cuban-American views, arguing that trading freely would be good for Cuba and the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine |url= http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/51838/pamela-s-falk/eyes-on-cuba-us-business-and-the-embargo|title= Eyes on Cuba: U.S. Business and the Embargo|magazine= Foreign Affairs |date= April 29, 2016|last1= Falk|first1= Pamela S.}}</ref> | |||
| Human-rights groups including ],<ref name=amnesty/> ],<ref>{{cite web|title= Cuba: A Step Forward on US Travel Regulations|url= https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/01/19/cuba-step-forward-us-travel-regulations|publisher= Human Rights Watch|access-date= January 5, 2014|date= January 19, 2011}}</ref> and the ]<ref>{{cite web|title= IACHR Annual Report 2011|url= https://www.oas.org/en/iachr/docs/annual/2011/Chap4Cuba.doc|publisher= Inter-American Commission on Human Rights|access-date= January 5, 2014}}</ref> have also been critical of the embargo.<ref name="amnesty"/> Critics of the embargo often refer to it as a "]" and say that the respective laws are too harsh, citing the fact that violations can result in up to 10 years in prison.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| ==History== | |||
| ===Eisenhower presidency=== | |||
| {{see also|Agrarian reforms in Cuba|Cuban Revolution}} | |||
| ] at a meeting of the 1960 UN General Assembly]] | |||
| The United States imposed an arms embargo on Cuba on March 14, 1958, during the armed conflict of 1953-1958 between rebels led by ] and the Fulgencio Batista régime. Arms sales violated US policy which had permitted the sale of weapons to Latin-American countries which had signed the 1947 ] (Rio Treaty) as long as the weapons were not used for hostile purposes.<ref>{{Cite news|url= http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cuban-rebels/4-3-58-embargo.htm|title= U.S. Embargo Set on Arms to Cuba; Shipment Halted|last= Wiskari|first= Werner|date= April 3, 1958|newspaper= The New York Times|access-date= February 8, 2017|via= latinamericanstudies.org}}</ref> The arms embargo had more of an impact on Batista than on the rebels. After the Castro socialist government came to power on January 1, 1959, relations were initially friendly between Castro and the ] administration but became strained after the Agricultural Reform confiscated land owned by many American businesses and Cuba continued to sponsor revolutionary movements in other parts of the Caribbean. By March 1960 the US government began making plans to help overthrow the Castro administration. Congress did not want to lift the embargo.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| In April 1960, the ] issued a memorandum from Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs ] to his immediate superior, ], acknowledging majority support within Cuba for the Castro administration, the fast spread of communism within the country, and the lack of an effective political opposition. The memorandum stated that the "only foreseeable means of alienating internal support is through disenchantment and disaffection based on economic dissatisfaction and hardship."<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=Sanctions as War: Anti-Imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-Economic Strategy |date=2023 |publisher= Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |pages=129 |oclc=1345216431|last1=Davis |first1=Stuart }}</ref> It recommended a policy that would be "adroit and inconspicuous as possible" while aiming to deny "money and supplies to Cuba, to decrease monetary and real wages, to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government."<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d499|title=Document 499 - Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Cuba, Volume VI - Historical Documents - Office of the Historian|access-date=March 21, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Karlsson 2021">{{cite book | last=Karlsson | first=Håkan | title=The Johnson Administration's Cuba policy : from | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=New York, NY | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-000-28215-3 | page=}}</ref> | |||
| In May 1960 the Cuban government began regularly and openly purchasing armaments from the ], citing the US arms embargo. In July 1960 the United States reduced the import quota of ] from Cuba to 700,000 tons under the ''Sugar Act of 1948'';<ref>Haass, Richard N. Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy. 1998.</ref> and the Soviet Union responded by agreeing to purchase the sugar instead.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=Sanctions as War: Anti-Imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-Economic Strategy |date=2023 |publisher= Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |pages=131 |oclc=1345216431|last1=Davis |first1=Stuart }}</ref> | |||
| In June 1960 a key incident occurred: Eisenhower's government refused to export oil to the island, leaving Cuba reliant on Soviet crude oil. Cuba and the Soviet Union signed a trade agreement according to which the Soviet Union would provide 900,000 tons of oil to Cuba.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Cederlöf |first=Gustav |title=The Low-Carbon Contradiction: Energy Transition, Geopolitics, and the Infrastructural State in Cuba |publisher=] |year=2023 |isbn=9780520393134 |location=Oakland, California}}</ref>{{Rp|page=40}} The United States viewed the agreement as a provocation, and successfully urged ], ], and ] to refuse to process Soviet crude in their Havana and Santiago de Cuba refineries.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=40}} On June 29 and July 1, 1960, Cuba confiscated the refineries.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=40}} The United States responded by canceling its quota of sugar purchases from Cuba.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=40}} In turn, on August 30, 1960, the Cuban government nationalized the three American-owned oil refineries as well as ''Compañía Cubana de Electricidad'', the Cuban Telephone Company, and 36 sugar mills.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=40}} The refineries became part of the state-run company, ].{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} This prompted the Eisenhower administration to launch the first trade embargo—a prohibition against selling all products to Cuba except food and medicine. In October 1960 the Cuban administration responded by nationalizing all American businesses and most American privately owned properties on the island. Castro promised to separate Americans in Cuba from all of their possessions "down to the nails in their shoes". Cuba's nationalization laws required the government to compensate the owners of seized property, but compensation was to be made in Cuban bonds, an offer which was not taken seriously by the United States. Payments pursuant to the Cuban bonds were to be paid from the sale of Cuban sugar to the United States, but the United States had just canceled its purchases of Cuban sugar.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ferrer |first=Ada |title=Cuba. An American History |date=2021 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-5011-5455-3 |location=NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=347}} No compensation was paid. Other countries which had their assets nationalised, including Switzerland, Canada, Spain, and France, were more agreeable to Castro’s terms, seemingly convinced that they would not be able to get a better deal.<ref name="$7">{{cite web |date=2014-04-18 |title=Cuba, you owe us $7 billion |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2014/04/18/cuba-you-owe-billion/jHAufRfQJ9Bx24TuzQyBNO/story.html |accessdate=January 25, 2023 |publisher=Boston Globe |quote=Other countries that had holdings in Cuba—including Switzerland, Canada, Spain, and France—were more amenable to Castro’s terms, apparently convinced that there was no chance they’d ever get a better deal.}}</ref> | |||
| The second wave of nationalizations prompted the Eisenhower administration, in one of its last actions, to sever all diplomatic relations with Cuba in January 1961. The US partial trade embargo with Cuba continued under the ].{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} According to 2009 article in the Inter-American Law Review, the Cuban government's nationalization of US owned property is the “largest uncompensated taking of American property by a foreign government in history.” Assets seized, included vacation homes and bank accounts of wealthy individuals, but most seized property was owned by large American corporations, including sugar factories, mines and oil refineries.<ref name="$7" /> | |||
| ===Kennedy presidency=== | |||
| {{see also|Bay of Pigs Invasion|Cuban Missile Crisis}} | |||
| {{more citations needed|section|date=October 2017}} | |||
| About the time of the ] of 17 to 20 April 1961 (which had been largely planned under the Eisenhower administration, but which President ] had been informed of and had approved during the months preceding his presidency and in his first few months (from January 20, 1961) as president), Castro on April 16, 1961 and on May 1, 1961 characterized the Cuban revolution and state as "socialist",<ref> | |||
| {{cite web | |||
| | title = Социализм Фиделя Кастро | |||
| | last = Вахитов | |||
| | first = Рустем | |||
| | url = http://www.contr-tv.ru/common/1875/ | |||
| | access-date = 2 January 2023 | |||
| | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090221230321/http://russoc.by.ru/Doctrina/Kuba_socialism.htm | |||
| | archive-date = 21 February 2009 | |||
