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| {{Infobox Writer | |||
| | name = Ayn Rand | |||
| | image = Ayn_Rand1.jpg | |||
| | imagesize = 150px | |||
| | birth_date = ], ] | |||
| | birth_place = {{flagicon|Russia}} ] ] | |||
| | death_date = ], ] | |||
| | death_place = {{flagicon|United States}} ] | |||
| | occupation = novelist, philosopher, playwright, screenwriter | |||
| | magnum_opus = '']'' | |||
| | influences = ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| | influenced = ], ], ], ], ] ], ], ], ], ], ], ]}} | |||
| '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPA2|aɪn ɹænd}}, {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}} – ] ]), born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum''' ({{lang-ru|Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум}}), was a ]n-born ] novelist and philosopher,<ref>One source notes: "Perhaps because she so eschewed academic philosophy, and because her works are rightly considered to be works of literature, Objectivist philosophy is regularly omitted from academic philosophy. Yet throughout literary academia, Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher. Her works merit consideration as works of philosophy in their own right." (Jenny Heyl, 1995, as cited in {{cite book|title=Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand|editor=Mimi R Gladstein, Chris Matthew Sciabarra(eds)|id=ISBN 0-271-01831-3|publisher=Penn State Press|year=1999}}, )</ref> best known for developing ] and for writing the novels ''],'' ''],'' '']'' and the ] ''].'' <br />She was a broadly influential figure in post-WWII America, her work attracting both enthusiastic admiration and scathing denunciations. | |||
| ==Introduction== | |||
| Rand's writing (both fiction and non-fiction) emphasizes the philosophic concepts of ] in ], ] in ], and ] in ethics. In politics she was a proponent of ] and a staunch defender of ], believing that the sole function of a proper government was protection of the individual's right to his life, liberty, and property. | |||
| DICK HEAD | |||
| She believed that individuals must choose their values and actions solely by reason, and that "Man — every man — is an end in himself, not the means to the ends of others." According to Rand, the individual "must exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself. The pursuit of his own rational self-interest and of his own happiness is the highest moral purpose of his life." | |||
| Rand decried the initiation of force and fraud, and held that government action should consist only in protecting citizens from criminal behavior (via the police) and foreign hostility (via the military) and in maintaining a system of courts to decide guilt or innocence and to objectively resolve disputes. Her politics are generally described as ] and ], though she did not use the first term and disavowed any connection to the second.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=education_campus_libertarians|title="Ayn Rand's Q&A on Libertarians."|accessdate=2006-03-22}} at the ]. Rand stated in 1980, "I’ve read nothing by a Libertarian...that wasn’t my ideas badly mishandled — i.e., had the teeth pulled out of them — with no credit given."</ref> | |||
| Rand, a self-described hero-worshiper, stated in her book ''Romantic Manifesto'' that the goal of her writing was "the projection of an ideal man." In reference to her philosophy, ], she said: "My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." (Appendix to '']'') | |||
| ==Early life== | |||
| ===Childhood and education=== | |||
| Rand was born in ], ], and was the eldest of three daughters (Alisa, Natasha, and Nora)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asenseoflife.com/synopsis.html|title=''A Sense of Life''|accessdate=2006-03-22}} website of the documentary film about Rand's life.</ref> of a ]ish family. Her parents, Zinovy Zacharovich Rosenbaum and Anna Borisovna Rosenbaum, were ] and largely non-observant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/rad/PubRadReviews/fc1.html|title="Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical - Published Reviews."|accessdate=2006-03-23}}</ref> From an early age, she displayed an interest in literature and films. She started writing screenplays and novels at the age of seven. | |||
| Her mother taught her French and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys, where Rand found her first childhood hero: Cyrus Paltons, an Indian army officer in a ]-style story by ], called "The Mysterious Valley".<ref name="Chronology">{{cite web|title="Ayn Rand Chronology"|url=http://www.atlassociety.org/rand_chronology.asp|accessdate=2006-03-23}}</ref> Throughout her youth, she read the novels of ], ] and other Romantic writers, and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the ] as a whole. She discovered ] at the age of thirteen, and fell deeply in love with his novels. Later, she cited him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature.<ref> Rand wrote the ideal educational curriculum would be "] in philosophy, ] in economics, ] in education, ] in literature." Long, Roderick: {{cite web|url=http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?Id=1738|title="Ayn Rand's Contribution to the Cause of Freedom"|date=]}}</ref> | |||
| ] occupies a group of early 18th-century buildings on the ] embankment of ].]]Rand was twelve at the time of the ], and her family life was disrupted by the rise of the ] party. Her father's pharmacy was confiscated by the Soviets, and the family fled to ] to recover financially. When Crimea fell to the Bolsheviks in 1921, Rand burned her diary, which contained vitriolic anti-Soviet writings.<ref name="Chronology"/> Rand then returned to St. Petersburg ("Petrograd") to attend university.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/r/rand.htm|title="Ayn Rand"|date=]}} at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> She studied philosophy and history at the ]. Her major literary discoveries were the works of ], ] and ]. She admired Rostand for his richly romantic imagination and Schiller for his grand, heroic scale. She admired Dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments, but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life.<ref> Roger Donway, {{cite web|url=http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ct-104-Dostoevsky_Nietzsche_Ayn_Rands_Moral_Triad.aspx|title="Dostoevsky, Nietzsche, and Ayn Rand's Moral Triad."|accessdate=2006-03-23}} Donway writes that Rand's objectivism "brought full circle the three-way argument that Chernyshevsky and Pisarev; the Underground Man and Nietzsche; and Dostoevsky the Christian philosopher conducted in Russia after 1860."</ref> She completed a three-year program in the department of Social Pedagogy that included history, philology and law, and received Certificate of Graduation (Diploma No. 1552) on ] ].<ref>Sciabarra, Chris Matthew. {{cite web|title="The Rand Transcript."|url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm| | |||
| accessdate=2006-03-23}}</ref> She also encountered the philosophical ideas of ], and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual who embraced egoism and rejected altruism in ''],'' but later rejected his philosophical center of "might is right" when she discovered more of his writings. | |||
| Rand continued to write short stories and screenplays. She entered the State Institute for Cinema Arts in 1924 to study screenwriting; in late 1925, however, she was granted a ] to visit American relatives. | |||
| ===Immigration and marriage=== | |||
| In February 1926, she arrived in the ] at the age of 21, entering by ship through ], which would ultimately become her home. She was profoundly moved by the ], later describing it in one of her novels, ''The Fountainhead'': "I would give the greatest sunset in the world for one sight of New York's skyline, the sky over New York and the will of man made visible. What other religion do we need? I feel that if a war came to threaten this, I would throw myself into space, over the city, and protect these buildings with my body."<ref>Miller, Eric {{cite web|url=http://www.newcolonist.com/aynrand.html|title="City of Life: Ayn Rand's New York."|date=]}}</ref> | |||
| After a brief stay with her relatives in ], she resolved never to return to the ], and set out for ] to become a ]. Already using ''Rand'' as a ] ]<ref name="name-ari"/> of her surname, she then adopted the name ''Ayn'', an adaptation of a "Finnish feminine name", most likely "Aino" or "Aina".<ref name="name-ari"> | |||
| ARI Biographical researcher Drs. Gotthelf and Berliner note that while still in Russia, Anna used the name "Rand", which is a cyrillic contraction of Rosenbaum. They also note the Finnish origin of Ayn. | |||
| {{cite web|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_faq_index2#ar_q3b|title="What is the origin of "Rand"?"|accessdate=2006-03-28}} | |||
| </ref> She might have been referring to the Finnish author ]. Her surname may also have come from the Estonian word ''rand'', meaning ''coast'' or ''shore''.<ref name=estonian>{{cite web | url=http://dict.ibs.ee/translate.cgi?word=rand&language=Estonian |title = Estonian Dictionary | accessdate = 2007-03-16 }}</ref><!-- | |||
| This was in the talk-archive (#2), citing this article's early history (Aug 12 2005): | |||
| A possibly more correct theory for her last name is that it has the same source as her first name, | |||
| from a favorite Finnish-Estonian, female, liberated author Aino Kallas and her typewriter (Sperry-Rand). Ayn is the Anglicized version of the Finnish, | |||
| additionally mythologic, Kalevala name Aino (the one and only) and Ayn is thus pronounced Ein (eye + n). | |||