| | quote = Кастро охарактеризовал кубинскую революцию как социалистическую лишь 16 апреля 1961 года (то есть на втором году революции), на похоронах жертв американской варварской бомбардировки острова. Фидель произнес там следующие слова: «Товарищи рабочие и крестьяне, наша революция является социалистической и демократической, революцией бедняков, которая делается силами бедняков и в интересах бедняков». Заметим, что Фидель ничего не сказал о марксизме, речь ша о демократическом или как тогда говорили народном социализме. | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> | |||
| <ref> | |||
| {{cite journal | |||
| | last1 = McConaughy | |||
| | first1 = John B. | |||
| | title = Latin America - Soviet Target | |||
| | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SgdWlDeSE2YC | |||
| | journal = Quarterly Review of Military Literature | |||
| | year = 1961 | |||
| | publication-date = October 1961 | |||
| | volume = 41 | |||
| | issue = 10 | |||
| | page = 45 | |||
| | quote = When Castro, on 1 May 1961 , declared that Cuba was now a Socialist state, he meant something utterly alien to the kind of democratic socialism exemplified by ] and ]. | |||
| | access-date = 4 January 2023 | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref><ref> | |||
| {{cite book | |||
| |last1 = Coltman | |||
| |first1 = Leycester | |||
| |author-link1 = Leycester Coltman | |||
| |date = 1 October 2008 | |||
| |orig-date = 2003 | |||
| |chapter = Invasion | |||
| |title = The Real Fidel Castro | |||
| |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=esRje8Jo3LMC | |||
| |publisher = Yale University Press | |||
| |page = 180 | |||
| |isbn = 9780300133394 | |||
| |access-date = 4 January 2023 | |||
| |quote = 'What the imperialists cannot forgive us,' roared, 'is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses.' This was the first occasion on which Castro publicly described the Revolution as being Socialist . | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref> and aligned with the Soviet Union. On September 4, 1961, partly in response, Congress passed the ], a ] Act (among many other measures) that prohibited aid to Cuba and authorized the President to impose a complete trade-embargo against Cuba. | |||
| On January 21, 1962, Cuba was suspended by the ] (OAS), by a vote of 14 in favor, one (Cuba) against with six abstentions (see ]). Mexico and Ecuador, two abstaining members, argued that the OAS Charter did not authorize expulsion. Multilateral sanctions were imposed by OAS on July 26, 1964, but were later rescinded on July 29, 1975. Cuban relations with the OAS have since improved and the suspension of membership was lifted on June 3, 2009.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cerna |first1=Christina M. |title= Recent OAS Documents on Cuba and Honduras: Democracy and the Inter-American Democratic Charter |journal= International Legal Materials |date= December 2009 |volume= 48 |issue= 6 |pages= 1242–1253 |doi=10.1017/S0020782900000826|s2cid=152612190 }}</ref> | |||
| Kennedy extended measures by ], first widening the scope of the trade restrictions on February 8, 1962 (announced on February 3<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=Sanctions as War: Anti-Imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-Economic Policy |date=2023 |publisher= Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |pages=133 |oclc=1345216431|last1=Davis |first1=Stuart }}</ref> and again on March 23, 1962). These measures expanded the embargo to include all imports of products containing Cuban goods, even if the final products had been made or assembled outside Cuba. On August 3, 1962, the Foreign Assistance Act was amended to prohibit aid to any country that provides assistance to Cuba. On September 7, 1962, Kennedy formally expanded the Cuban embargo to include all Cuban trade, except for the non-subsidized sale of food and medicines.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| Following the ] of October 1962, Kennedy imposed travel restrictions on February 8, 1963, and the ] were issued on July 8, 1963, again under the Trading with the Enemy Act, in response to Cuba hosting Soviet nuclear weapons. These measures froze Cuban assets in the US and consolidated existing restrictions.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| ===Rapprochement with Cuba=== | |||
| {{see also|El Diálogo}} | |||
| The restrictions on US citizens traveling to Cuba lapsed on March 19, 1977;<ref>{{cite book |last=Franklin |first=Jane |title=Cuba and the United States: A Chronological History |url=https://archive.org/details/cubaunitedstates0000fran/page/132 |access-date=September 28, 2014 |year=1997 |publisher=Ocean Press |isbn=9781875284924 |page= }}</ref> the regulation was renewable every six months, but President ] did not renew it and the regulation on spending ] in Cuba was lifted shortly afterwards.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.historyofcuba.com/embargo/EmbargoTimeline.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=November 26, 2016 |archive-date=August 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830064750/http://www.historyofcuba.com/embargo/EmbargoTimeline.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=castroban> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204224513/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a487629.pdf |date=December 4, 2021 }} {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> President ] reinstated the trade embargo on April 19, 1982, though it was now only restricted to business and tourist travel and did not apply to travel by US government officials, employees of news or film making organizations, persons engaging in professional research, or persons visiting their close relatives.<ref name=castroban /> This has been modified subsequently with the present regulation, effective June 30, 2004,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.treas.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/actions/20040616.html |title=Recent OFAC Actions |publisher=Office of Foreign Assets Control, United States Department of the Treasury |date=June 16, 2004 |access-date=November 5, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061102043211/http://www.treas.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/actions/20040616.html |archive-date=November 2, 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref> being the ], 31 C.F.R. part 515.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr;sid=fb4974a82c28f07b7b95587729bf21e1;rgn=div5;view=text;node=31%3A3.1.1.1.3;idno=31;cc=ecfr |title=Cuban Assets Control Regulations, 31 C.F.R. part 515 |access-date=September 30, 2012 |archive-date=September 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925002435/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
| The current regulation does not prohibit travel by US citizens to Cuba ''per se'', but it makes it illegal for US citizens to have transactions (spend money or receive gifts) in Cuba under most circumstances without a US government ] issued license.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ustreas.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/programs/cuba/gls/cuba_gl.pdf |access-date=May 30, 2008 |publisher=Office of Foreign Assets Control |title=Cuban Assets Control Regulations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528150713/http://www.ustreas.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/programs/cuba/gls/cuba_gl.pdf |archive-date=May 28, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since even paying unavoidable airfare ticket taxes into a Cuban airport would violate this transaction law, it is effectively impossible for ordinary tourists to visit Cuba without breaking the monetary transaction rule. | |||
| ===Increasing legislation=== | |||
| {{see also|Cuban Democracy Act|Helms-Burton Act}} | |||
| The embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the ] and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act (known as the ]) which penalizes foreign companies that do business in Cuba by preventing them from doing business in the US.<ref name=":3" /> The key sponsor of the Cuban Democracy Act, Democrat ], stated that the legislation would "wreck havoc on that island."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=The politics behind Clinton's Cuba policy |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1994-08-30-1994242173-story.html |access-date=2023-01-25 |website=Baltimore Sun|date=August 30, 1994 }}</ref>{{Lopsided|date=October 2023}} Justification provided for these restrictions was that these companies were trafficking in stolen US properties, and should, thus, be excluded from the United States.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} President ] tried to lift the embargo, but Congress did not allow it.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| The ] resented the Helms-Burton Act because it felt that the US was dictating how other nations ought to conduct their trade and challenged it on that basis. The EU eventually dropped its challenge in favor of negotiating a solution.<ref>{{cite news | date = April 22, 1998 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/81461.stm | title = EU suspends challenge against controversial US law | publisher = BBC News | access-date =October 29, 2006 }}</ref> | |||
| After ] two '']'' (Brothers to the Rescue) planes in 1996, killing three Americans and a US resident, a bi-partisan coalition in the United States Congress approved the Helms-Burton Act.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} The Title III of this law also states that any non-US company that "knowingly trafficks in property in Cuba confiscated without compensation from a U.S. person" can be subjected to litigation and that company's leadership can be barred from entry into the United States. Sanctions may also be applied to non-US companies trading with Cuba. This restriction also applies to maritime shipping, as ships docking at Cuban ports are not allowed to dock at US ports for six months. This title includes waiver authority, so that the President might suspend its application. The waiver must be renewed every six months and traditionally was until US President ] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=Sanctions as War: Anti-Imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-Economic Strategy |date= March 7, 2023|publisher= Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |pages=136 |oclc=1345216431|last1=Davis |first1=Stuart }}</ref> | |||
| In response to pressure from some American farmers and ], the embargo was relaxed by the ], which was passed by Congress in October 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton. The relaxation allowed the sale of agricultural goods and medicine to Cuba for ] reasons. Although Cuba initially declined to engage in such trade (having even refused US food aid in the past,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/168987.stm|title=Cuba to reject US aid|publisher=BBC|date=September 11, 1998 }}</ref> seeing it as a half-measure serving US interests), the Cuban government began to allow the purchase of food from the US as a result of ] in November 2001. These purchases have grown since then{{dubious|date=January 2015}}, even though all sales are made in cash. In 2007, the US was the largest food supplier of Cuba,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://groups.yahoo.com/group/CubaVerdad/message/36022|title=US Remains Cuba's Top Food Source, Exported $600M in Agricultural Products to Island in 2007|agency=Associated Press|date=January 22, 2008|access-date=January 15, 2017|archive-date=May 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528205326/https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/CubaVerdad/conversations/topics/36022|url-status=dead}}</ref> and its fifth largest trading partner. | |||
| In some tourist spots across the island, American brands such as ] can be purchased. Ford tankers refuel planes in airports and some computers use Microsoft software.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11920925 |title=Patchy blockade|publisher=The Economist|date=August 14, 2008 }}</ref> The origin of the financing behind such goods is not always clear. The goods often come from third parties based in countries outside the US, even if the product being dealt originally has US shareholders or investors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.autentico.org/oa09537.php|title=U.S. goods, people, cash pour into Cuba|website=www.autentico.org}}</ref> This can be seen, for example, with ] products (which have a 10% US ownership) that can be bought in Cuba with ]s (CUCs). These CUC pesos are hard currency that are traded in foreign exchange against the US dollar, the Euro, and other currencies.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| ===Cuban thaw=== | |||
| {{main|Cuban thaw}} | |||
| ] and ] at the Palace of the Revolution in Havana, 2016]] | |||
| On April 13, 2009, President Barack Obama eased the travel ban, allowing Cuban-Americans to travel freely to Cuba;<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/13/some-cuba-travel-restrict_n_186197.html | work=Huffington Post | title=Obama Lifting Cuba Travel Restrictions | date=April 13, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/memorandum-promoting-democracy-and-human-rights-cuba | work=] | title= Memorandum: Promoting Democracy and Human Rights in Cuba | via=] | date=April 13, 2009 }}</ref> and on January 14, 2011, he further eased the ban, by allowing students and religious missionaries to travel to Cuba if they meet certain restrictions.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Reaching Out to the Cuban People |date=January 14, 2011 |via=] |work=] |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/01/14/reaching-out-cuban-people }}</ref> | |||
| On July 16, 2012, the '']'' became the first officially sanctioned direct ship to sail from Miami to Cuba.<ref name="Jazeera50">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2012/07/20127147196482238.html |title=Cuba receives first US shipment in 50 years - Americas |publisher=Al Jazeera English |access-date=December 6, 2013}}</ref> It carried food, medicine and personal hygiene goods sent by Cuban-Americans to family members.<ref>{{cite web|author=Chris Arsenault |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/07/2012716113551153900.html |title=US aid ship in Cuba: Ending the embargo? - Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |access-date=December 6, 2013}}</ref> | |||
| In 2014, the ] announced its intention to re-establish relations with Cuba.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/12/17/world/americas/cuba-sanctions.html?smid=pl-share&_r=0 | title=How America's Relationship With Cuba Will Change| website=]| date=December 17, 2014| last1=Parlapiano| first1=Alicia}}</ref> In January 2015, the administration lightened restrictions on US citizen travel to Cuba. While restrictions on travel for missionary work and education have been loosened, visits for tourism remain banned. Obama and Cuban President ] met on April 11, 2015, which was the first meeting between distinct leaders of the two countries in over fifty years.<ref name="nytimes.com"/> In May 2015, several US companies reported they had been granted licenses to establish ferry travel between Florida and Cuba,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32602923 | title=US approves ferry service between Cuba and Florida| work=BBC News| date=May 6, 2015}}</ref> with a ] spokeswoman confirming they had begun issuing licenses. So far the general ban on travel to Cuba remains in effect for Americans, so the ferry service will not be accessible to Americans who have not received special approval for travel to Cuba.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sun-sentinel.com/business/tourism/fl-havana-ferry-approval-20150505-story.html | title=US approves ferry service to Cuba by four Florida companies}}</ref> | |||
| On September 21, 2015, the ] and Treasury Departments took additional coordinated actions in support of the President's Cuba policy. These actions included a rule published by the Commerce Department's ] (BIS) that amended the terms of existing license exceptions that are available for Cuba, increased the number of license exception provisions that are available for Cuba, created a new Cuba licensing policy to help ensure the safety of civil aviation and the safe operation of commercial passenger aircraft, and made the deemed export and deemed reexport license requirements for Cuba consistent with other sanctioned destinations.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/policy-guidance/country-guidance/sanctioned-destinations/cuba | title=US Department of Commerce guidance on Cuba}}</ref> | |||
| In February 2016, the US government allowed two American men from Alabama to build a factory that will assemble as many as 1,000 small tractors a year for sale to private farmers in Cuba. The $5 million to $10 million plant would be the first significant US business investment on Cuban soil since 1959.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Obama administration has approved the first U.S. factory in Cuba in more than half a century, allowing a pair of former software engineers to build a plant assembling as many as 1,000 small tractors a year|url = https://www.usnews.com/news/business/articles/2016-02-15/apnewsbreak-us-oks-first-factory-in-cuba-since-revolution|website = U.S. News & World Report|date = February 15, 2016|access-date = February 15, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = U.S. OK's first factory in Cuba since revolution|agency=Associated Press| first= Michael | last = Weissenstein | url = http://www.thenewstribune.com/news/nation-world/world/article60440516.html|website = thenewstribune|access-date = February 15, 2016}}</ref> The deal was not authorized by Cuban authorities later that year because one of the owners had recently obtained Cuban citizenship. Factory ownership is still illegal in Cuba.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/cuba/article125450659.html| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170110135739/http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/cuba/article125450659.html| archive-date = 2017-01-10| title = Cuban American investor Saul Berenthal loses bid for business plan in Cuba {{!}} Miami Herald| website = ]}}</ref> | |||
| In concert with a prisoner exchange with Cuba, Presidents Obama and Castro announced moves on December 17, 2014, to reestablish diplomatic relations and to loosen travel and economic policies.<ref>, BBC News, December 17, 2014</ref> Cuba released ], an American prisoner, on humanitarian grounds and exchanged an unnamed American spy for the three remaining members of the ]. Obama also announced a review of Cuba's status as a terrorist state and an intention to ask Congress to remove the embargo entirely.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218093615/https://ijsbergmagazine.com/international/article/14183-un-nouveau-chapitre-souvre-entre-les-etats-unis-et-cuba/ |date=December 18, 2014 }}, Yann Schreiber, avec Camille Grange et Antoine Boyet, Ijsberg Magazine, 17 décembre 2014</ref> Cuba agreed to release 53 political prisoners and to allow Red Cross and UN human-rights investigators access.<ref>, Alexandra Jaffe and Elise Labott, CNN, December 17, 2014</ref> On May 29, 2015, according to the US State Department, "Cuba's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism was rescinded".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2015/257519.htm | title=Country Reports on Terrorism 2015, Chapter 2. Country Reports: Western Hemisphere Overview|access-date=June 4, 2016|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> | |||
| Under the announced changes by President Obama, there will be an increased ability to transact with Cuban nationals and businesses, including Cuban financial institutions. Additionally, permitted US banks will now be able to open accredited accounts in Cuban banks.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pwc.com/en_US/us/financial-services/regulatory-services/publications/assets/2014-cuba-sanctions.pdf|title= First take: Key points from the President's announcement on Cuba Sanctions |publisher= PwC Financial Services Regulatory Practice, December 2014}}</ref> | |||