| Then this (archive 6 I think): | |||
| She changed her name to protect her family still living in the Soviet Union from reprisals; she also saw it as a way to break with her past | |||
| and start a new life in the US. She did not consider this an act of bowing to "societal pressure," as she stated that "morality ends where a gun begins" | |||
| and that "one doesn't stop the juggernaut by throwing oneself in front of it." I don't know why Branden changed his name from Blumenthal; | |||
| if there's a citation that he did it in deference to "societal pressure," than it belongs. Until then, I'm deleting it. LaszloWalrus 01:43, 25 March 2006 (UTC) | |||
| --> | |||
| Initially, Rand struggled in ] and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. A chance face-to-face meeting with famed director ] led to a job as an ] in his film ''],'' and subsequent work as a script reader.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_aynrand_biography|title="Ayn Rand Biography"|accessdate=2006-03-23}} at AynRand.org </ref> She also worked as the head of the costume department at ] Studios.<ref name="Leiendecker"> Leiendecker, Harold. {{cite web|url=http://www.eckerd.edu/aspec/writers/atlas_shrugged.htm|title="Atlas Shrugged."|accessdate=2006-03-30}}</ref> While working on the film, she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, ], who caught her eye. The two married on ], ], and remained married for fifty years, until O'Connor's death in 1979 at the age of 82. In 1931, Rand became a ] of the United States; she was fiercely proud of the United States, and in later years said to the graduating class at ], "I can say - not as a patriotic bromide, but with full knowledge of the necessary metaphysical, epistemological, ethical, political and aesthetic roots - that the United States of America is the greatest, the noblest and, in its original founding principles, the only moral country in the history of the world."<ref> Rand, Ayn. {{cite web|title="Philosophy: Who Needs It?"|url=http://gos.sbc.edu/r/rand.html|accessdate=2006-03-31}} Address to the Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974. </ref> | |||
| ==Fiction== | |||
| Rand viewed herself equally as a novelist and a philosopher, as she said "(I am) both, and for the same reason." It has been suggested that Rand's practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non-fiction books aimed at a general audience, rather than publications in ]ed journals, have encouraged a negative view.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Rand's defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction - including ], ], ] and ], and that philosophers such as ] presented their philosophies in both fictional and non-fictional forms. | |||
| In an article about Rand, that appeared in ] in 1991, it is stated that "Rand’s novels sell some 300,000 copies a year, exhorting readers to think big about themselves, build big and earn big. New editions of all her books carry postcards for readers who might be inclined to learn more about Objectivism, the author’s credo, a blending of free markets, reason and individualism."<ref>''Still Spouting," The Economist, November 25, 1999</ref> | |||
| ===Early works=== | |||
| Her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''Red Pawn'' in 1932 to ]: "] later considered it for ], but Russian scenarios were out of favour and it was ditched."<ref name="Turner">Turner, Jenny. {{cite web|title="As Astonishing as Elvis"|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n23/turn03_.html|date=]}} Review of Jeff Briting's biography, ''Ayn Rand''.</ref> Rand then wrote the play '']'' in 1934, which was produced on ]. The play was a ] in which a jury chosen from the audience decided the verdict, leading to one of two possible endings.<ref> "A Sense of Life" homepage. </ref> | |||
| Rand then published two novels, '']'' (1936), and '']'' (1938): "Rand described ''We the Living'' as the most autobiographical of her novels, its theme being the brutality of life under communist rule in Russia."<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/r/rand.htm|title="Ayn Rand"|date=2006-03023}} at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</ref> Its harsh anti-communist tone met with mixed reviews in the U.S., where the period of ] was sometimes known as "]" in reference to the high-water mark of sympathy for socialist ideals. Stephen Cox, at ], observed that ''We the Living'' "was published at the height of Russian socialism's popularity among leaders of American opinion. It failed to attract an audience."<ref name="Cox">Cox, Stephen. {{cite web|title="Anthem: An appreciation."|url=http://www.theatlassociety.org/cox_anthem_appreciation.asp|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> | |||