| On January 12, 2017, Obama announced the immediate cessation of the ], eight days before his ].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Obama|title=Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/statement-president-cuban-immigration-policy|via=]|work=]|date=January 12, 2017 |access-date=January 12, 2017}}</ref> The Cuban government agreed to accept the return of Cuban nationals.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Whitefield|first1=Mimi|title=Obama ending 'wet foot, dry foot' Cuban immigration policy|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/cuba/article126202999.html|work=Miami Herald|date=January 12, 2017}}</ref> Beginning in 2014, anticipation of the end of the policy had led to increased numbers of Cuban immigrants.<ref name="policyended">{{cite news|last1=Gomez|first1=Alan|title=Obama to end 'wet foot, dry foot' policy for Cubans|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2017/01/12/obama-ends-wet-foot-dry-foot-policy-cubans/96505172/|work=USA Today|date=January 12, 2017}}</ref> | |||
| === Reinforcement of restrictions and new sanctions === | |||
| On November 8, 2017, it was announced that President Trump's administration had enacted new rules which would re-enforce the business and travel restrictions which were loosened by the Obama administration<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/travel/ct-us-cuba-travel-restrictions-20171108-story.html|title=U.S. tightens travel rules to Cuba, blacklists many businesses|first=Josh|last=Lederman|website=chicagotribune.com|access-date=April 22, 2019|archive-date=April 22, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422150935/https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/travel/ct-us-cuba-travel-restrictions-20171108-story.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and would go into effect on November 9.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/washington/la-na-pol-essential-washington-updates-u-s-sets-new-restrictions-on-business-1510154085-htmlstory.html|title=U.S. sets new restrictions on business ties and travel to Cuba|first=Tracy|last=Wilkinson|website=]}}</ref> | |||
| In July 2021, under President ], the United States imposed sanctions on Cuba's police force and on two of Cuba's leaders in response to the ].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Mason |first1=Jeff |last2=Holland |first2=Steve |date=2021-07-31 |title=U.S. issues new Cuba sanctions, Biden promises more to come |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/biden-meet-cuban-american-leaders-amid-calls-tougher-action-havana-2021-07-30/ |access-date=2022-06-22}}</ref> | |||
| ==Impact== | |||
| ===Humanitarian and health impacts=== | |||
| The embargo has been criticized for its effects on food, clean water,<ref name="AAWH">American Association for World Health. "Denial of Food and Medicine: The Impact Of The U.S. Embargo On The Health And Nutrition In Cuba." March 1997.</ref> medicine,<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=Sanctions as War: Anti-Imperialist Perspectives on American Geo-Economic Strategy |date=2023 |publisher= Haymarket Books|isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |pages=144 |oclc=1345216431|last1=Davis |first1=Stuart }}</ref> and other economic needs of the Cuban population. Criticism has come from both Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro, citizens and groups from within Cuba, and international organizations and leaders. | |||
| US diplomat Lester D. Mallory wrote an internal memo on April 6, 1960, arguing in favor of an embargo to "(make) the greatest inroads in denying money and supplies to Cuba, to decrease monetary and ], to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v06/d499 |title=Foreign Relations of the United States |chapter=499. Memorandum From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Mallory) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Rubottom) |author=Lester D. Mallory |author-link=Lester D. Mallory |date=6 April 1960 |location=Washington |publisher=Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute - ] |access-date=13 May 2022 |quote=If the above are accepted or cannot be successfully countered, it follows that every possible means should be undertaken promptly to weaken the economic life of Cuba. If such a policy is adopted, it should be the result of a positive decision which would call forth a line of action which, while as adroit and inconspicuous as possible, makes the greatest inroads in denying money and supplies to Cuba, to decrease monetary and real wages, to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004501201/BP000010.xml |first=Helen |last=Yaffe |title=Sanctions as War |chapter=US Sanctions Cuba 'to Bring About Hunger, Desperation and the Overthrow of the Government' |series=Studies in Critical Social Sciences |date=9 December 2021 |access-date=17 May 2022 |pages=129–147 |isbn=9789004501201 |doi=10.1163/9789004501201_009 |s2cid=245412919 }}</ref> | |||
| Some medical scholars, outside Cuba, have linked the embargo to shortages of medical supplies and soap which have resulted in a series of medical crises and heightened levels of infectious diseases.<ref name="Barry">{{cite journal|last=Barry|first=Michèle|title=Effect of the U.S. Embargo and Economic Decline on Health in Cuba|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|volume=132|issue=2|date=January 18, 2000|url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/132/2/151.pdf|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-132-2-200001180-00010|pages=151–4|pmid=10644277|s2cid=8278747}}</ref><ref name="Garfield">{{cite journal |last=Garfield |first=R.|author2=Santana, S. |title=The impact of the economic crisis and the US embargo on health in Cuba|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=87|issue=1|pages=15–20|date=January 1997|doi=10.2105/AJPH.87.1.15|pmid=9065219|pmc=1380757}}</ref> Medical scholars have also linked the embargo to epidemics of specific diseases, including neurological disorders and blindness caused by poor nutrition.<ref name="Barry" /><ref>{{cite news|last=Kirkpatrick|first=Anthony F.|title=Role of the USA in shortage of food and medicine in Cuba|publisher=The Lancet|issue=348|pages=1489–1491|date=November 30, 1996|url=http://www.cubasolidarity.net/Kirkpatrick-lancet.pdf}}</ref> An article written in 1997 suggests malnutrition and disease resulting from increased food and medicine prices have affected men and the elderly in particular, due to Cuba's rationing system which gives preferential treatment to women and children.<ref name="Garfield" /> In 1997, the American Association for World Health stated that the embargo contributed to malnutrition, poor water access, lack of access to medicine and other medical supplies and concluded that "a humanitarian catastrophe has been averted only because the Cuban government has maintained a high level of budgetary support for a health care system designed to deliver primary and preventative medicine to all its citizens."<ref name="aj170615" /><ref name=":2" /> The AAWH found that travel restrictions embedded in the embargo have limited the amount of medical information that flows into Cuba from the United States.<ref name="AAWH" /> | |||
| Since 2000, the embargo has explicitly excluded the acquisition of food and medicines.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.lanacion.com.ar/el-mundo/alberto-fernandez-exigio-su-fin-que-es-el-embargo-de-estados-unidos-a-cuba-y-que-impacto-tiene-nid13072021/|title= Alberto Fernández exigió su fin: qué es el embargo de Estados Unidos a Cuba y qué impacto tiene|trans-title=Alberto Fernandez demanded its end: what is the US embargo of Cuba and which is its impact|language=es|date=July 13, 2021|newspaper=La Nación|accessdate=July 16, 2021|archive-date=July 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713154152/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/el-mundo/alberto-fernandez-exigio-su-fin-que-es-el-embargo-de-estados-unidos-a-cuba-y-que-impacto-tiene-nid13072021/|url-status= live}}</ref> | |||
| ===Political impact=== | |||
| Writing in 2021, in the context of the 2021 Cuban protests, according to ], a former ] economist who teaches at ] in ], economic reforms in Cuba "do not depend on the embargo, and the embargo should be eliminated unilaterally, independently from reforms in Cuba. Both cause problems."<ref>{{cite news|last=Sesin|first=Carmen|date=July 13, 2021|title=Cuba's protests rocked the entire island. Here's why people flooded the streets.|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/cuba-exploded-protests-goes-us-embargo-pandemic-rcna1399|accessdate=July 16, 2021|agency=NBC News|archive-date=July 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714220919/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/cuba-exploded-protests-goes-us-embargo-pandemic-rcna1399|url-status=live}}</ref> | |||
| A 2009 report by Amnesty International argues that the Cuban embargo has had an adverse effect on human rights in Cuba, and that "states must take into account the effects that sanctions may have on the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights in the country affected".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-09-02 |title=Cuba: The US embargo against Cuba: Its impact on economic and social rights |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr25/007/2009/en/ |access-date=2023-06-04 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref> | |||
| ===Economic effects=== | |||
| The US sanctions on Cuba and their economic impacts can be traced back to when they were first implemented in the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Economic Impact of U.S. Sanctions With Respect to Cuba|author=U.S. International Trade Commission|publisher=U.S. International Trade Commission|date=February 2001|location=Washington, DC|pages=332–414}}</ref> In its 2020 report to the United Nations, Cuba stated that the total cost to Cuba from the United States embargo is $144 billion since its inception.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1345216431 |title=SANCTIONS AS WAR : anti-imperialist perspectives on american geo-economic. |date=2023 |publisher=HAYMARKET BOOKS |isbn=978-1-64259-812-4 |location= |oclc=1345216431}}</ref> | |||
| Between 1954 and 1959, trade between Cuba and the United States was at a higher level than what it was in 2003, according to a BA dissertation submitted to the ], with 65% of Cuba's total exports sent to the United States while American imports totaled 74% percent of Cuba's international purchases. After the formal implementation of the embargo and the passage of Proclamation 3355, there was a 95% decrease in Cuba's sugar quota, which canceled roughly 700,000 tons of the 3,119,655 tons previously allotted to the United States.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Caraway|first=Rose|year=2004|title=Post-embargo Cuba: Economic Implications and the Future of Socialism|url=http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/etext/llilas/ilassa/2004/caraway.pdf|journal=Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies|page=30}}</ref> A year later, Cuba's sugar quota was reduced to zero when President Eisenhower issued Proclamation 3383. This substantially affected Cuba's total exports, as Cuba was one of the world's leading sugar exporters at the time.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
| In 1989, with the collapse of the ], Cuba witnessed its most devastating economic crises. Cuba's ] plummeted 34% and trade between the nations apart from the ] (CMEA) declined by 56%.<ref name=":0" /> Between 1989 and 1992, the termination of traditional trade partnerships with the Soviet bloc caused the total value of Cuba's exports to fall by 61% and imports to drop by approximately 72%. This period is known as the ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Failed sanctions: why the U.S. embargo against Cuba could never work|last=Spadoni|first=Paolo|publisher=University Press of Florida|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8130-3515-4|location=Gainesville|pages=xvi}}</ref> Supporters of the embargo and many international economists believed that the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the resultant economic crisis would lead to the downfall of Fidel Castro's government. However, Cuba's government instituted a campaign of macroeconomic adjustment and liberalization, which provided significant economic recovery.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
| In November 1991 speech to the UN General Assembly, Cuban ambassador ] cited 27 recent cases of trade contracts interrupted by US pressure. The British journal '']'' claimed that ] was seemingly dissuaded by US authorities from investing in offshore oil exploration in Cuba despite being initially keenly interested. The Petroleum economist claimed in September 1992 that the US State Department vigorously discouraged firms like ] and ] from investing in Cuba; this pressure did not work in all cases. According to the Mexican newspaper '']'', the US ambassador to Mexico ] travelled to meet two Mexican business men who had signed a textile deal with Cuba on October 17, 1992. Despite the representation, the deal went ahead and was eventually worth $500 million in foreign capital. All of this happened before the signing of the Cuban Democracy Act.<ref>Cuba in the International System: Normalization and integration, 1995 - editors Archibald Ritter and John Kirk, St. Martin's Press {{ISBN|0-312-12653-0}} - article by Andrew Zimbalist</ref> | |||
| The 1998 US State Department report ''Zenith and Eclipse: A Comparative Look at Socio-Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba'' attributed Cuba's economic penury not as a result of the embargo, but instead the lack of foreign currency due to the unwillingness of Cuba to liberalize its economy and diversify its export base during the years of abundant Soviet aid. Cuba also amassed substantial debts owed to its Japanese, European, and Latin American trading partners during the years of abundant Soviet aid.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/wha/ci/14776.htm|title=Zenith and Eclipse: A Comparative Look at Socio-Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba|first=Bureau of Public Affairs|last=Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information|website=2001-2009.state.gov}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=July 2021}} | |||
| According to a 2001 ] report in response to a request made by the ], the total value of U.S. exports of selected agricultural products, intermediate goods, and manufactured goods to Cuba in the absence of US sanctions was estimated to be at $146 and $658 million for US imports from Cuba between 1996 and 1998.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=U.S. International Trade Commission|date=February 2001|title=The Economic Impact of U.S. Sanctions With Respect to Cuba|url=https://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/pub3398.pdf|journal=U.S. International Trade Commission Investigation|volume=Investigation No. 332-413|page=390|via=U.S. International Trade Commission Website}}</ref> | |||
| According to a 2000 research paper by Jorge Antonio, a professor of political economy, the economic effects of the embargo on the economic development of Cuba are likely negligible. The paper states that: "Under the real world of Castroism, however, the answer must be a terse one: none. The embargo has not harmed the Cuban economy. Cooperation between the United States and Cuba would have been impossible from the very beginning of the Revolution for legal, political, ideological, strategic, and economic reasons, not to mention others of a philosophical or moral character." | |||
| In 2002, the ] estimated that the embargo costs the US economy $3.6 billion per year in economic output.<ref>{{cite web| last =Luxner| first =Larry| date =September 1, 2002| url =http://www.articlearchives.com/government/elections-politics-lobbying/801947-1.html| title =Sally Cowal: from ambassador to anti-embargo activist| publisher =Cuba News| access-date =May 1, 2009| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120512003637/http://www.articlearchives.com/government/elections-politics-lobbying/801947-1.html| archive-date =May 12, 2012| url-status =dead| df =mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| In 2007, the US Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) has become more lenient with some of the sanctions imposed upon Cuba by introducing new streamlined procedures to expedite processing of license applications for exporting eligible agricultural commodities to Cuba. As a result, annual US exports to Cuba have risen from $6 million to about $350 million between 2000 and 2006. Over this period, US exports to Cuba have totaled more than $1.5 billion. As of 2006, agricultural products comprised 98% of total U.S. exports to Cuba.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0880.pdf|title=Economic Sanctions: Agencies Face Competing Priorities in Enforcing the U.S. Embargo on Cuba|author=United States Government Accountability Office|date=November 2007|website=U.S. Governmental Accountability Office|access-date=March 3, 2017}}</ref> | |||
| In 2009, the ] estimated that the embargo costs the US economy $1.2 billion per year in lost sales and exports, while the Cuban government estimates that the embargo has cost the island itself $753.69 billion.<ref>{{cite web| last =Pepper| first =Margot|date=March–April 2009 | url =http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2009/0309pepper.html| title =The Costs of the Embargo: The 47-year-old blockade now costs the United States far more than it costs Cuba.| publisher =]| access-date =May 1, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cubavsbloqueo.cu/sites/default/files/InformeBloqueo2016ES.pdf|title=Informe de Cuba – Sobre la resolución 70/5 de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, titulada "Necesidad de poner fin al bloqueo económico, comercial y financiero impuesto por los Estados Unidos de América contra Cuba"|language=es|trans-title=Report of Cuba – On resolution 70/5 of the United Nations General Assembly, entitled "Necessity of ending the economic, commercial and financial embargo imposed by the United States of America against Cuba"|access-date=April 24, 2017|date=June 2016|archive-date=November 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114053901/http://www.cubavsbloqueo.cu/sites/default/files/InformeBloqueo2016ES.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ] (CPF) has provided more extreme data{{when|date=July 2021}}; its estimates put the cost of the embargo at $4.84 billion per year while costing Cuba $685 million per year.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} | |||
| According to critics of the embargo,{{who|date=July 2021}} one of the major problems with the embargo is that the United States is the only major country that has such an embargo against Cuba in place. Cuba still receives tourists and trade from other countries, making the embargo appear both illegitimate and pointless.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2013/01/16/its-time-for-the-u-s-to-end-its-senseless-embargo-of-cuba/|title=It's Time For The U.S. To End Its Senseless Embargo Of Cuba|date=January 16, 2013|work=Forbes|access-date=March 21, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| A 2015 report in ] estimated that the embargo had cost the Cuban economy $1.1 trillion in the 55 years since its inception, once inflation is taken into account.<ref name="aj170615">{{cite web |last1=Kennedy |first1=Robert |title=Unblocking long-suffering Cuba |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2015/6/17/el-bloqueo-55-years-of-obstructing-the-cuban-people |website=www.aljazeera.com |access-date=22 July 2021 |language=en |date=17 June 2015}}</ref> | |||