| Frank O'Connor and Ayn Rand spent the summer of 1937 in ], while Frank worked in ],<ref name="Cox"/> and Ayn planned ''Anthem,'' a ] vision of a futuristic society where collectivism has triumphed. ''Anthem'' did not find a publisher in the United States and was first published in England. | |||
| ===The Fountainhead=== | |||
| {{Main|The Fountainhead}} | |||
| Rand's first major professional success came with her best-selling novel '']'' (1943), which she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel was rejected by twelve publishers. It was finally accepted by the ] publishing house, thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board, Archibald Ogden, who praised the book in the highest terms ("If this is not the book for you, then I am not the editor for you.") and finally prevailed.<ref name="Cato"> ], {{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/special/threewomen/fountainhead.html|title="''The Fountainhead''"|accessdate=2006-03-30}}</ref> Eventually, ''The Fountainhead'' was a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1949 it was made into a ]. In the sixty years since it was published, Rand's novel has sold six million copies, and continues to sell about 100,000 copies per year.<ref name="Cato"/> | |||
| Following the success of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand wrote screenplays for two movies, '']'' and ''You Came Along''. | |||
| ===Atlas Shrugged=== | |||
| {{Main|Atlas Shrugged}} | |||
| ]," the largest sculptural work at ] in ], by Lee Lawrie and Rene Chambellan, in the ] style. (1936)]]Rand's ], ''],'' was published in 1957. Due to the success of ''The Fountainhead,'' the initial printing was 100,000 copies,<ref>]. {{cite web|title="Big Sister is Watching You."|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/flashback/flashback200501050715.asp|accessdate=2006-03-24}} Reprint of contemporary review of ''Atlas Shrugged'' from ''].''</ref> and the book went on to become an international bestseller. (The frequent claim<ref>{{cite web|title=Atlas Shrugged review at Amazon.com|url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0452011876/ref=dp_proddesc_2/002-9125768-7844058?%5Fencoding=UTF8&n=283155&v=glance|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> that ''Atlas Shrugged'' was later found to be the "second most influential book in America, after ],"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=%22Atlas+Shrugged%22+most+popular+Library+of+Congress&btnG=Search|title=Google.com search|accessdate=2006-03-24}} showing this widespread claim.</ref> may be an exaggeration of the findings of one 1991 survey; however, it has been cited in numerous interviews as the book that most influenced the subject.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/books/rand/atlas/faq.html#Q6.4|title=Rand FAQ at Noble Soul|accessdate=2006-03-25}} Provides detail about the actual survey and findings.</ref><ref>Salmonson, Jessica Amanda. {{cite web|url=http://www.violetbooks.com/aynrand.html|title="'Ayn Rand, More Popular than God!' Objectivists Allege!"|accessdate=2006-03-24}} Although the author appears to have a strong dislike of Rand and her supporters, her conclusions about the "Book of the Month Club" survey appear to be supported.</ref> | |||
| ''Atlas Shrugged'' is often seen as Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction. In its appendix, she offered this summary: | |||
| :"My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." | |||
| The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is "The role of man's mind in society." Rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists. This led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of America go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway. The American economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse. The government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns. The novel, which includes elements of mystery and science fiction, deals with issues as wide-ranging as sex, music, medicine, politics and human ability. | |||
| ==Philosophy and the Objectivist movement== | |||
| {{Main|Objectivism (Ayn Rand)}} | |||
| Rand's Objectivist philosophy encompasses positions on ], ], ], ] and ]. Along with ], his wife ], and others including ] and ] (jokingly designated "]"), Rand launched the ] movement to promote her philosophy. | |||
| ===Philosophical influences=== | |||