| ===Tourist restrictions=== | |||
| {{more citations needed|section|date=July 2021}} | |||
| ] is 90 miles (145 kilometers) south of ].]] | |||
| Under the Cuban Assets Control Regulations persons subject to US jurisdiction must obtain a license to engage in any travel-related transactions pursuant to travel to, from, and within Cuba. Transactions related solely to tourist travel are not licensable. | |||
| Spurred by a burgeoning interest in the assumed untapped product demand in Cuba, a growing number of ] in Congress, backed by ] and ] lawmakers who represent agribusiness, have tried each year since 2000 to water down or lift regulations preventing Americans from traveling to Cuba. Four times over that time period the US House of Representatives has adopted language lifting the travel ban, and in 2003 the ] followed suit for the first time. Each time President ] threatened to ] the bill. Faced with a veto threat, each year Congress dropped its attempt to lift the travel ban before sending legislation to the president. | |||
| Some US nationals circumvent the ban by traveling to Cuba from a different country, such as Mexico, ], ], or ]. Cuban immigration authorities do not routinely stamp passports, instead stamping a Cuban visa page which is provided, and not permanently affixed to the passport. However, the practice still opens U.S. citizens to a risk of prosecution and fines by the US government if discovered. Until July 20, 2015, there was no US Embassy or consulate in Cuba and United States representation was limited to a ]. | |||
| The US Treasury Department's ] (OFAC) considers any visit of more than one day to be '']'' proof of violation. OFAC also holds that US citizens may not receive goods or services for free from any Cuban national, eliminating any attempts to circumvent the regulation based on that premise. On July 25, 2011, OFAC declared that the "people to people" relaxation of restrictions on travel conceded by the Obama administration should not be mistakenly interpreted as promoting tourism. | |||
| On October 10, 2006, the United States announced the creation of a task force that will more aggressively pursue violations of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, with severe penalties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishpress.com/news.asp?id=146094|title=US tightens Cuba embargo enforcement|publisher=Agence France Presse|work=turkishpress.com|date=October 10, 2006|access-date=November 5, 2006 }}</ref> The regulations are still in force and are administered by OFAC. Criminal penalties for violating the embargo range up to ten years in prison, $1 million in corporate fines, and $250,000 in individual fines; civil penalties up to $55,000 per violation.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} | |||
| In September 2016, ''Newsweek'' reported that then future President Donald Trump's hotel company violated the embargo, spending a minimum of $68,000 for its 1998 foray into Cuba without US government approval. With Trump's knowledge, executives funneled the cash for the Cuba trip through an American consulting firm called Seven Arrows Investment and Development Corp. Once the business consultants traveled to Cuba and incurred the expenses for the venture, Seven Arrows instructed senior officers with Trump's company—then called Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts—how to make it appear legal by linking it after the fact to a charitable effort.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Eichenwald|first1=Kurt|title=How Donald Trump's Company Violated the United States Embargo Against Cuba|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2016/10/14/donald-trump-cuban-embargo-castro-violated-florida-504059.html|access-date=January 6, 2017|agency=Newsweek|date=September 29, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Eichenwald|first1=Kurt|title=Donald Trump Still Won't Tell the Truth About Cuba|url=http://www.newsweek.com/donald-trump-cuba-embargo-florida-fidel-castro-cuban-americans-havana-505067|access-date=January 6, 2017|agency=Newsweek|date=September 30, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| ==Imports and exports to and from Cuba== | |||
| ===United States=== | |||
| Since the ] was enacted in 2000, the trade of food and medicine goods is excluded from the embargo. However, complex licensing and regulatory requirements severely limit export of medicines, medical equipment and supplies, which contain anything produced or patented by the United States, to Cuba.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/amr250072009en.pdf |title=The US Embargo Against Cuba: Its Impact on Economic and Social Rights |publisher=] |year=2009 |access-date=4 November 2023 |quote=Under the TSRA, exports of food and agricultural products to Cuba remain regulated by the Department of Commerce and require a licence for export or re-export. The export of medicines and medical supplies continues to be severely limited. Although the TSRA contemplates the export of medicine, this legislation does not supersede the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 and therefore the necessity of a presidential certificate through on-site verifications remains in force.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Oliver |first1=Isabella |last2=Nodarse Venancio |first2=Mariakarla |date=4 February 2022 |url=https://www.wola.org/analysis/understanding-failure-of-us-cuba-embargo/ |title=Understanding the Failure of the U.S. Embargo on Cuba |publisher=] |access-date=12 October 2023 |quote=Its complex licensing requirements effectively prevent food, medicine, and medical equipment from reaching Cubans.}}</ref> In 2020, $176.8 million worth of goods were exported to Cuba from the US and $14.9 million imported to the US from Cuba.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c2390.html|title=Foreign Trade: Data|first=US Census Bureau Foreign Trade|last=Division|website=www.census.gov}}</ref> | |||
| ==Reactions== | |||
| ===Criticism of embargo laws and rules=== | |||
| ====United Nations==== | |||
| Since 1992, the UN General Assembly has passed a ] every year, except for 2020, condemning the ongoing impact of the embargo and declaring it in violation of the ] and of international law. There was no voting on this issue in 2020 due to the ].<ref>{{cite web|date=June 23, 2021|title=UN General Assembly calls for U.S. to end Cuba embargo for 29th consecutive year|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/06/1094612|access-date=June 24, 2021|website=UN News}}</ref><ref name="A/71/L.3">{{Cite web|url=https://undocs.org/A/71/L.3|title=A/71/L.3 - E - A/71/L.3|website=undocs.org}}</ref> Israel is the only country that routinely joins the US in voting against the resolution.<ref>'With the lonely support of only one ally, Israel, Washington has insisted on continuing six decades of crippling boycott on trade with Cuba despite overwhelming condemnation of it in the UN for the past 19 years.' Hugh O'Shaughnessy,{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/younger-castro-steers-cuba-to-a-new-revolution-6792209.html |title='Young Castro steers Cuba to a new revolution,' |location=London |work=The Independent |first=Hugh |last=O'Shaughnessy |access-date=February 12, 2012 |date=February 11, 2012}}</ref> Other countries that voted against the resolution in the past include ] in 1992, ] and ] in 1993, ] from 1995 to 1997, ] from 2000 to 2007, ] from 2004 to 2009 then once in 2012, and ] in 2019. 187 countries voted in favor of the resolution in 2023, with only the United States and Israel voting against it and ] abstaining.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/un-votes-end-us-embargo-cuba-us-israel-oppose-2023-11-02/ |title=U.N. votes to end US embargo on Cuba; US and Israel oppose |date=2 November 2023 |publisher=] |access-date=3 November 2023}}</ref> | |||
| {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" width="100%" | |||
| ! colspan="8" | UN Resolutions against the U.S. embargo on Cuba | |||
| |- | |||
| ! year | |||
| ! date | |||
| ! resolution number | |||
| ! link | |||
| ! for | |||
| ! against | |||
| ! abstention | |||
| ! voting against | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1992 | |||
| | November 24 | |||
| | 47/19 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/47/19 | |||
| (The 19th resolution of the 47th session of the UN General Assembly) | |||
| | 59 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 71 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Romania | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1993 | |||
| | November 3 | |||
| | 48/16 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/48/16 | |||
| | 88 | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | 57 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Albania, Paraguay | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1994 | |||
| | October 26 | |||
| | 49/9 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/49/9 | |||
| | 101 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 48 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1995 | |||
| | November 2 | |||
| | 50/10 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/50/10 | |||
| | 117 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 38 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Uzbekistan | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1996 | |||
| | November 12 | |||
| | 51/17 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/51/17 | |||
| | 138 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 25 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Uzbekistan | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1997 | |||
| | November 5 | |||
| | 52/10 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/52/10 | |||
| | 143 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 17 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Uzbekistan | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1998 | |||
| | October 14 | |||
| | 53/4 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/53/4 | |||
| | 157 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 12 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1999 | |||
| | November 9 | |||
| | 54/21 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/54/21 | |||
| | 155 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 8 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2000 | |||
| | November 9 | |||
| | 55/20 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/55/20 | |||
| | 167 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2001 | |||
| | November 27 | |||
| | 56/9 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/56/9 | |||
| | 167 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2002 | |||
| | November 12 | |||
| | 57/11 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/57/11 | |||
| | 173 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2003 | |||
| | November 4 | |||
| | 58/7 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/58/7 | |||
| | 179 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2004 | |||
| | October 28 | |||
| | 59/11 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/59/11 | |||
| | 179 | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | 1 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands, Palau | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2005 | |||
| | November 8 | |||
| | 60/12 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/60/12 | |||
| | 182 | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | 1 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands, Palau | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2006 | |||
| | November 8 | |||
| | 61/11 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/61/11 | |||
| | 183 | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | 1 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands, Palau | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2007 | |||
| | October 30 | |||
| | 62/3 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/62/3 | |||
| | 184 | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | 1 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Marshall Islands, Palau | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2008 | |||
| | October 29 | |||
| | 63/7 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/63/7 | |||
| | 185 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Palau | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2009 | |||
| | October 28 | |||
| | 64/6 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/64/6 | |||
| | 187 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Palau | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2010 | |||
| | October 26 | |||
| | 65/6 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/65/6 | |||
| | 187 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| |U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2011 | |||
| | October 25 | |||
| | 66/6 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/66/6 | |||
| | 186 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2012 | |||
| | November 13 | |||
| | 67/4 | |||
| | https://undocs.org/A/RES/67/4 | |||
| | 188 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Palau | |||
| |- | |||
| |2013 | |||
| |October 29 | |||
| |68/8 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/68/8 | |||
| | 188 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| |U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| |2014 | |||
| |October 28 | |||
| |69/5 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/69/5 | |||
| | 188 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| |U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| |2015 | |||
| |October 27 | |||
| |70/5 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/70/5 | |||
| | 191 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 0 | |||
| |U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| |2016 | |||
| |October 26 | |||
| |71/5 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/71/5 | |||
| | 191 | |||
| | 0 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |2017 | |||
| |November 1 | |||
| |72/4 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/72/4 | |||
| | 191 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 0 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2018 | |||
| | November 1 | |||
| |73/8 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/73/8 | |||
| | 189 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 0 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| |2019 | |||
| |November 7 | |||
| |74/7 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/74/7 | |||
| | 187 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | U.S., Israel, Brazil | |||
| |- | |||
| |2021 | |||
| |June 23 | |||
| |75/289 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/75/289 | |||
| | 184 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| |2022 | |||
| |November 3 | |||
| |77/7 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/A/Res/77/7 | |||
| | 185 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |- | |||
| |2023 | |||
| |November 2 | |||
| |78/38 | |||
| |https://undocs.org/en/A/78/L.5 | |||
| | 187 | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | 1 | |||
| | U.S., Israel | |||
| |} | |||
| {{quote box | |||
| | quote = Future students of American history will be scratching their heads about this case for decades to come. Our embargo and refusal to normalize diplomatic relations has nothing to do with communism. Otherwise, we wouldn't have had diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War, with China since Nixon, and with Vietnam despite our bitter war there. No, Cuba was pure politics. Though it started out to be a measure of an administration's resistance to Castro's politics, it very soon became a ] whereby first-generation Cuban-Americans wielded inordinate political power over both parties and constructed a veto over rational, mature diplomacy. | |||
| | source = —], former ], March 2011 <ref name = "HPHart">{{cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/gary-hart/fiction-in-foreign-policy_b_832321.html?view=print |title=Fiction in Foreign Policy |work=Huffington Post |first=Gary |last=Hart |date=March 7, 2011}}</ref> | width = 35% | align = right | |||
| }} | |||
| ====Response by governments==== | |||
| On May 1, 2009, Venezuelan President ], while speaking about his meeting US President Barack Obama at a summit days earlier, stated "if President Obama does not dismantle this savage blockade of the Cuban people, then it is all a lie, it will all be a great farce and the U.S. empire will be alive and well, threatening us."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/01/AR2009050103481.html |title=Chavez says Obama Must Prove Change After Handshake }} {{dead link|date=June 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} by Fabian Cambero, Reuters, May 1, 2009</ref> | |||
| The Helms-Burton Act has been the target of criticism from Canadian and European governments in particular, who object to what they say is the extraterritorial pretensions of a piece of legislation aimed at punishing non-U.S. corporations and non-U.S. investors who have economic interests in Cuba. In the ], Helms-Burton was mocked by the introduction of the ], which called for the return of property of ] seized by the American government as a result of the ] (the bill never became law). The ] has stated that it:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&mode=XML&reference=A4-1996-0329&language=EN |title=Report on the proposal for a Council Regulation (EC) on protecting against the effects of the application of certain legislation of certain third countries, and actions based thereon or resulting therefrom (COM(96)0420 - C4-0519/96 - 96/0217(CNS))}} European Parliament Official Report</ref> | |||
| {{blockquote|while reaffirming its concern to promote democratic reform in Cuba, recalled the deep concern expressed by the European Council over the extraterritorial effects of the "Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (Libertad) Act" adopted by the United States and similar pending legislation regarding Iran and Libya. It noted the widespread international objections to this legislation. It called upon President Clinton to waive the provisions of Title III and expressed serious concern at the measures already taken to implement Title IV of the Act. The Council identified a range of measures which could be deployed by the EU in response to the damage to the interests of EU companies resulting from the implementation of the Act. Among these are the following: | |||
| # a move to a WTO dispute settlement panel; | |||
| # changes in the procedures governing entry by representatives of U.S. companies to EU Member States; | |||
| # the use/introduction of legislation within the EU to neutralize the extraterritorial effects of the U.S. legislation; | |||
| # the establishment of a watch list of U.S. companies filing Title III actions.}} | |||
| ====Other critics==== | |||
| Some critics of the embargo say that the embargo helps the Cuban government more than it hurts it, by providing it with a bogeyman for all of Cuba's misfortunes. ] publicly shared the view that the embargo helps the Castros, saying that "It is my personal belief that the Castros do not want to see an end to the embargo and do no want to see normalization with the United States, because they would lose all of their excuses for what hasn't happened in Cuba in the last 50 years." Clinton said in the same interview that "we're open to changing with them."<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |title=Castros sabotage ending U.S. Cuba embargo: Clinton |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cuba-usa/castros-sabotage-ending-u-s-cuba-embargo-clinton-idUSTRE6385H220100409 |work=Reuters |date=April 9, 2010 |access-date=February 8, 2022}}</ref> | |||