| She was greatly influenced by ]. Some have observed parallels with ], and she was vociferously opposed to some of the views of ]. Rand also claimed to share intellectual lineage with ], who conceptualized the ideas that individuals "own themselves," have a right to the products of their own labor, and have ] to life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness and property,<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.mondopolitico.com/ideologies/atlantis/whatisobjectivism.htm|title="What is objectivism?"|accessdate=2006-04-10}}. Refers to a Leonard Peikoff lecture describing the connection between Rand and ]'s ] (1689).</ref> and more generally with the philosophies of the ] and the ]. She occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of, for example, ] and ]. She seems also to have respected the 20th-century American rationalist ], who, like Rand, believed that "there has been no period in the past two thousand years when have undergone a bombardment so varied, so competent, so massive and sustained as in the last half-century."<ref> Branden, Nathaniel. {{cite web|url=http://www.nathanielbranden.com/catalog/articles_essays/review_of_reason.html|title="Review of ''Reason and Analysis''"|accessdate=2006-04-10}} A review of Blanshard's book, originally published in ''The Objectivist Newsletter'', February 1963.</ref> | |||
| ====Aristotle==== | |||
| Rand's greatest influence was ], especially '']'' ("Logic"); she considered Aristotle the greatest philosopher.<ref>Long, Roderick T. {{cite web|title="Ayn Rand's contribution to the cause of freedom."|url=http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?Id=1738|date=]}}: "Rand always firmly insisted that Aristotle was the greatest and that Thomas Aquinas was the second greatest—her own atheism notwithstanding."</ref> In particular, her philosophy reflects an Aristotelian ] and ] – both Aristotle and Rand argued that "there exists an objective reality that is independent of mind and that is capable of being known."<ref name="Sternberg"> Sternberg, Elaine. {{cite web|title="Why Ayn Rand Matters: Metaphysics, Morals, and Liberty.|url=http://www.dailyspeculations.com/Ayn%20Rand/Ayn-Rand-posts.html|accessdate=2006-04-02}}</ref> Although Rand was ultimately critical of Aristotle's ethics, others have noted her egoistic ethics "is of the '']'' type, close to Aristotle's own...a system of guidelines required by human beings to live their lives successfully, to flourish, to survive as 'man qua man.' "<ref name="Machan"> Machan, Tibor. {{cite web|url=http://www.freemarketnews.com/Analysis/117/3475/2006-01-18.asp?nid=3475&wid=117|title="Cooper on Rand & Aristotle."|accessdate=2006-04-02}}</ref> Younkins argued "that her philosophy diverges from Aristotle’s by considering ] as epistemological and contextual instead of as metaphysical. She envisions Aristotle as a philosophical intuitivist who declared the existence of essences within concretes."<ref name="Younkins"> Younkins, Edward W. {{cite web|title="Aristotle: Ayn Rand's Acknowledged Teacher"|url=http://rebirthofreason.com/Articles/Younkins/Aristotle_Ayn_Rands_Acknowledged_Teacher.shtml|accessdate=2006-04-03}}</ref> | |||
| ====Nietzsche==== | |||
| In her early life, Rand admired the work of ], and did share "Nietzsche's reverence for human potential and his loathing of Christianity and the philosophy of Immanuel Kant,"<ref name="Hicks"> Hicks, Stephen. {{cite web|url=http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ct-184-Big_Game_Small_Gun.aspx|title="Big Game, Small Gun?"|accessdate=2006-03-30}} A review of Ronald E. Merrill's ''The Ideas of Ayn Rand''.</ref> but eventually became critical, seeing his philosophy as emphasizing emotion over reason and subjective interpretation of reality over actual reality.<ref name="Hicks"/> There is debate about the extent of the relationship between Rand's views and Nietzsche's, and over what seemed to be an evolution of Rand's view of Nietzsche. Allan Gotthelf, in ''On Ayn Rand'', describes the first edition of ''We the Living'' as very sympathetic to Nietzschean ideas. Bjorn Faulkner and Karen Andre, characters from ''The Night of January 16th'', exemplify certain aspects of Nietzsche's views. Ronald Merrill, author of ''The Ideas of Ayn Rand'' identified a passage in ''We the Living'' that Rand had omitted from the 1959 reprint: "In it, the heroine entertains (though finally rejects) sentiments explicitly attributed to Nietzsche about the justice of sacrificing the weak for the strong."<ref name="McLemee"> McLemee, Scott. {{cite web|title="The Heirs of Ayn Rand."|url=http://www.mclemee.com/id39.html|accessdate=2006-04-03}} originally in ''Lingua Franca'' , September 1999. </ref> Rand herself denied a close intellectual relationship with Nietzsche and characterized changes in later editions of ''We the Living'' as stylistic and grammatical. | |||
| The destruction of Gail Wynand in '']'' is an example of her later view, a rejection of Nietzsche, that the great cannot succeed by sacrificing the masses: "her journals suggest a rejection of traditional false-alternative ethics. Her May 15 entry, for example, identifies the error of Nietzscheans such as Gail Wynand: in trying to achieve power, they use the masses, but at the cost of their ideals and standards, and thus become "a slave to those masses." The independent man, therefore, will not make his success dependent upon the masses."<ref name="Hicks"/> Although Rand disagreed with many of Nietzsche's ideas, the introduction to the 25th anniversary edition of '']'' concludes with Nietzsche's statement, "The noble soul has reverence for itself." | |||
| ====Kant==== | |||
| {{see also|Critique of Pure Reason}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Rand was deeply opposed to the philosophy of ]. Their divergence is greatest in ] and ], particularly with regard to Kant's analytic-synthetic dichotomy, rather than the ] of Kant's well known ] (her critique of Kant's ethics is directly rooted in Kant's metaphysics and epistemology). Rand and Kant had significantly different theories of concepts, identity and consciousness: In ], reason is the highest virtue, and reason and logic can be used to understand objective reality. Kant believed that we cannot have certain knowledge about the true nature of reality ("things-in themselves"), but only of the manner in which we perceive reality. For example, we can know for certain that we are unable to conceive of an object which is not extended - i.e., occupies physical space - but it does not follow that no object that is not extended can exist. Rand believed that if an object has an effect upon the senses, then that effect upon the senses gives us knowledge about the object itself. At the most basic level, it informs us that that object is of a particular character such that when it interacts with one's sense organs it causes a particular sensation, and that is knowledge about a quality of the object itself. In Rand's view, Kant's dichotomy severed rationality and reason from the real world. In Rand's words, <blockquote>"I have mentioned in many articles that Kant is the chief destroyer of the modern world... You will find that on every fundamental issue, Kant's philosophy is the exact opposite of Objectivism."<ref name="Hsieh"> Hsieh, Diana. {{cite web|title="David Kelley versus Ayn Rand on Kant."|url=http://www.dianahsieh.com/blog/2006/02/david-kelley-versus-ayn-rand-on-kant.html|accessdate=2006-03-30}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| In the final issue of ''The Objectivist,'' she further wrote, <blockquote>"Suppose you met a twisted, tormented young man and... discovered that he was brought up by a man-hating monster who worked systematically to paralyze his mind, destroy his self-confidence, obliterate his capacity for enjoyment and undercut his every attempt to escape... Western civilization is in that young man's position. The monster is Immanuel Kant."<ref name="Hsieh"> Hsieh, Diana. {{cite web|title="David Kelley versus Ayn Rand on Kant."|url=http://www.dianahsieh.com/blog/2006/02/david-kelley-versus-ayn-rand-on-kant.html|accessdate=2006-03-30}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| A more complicated difference between Ayn Rand's metaphysics and that of Immanuel Kant is the reality of space, time and number. For Kant, these are merely built into the human mode of perception and are not present in any thing-in-itself. One might hope that the following analogy applies: Color is not present in an object, but is purely a construct of our minds. Yet this is not enough for Kant, because color corresponds to some objective quality (quality of the object) while space, time and number have no such relationship to objectivity. (See ''Critique of Pure Reason'' B38-B45.) Rand would most certainly have disagreed with this concept, taking the fact that our faculty of perception has a particular (limited) identity not to be a charge against it, but a demonstration of its objectivity. This is a subtle though not insignificant point of difference that cannot be uncontroversially explicated in a few words. | |||
| ===Founds "The Collective"=== | |||
| {{main|The Ayn Rand Collective|Objectivist movement}} | |||
| In 1950 Rand moved to 120 East 34th Street<ref> Branden, Nathaniel. {{cite web|title="Devers Branden and Ayn Rand."|url=http://rous.redbarn.org/objectivism/writing/NathanielBranden/DeversAndAyn.html|accessdate=2006-04-06}}</ref> in ], and formed a group with the deliberately ironic name "]," which included future Federal Reserve chairman ] and a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later ]), who had been profoundly influenced by ''The Fountainhead.'' According to Branden, "I wrote Miss Rand a letter in 1949... I was invited to her home for a personal meeting in March, 1950, a month before I turned twenty."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nathanielbranden.com/catalog/rand.php#|title=Nathaniel Branden discusses his relationship with Rand.|date=]}}</ref> | |||
| The group originally started out as informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy; later the Collective would proceed to play a larger, more formal role, helping edit '']'' and promoting Rand's philosophy through the ] ("the N.B.I.") Many Collective members gave lectures at the NBI and in cities across the United States, while others wrote articles for its sister newsletter, ''].'' | |||