| In a 2005 interview, ], who served as ] under Reagan, called the embargo "insane".<ref>{{cite video | people = George Shultz, Charlie Rose | title = Charlie Rose interview with George Shultz | url = http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1576985992050660771| publisher = Charlie Rose Inc.| date = December 22, 2005}}</ref> ], director of the ]'s Center for Trade Policy Studies, criticized the embargo in a June 2009 article:<ref>{{cite news |date= June 15, 2009 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2009/jun/15/cuba-us-trade-embargo-obama |title=The US embargo of Cuba is a Failure |location=London |work=The Guardian|first= Daniel |last= Griswold |access-date = April 7, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| {{blockquote|The embargo has been a failure by every measure. It has not changed the course or nature of the Cuban government. It has not liberated a single Cuban citizen. In fact, the embargo has made the Cuban people a bit more impoverished, without making them one bit more free. At the same time, it has deprived Americans of their freedom to travel and has cost US farmers and other producers billions of dollars of potential exports.}} | |||
| In June 2009, Venezuela commentator ] wrote in '']'': "The embargo is the perfect example used by anti-Americans everywhere to expose the hypocrisy of a superpower that punishes a small island while cozying to dictators elsewhere."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/201752 |date = June 22, 2009 | access-date=February 20, 2016| first= Moisés | last= Naím |title=The Havana Obsession: Why All Eyes are on a Bankrupt Island |website = ] }}</ref> Commentators cite examples such as ], ], and ], as regimes that the United States has varying economic relations with. | |||
| Some US business leaders openly call for an end to the embargo. They argue, as long as the embargo continues, non-US foreign businesses in Cuba that violate the embargo, do not have to compete with US businesses, and thus, will have a head start when and if the embargo is lifted.<ref>{{cite web | last =Chirinos | first =Fanny S.| date =March 30, 2006| url =http://www.caller.com/ccct/local_news/article/0,1641,CCCT_811_4582172,00.html| title =Bonilla calls for end to Cuba trade embargo| publisher =caller.com| access-date =October 22, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012195201/http://caller.com/ccct/local_news/article/0,1641,CCCT_811_4582172,00.html |archive-date = October 12, 2007}}</ref> | |||
| Some religious leaders oppose the embargo for a variety of reasons, including humanitarian and economic restrictions the embargo imposes on Cubans. ] called for the end to the embargo during his 1979 pastoral visit to Mexico.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spokesman.com/stories/1998/jan/25/pope-urges-catholics-to-speak-out-cuban-church |date=January 25, 1998 | work=Spokesman-Review |title= Pope Urges Catholics To Speak Out Cuban Church Must Take Stands For Freedom, Pontiff Says |first=Molly |last=Moore| agency=Washington Post }}</ref> ] called the embargo a "historic mistake" while visiting the island on January 25, 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles4/JacobseCubaVisit.php |title=Patriarch Bartholomew's Visit to Cuba: A Missed Opportunity for Human Rights |access-date=June 15, 2012 |archive-date=October 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017111530/http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles4/JacobseCubaVisit.php |url-status=dead }} OrthodoxyToday.org: Rev. Johannes L. Jacobse.</ref> Rev. ], Rev. ], and Minister ] have also publicly opposed the embargo. On May 15, 2002, former President Carter spoke in Havana, calling for an end to the embargo, saying "Our two nations have been trapped in a destructive state of belligerence for 42 years, and it is time for us to change our relationship." The US bishops called for an end to the embargo on Cuba, after ] 2012 visit to the island.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.va/en/news/us-bishops-call-for-end-to-cuba-embargo |title=US bishops call for end to Cuba embargo |publisher=News.va |date=April 22, 2012 |access-date=June 9, 2012 |archive-date=February 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211183636/http://www.news.va/en/news/us-bishops-call-for-end-to-cuba-embargo |url-status=dead }}</ref> | |||
| Film director ] challenged the embargo by bringing ] in need of health care to Cuba to obtain ].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/27/weekinreview/27depalma.html |title= 'Sicko', Castro and the '120 Years Club' |access-date=August 17, 2008 |work=] | first=Anthony | last=Depalma | date=May 27, 2007 }}</ref> | |||
| In June 2011, ], the Democratic nominee for president in ], blamed "embittered Cuban exiles in Miami" for keeping the embargo alive. Before visiting Cuba, he said:<ref name="HeraldMcGovern">{{cite news| url=https://www.victoriaadvocate.com/news/2011/jun/30/bc-ne-mcgovern-cuba/ |title=George McGovern heading to Cuba to visit Castro|date=June 30, 2011|first=Margery A.|last=Beck|agency=Associated Press|access-date=April 24, 2017}}</ref> | |||
| {{blockquote|It's a stupid policy. There's no reason why we can't be friends with the Cubans, and vice versa. A lot of them have relatives in the United States, and some Americans have relatives in Cuba, so we should have freedom of travel ... We seem to think it's safe to open the door to a billion communists in China but for some reason, we're scared to death of the Cubans.}} | |||
| Barack Obama discussed easing the embargo during his 2008 campaign for president of the US,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Luo |first1=Michael |title=McCain Attacks Obama on Cuba|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/20/us/politics/20cnd-mccain.html|access-date=April 1, 2016|work=]|date=May 20, 2008}}</ref> though he promised to maintain it.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Zeleny |first1=Jeff |title=Obama Discusses Cuba Policy|url=http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/23/obama-discusses-cuba-policy/|access-date=April 1, 2016|work=]|date=May 23, 2008}}</ref> In December 2014, he called the embargo a failure, asking Congress to enact legislation to lift it entirely.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/12/17/statement-president-cuba-policy-changes | date= December 17, 2014|work=] |title= Statement by the President on Cuba Policy Changes|via=] | access-date= April 1, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| ==Polling data and public opinion in the US== | |||
| A 2008 '']''/Gallup Poll indicated that Americans believed that diplomatic relations "should" be re-established with Cuba, with 61% in favor and 31% opposed.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.pollingreport.com/cuba.htm |title= Polling Report on Cuba, AP/Ipsos Poll, Jan 30 – Feb 1, 2007 |publisher= Pollingreport.com |access-date= June 15, 2012 }}</ref> | |||
| In January 2012, an ] poll showed that 57% of Americans called for ending the travel ban that prevented most Americans from visiting Cuba, with 27% disagreeing and 16% not sure.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://angusreid.org/most-americans-willing-to-re-establish-ties-with-cuba/ |title= Most Americans Willing to Re-establish Ties with Cuba |publisher= Angus-reid.com |access-date= December 6, 2013 |archive-date= March 21, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170321104312/http://angusreid.org/most-americans-willing-to-re-establish-ties-with-cuba/ |url-status= dead }}</ref> | |||
| The Cuban Research Institute at ] has conducted thirteen polls (from 1991 to 2020) of ] in ]<ref>{{cite web |publisher=] |title=FIU Cuba Poll |accessdate=2021-09-01 |url=https://cri.fiu.edu/research/cuba-poll/}}</ref> In 1991, support for the embargo was 67.9% (5.5% don't know) shortly after the end of the Cold War, bottoming out at 31.6% (9.4% don't know) in 2016 during the Cuban thaw, and back up to 54% (8% don't know) in 2020 after the Trump administration reversed the thaw. | |||
| In the US, lobbying groups such as ] advocate for the end of the embargo. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Wikiquote}} | |||
| * ] (sanctions against Japan) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| {{Cuba–United States relations}} | |||
| {{Cuba topics}} | |||
| {{Cold War}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:United States Embargo Against Cuba}} | |||
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Revision as of 06:44, 16 December 2023
Ongoing restriction on trade with Cuba by the United States
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After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party.
After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party.After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party. After building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to its state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Jackson. After serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only person to serve both as Speaker and U.S. president. Polk left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee, winning in 1839 but losing in 1841 and 1843. He was a dark-horse candidate in the 1844 presidential election as the Democratic Party nominee; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could gain the necessary two-thirds majority. In the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the Whig Party.