| After several years, Rand and Branden's friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair, despite the fact that both were married at the time. Their spouses were persuaded to accept this affair but it eventually led to Branden's separation from and then divorce of his wife. | |||
| Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through both her fiction and non-fiction works, and by giving talks at several east-coast universities, largely through the ] which Branden established to promote her philosophy: "''],'' later expanded and renamed simply ''The Objectivist'' contained essays by Rand, Branden, and other associates...that analyzed current political events and applied the principles of Objectivism to everyday life."<ref name="JVL"/> Rand later published some of these in book form. | |||
| ==Political and social views== | |||
| Rand held that the only moral social system is '']'' ]. Her political views were strongly ] and hence ] and ]. She exalted what she saw as the heroic ] of rational egoism and individualism. As a champion of rationality, Rand also had a strong opposition to ] and ], which she believed helped foster a crippling culture acting against individual human happiness and success. Rand detested many prominent ] and ] politicians of her time, including prominent anti-Communists, such as ], ], ], and ].<ref> NB that Rand also argued that '']'' was a myth used as an ] accusation to discredit anti-Communists.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}</ref> She opposed US involvement in ], ]<ref name="WWII"> {{cite web|title="Ayn Rand on WWII"|url=http://ariwatch.com/AynRandOnWWII.htm|accessdate=2006-04-07}} Excerpts from Rand's writing, cited at the ARI Watch website.</ref> and the ], although she also strongly denounced ]: "When a nation resorts to war, it has some purpose, rightly or wrongly, something to fight for – and the only justifiable purpose is self-defense."<ref name="honoringvirtue"> {{cite web|url=http://ariwatch.com/HonoringVirtue.htm|title="Honoring Virtue"|accessdate=2006-04-06}} at the ARI website.</ref> | |||
| She opposed U.S. involvement in the ], "If you want to see the ultimate, suicidal extreme of altruism, on an international scale, observe the war in Vietnam – a war in which American soldiers are dying for no purpose whatever,"<ref name="honoringvirtue"/> but also felt that unilateral American withdrawal would be a mistake of ] that would embolden communists and the Soviet Union.<ref name="WWII"/> She said also that she considered the anti-Communist ] "futile, because they are not for capitalism but merely against communism." | |||
| ===Economics=== | |||
| Generally, her political thought is in the tradition of ]. She expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of ] and ]. The ] says that "it was largely as a result of Ayn's efforts that the work of von Mises began to reach its potential audience."<ref>Long, Roderick T. {{cite web|url=http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?Id=1738|title="Ayn Rand's Contributions to the Cause of Freedom."|accessdate=2006-03-26}} Long also cites Barbara Branden's ''The Passion of Ayn Rand'' as the source for this claim.</ref> Later Objectivists, such as ], have claimed that Rand's economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of ], though Rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work. | |||
| ===Gender, sex, and race=== | |||
| Rand's views on ]s have created some controversy. While her books championed men and women as intellectual equals (for example, Dagny Taggart, the protagonist of ''Atlas Shrugged'' was a hands-on railroad executive), she thought that the differences in the physiology of men and women led to fundamental psychological differences that were the source of gender roles. Rand denied endorsing any kind of power difference between men and women, stating that metaphysical dominance in sexual relations refers to the man's role as the prime mover in sex and the necessity of male arousal for sex to occur.<ref name="Ayn Rand Answers">Rand, Ayn. Ayn Rand Answers: The Best of Her Q and A, (2006) ISBN 0451216652 </ref> According to Rand, "For a woman ''qua'' woman, the essence of femininity is hero-worship – the desire to look up to man." (1968) | |||
| Rand's theory of sex is implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories. Far from being a debasing animal instinct, she believed that sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values. Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values – a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract. In Atlas Shrugged, she writes "Tell me what a man finds sexually attractive and I will tell you his entire philosophy of life. Show me the woman he sleeps with and I will tell you his valuation of himself."<ref name="AtlasShruggedSex">Rand, Ayn. Atlas Shrugged, p453</ref> | |||
| In a ] magazine interview, Rand stated that women are not psychologically suited to be President and strongly opposed the modern ] movement, despite supporting some of its goals.<ref name="new left">Rand, Ayn. The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution, (1993) ISBN 0-452-01125-6</ref> Feminist author ] called Rand "a traitor to her own sex," while others, including ] and the contributors to 1999's ''Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand,'' have noted Rand's "fiercely independent – and unapologetically sexual" heroines who are unbound by "tradition's chains... who had sex because they wanted to."<ref name="McLemee"/> | |||
| In ''Atlas Shrugged,'' Rand writes that the "band on the wrist of naked arm gave her the most feminine of all aspects: the look of being chained." (One must note that this description is from the character Lillian Rearden, whose views certainly are not intended to reflect those of Ayn Rand.) This novel, along with ''Night of January 16th'' (1968) and ''The Fountainhead'' (1943), features sex scenes with stylized erotic combat that borders on ]. Rand herself noted that what ''The Fountainhead'' clearly depicted was "rape by engraved invitation." In a review of a biography of Rand, writer Jenny Turner opined, <blockquote>"the sex in Rand’s novels is extraordinarily violent and fetishistic. In ''The Fountainhead,'' the first coupling of the heroes, heralded by whips and rock drills and horseback riding and cracks in marble, is ‘an act of scorn ... not as love, but as defilement’ – in other words, a rape. (‘The act of a master taking shameful, contemptuous possession of her was the kind of rapture she had wanted.’ In ''Atlas Shrugged,'' erotic tension is cleverly increased by having one heroine bound into a plot with lots of spectacularly cruel and handsome men.)<ref name="Turner"/></blockquote> | |||
| Another source of controversy is Rand's view of ]. According to remarks at the Ford Hall forum at ] in 1971, Rand's personal view was that homosexuality is "immoral" and "disgusting."<ref name="Ford"> Ford Hall forum remarks, cited in {{cite web|url=http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html#Q5.2.6|title="Ayn Rand Biographical FAQ: Ayn Rand and Homosexuality"|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> Specifically, she stated that "there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality" because "it involves psychological flaws, corruptions, errors, or unfortunate premises."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq-notes.html#n5.2.6-1|title=Notes, The Ayn Rand Biographical FAQ|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> A number of noted current and former Objectivists have been highly critical of Rand for her views on homosexuality.<ref>Varnell, Paul.{{cite web|title="Ayn Rand and Homosexuality"|url=http://www.indegayforum.org/authors/varnell/varnell118.html|accessdate=2006-03}} at the Indegay Forum, originally published in the ] Dec. 3, 2003. </ref> Others, such as Kurt Keefner, have argued that "Rand’s views were in line with the views at the time of the general public and the psychiatric community," though he asserts that "she never provided the slightest argument for her position, because she regarded the matter as self-evident, like the woman president issue."<ref> Keefner, Kurt. {{cite web|url=http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/homo/atlasphere.htm|title="Sciabarra on Ayn Rand and Homosexuality"|date=]}} A review of | |||
| Chris Matthew Sciabarra’s ''Ayn Rand, Homosexuality, and Human Liberation ''(2003, Leap Publishing)</ref> In the same appearance, Rand noted, "I do not believe that the government has the right to prohibit . It is the privilege of any individual to use his sex life in whichever way he wants it."<ref name="Ford"/> | |||
| Rand defended the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of ], ], or any other criteria. Rand's defenders argue that her opposition to government intervention to end private discrimination was motivated by her valuing ] above ] (due to a rejection of the concept of "collective rights") and therefore her view did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice ''per se''. Rand argued that no one's rights are violated by a private individual's or organization's refusal to deal with him, even if the reason is irrational. | |||
| Rand did oppose ethnic and racial prejudice on moral grounds, in essays like "Racism" and "Global Balkanization," while still arguing for the right of individuals and businesses to act on such prejudice without government intervention. She wrote, "] is the lowest, most crudely primitive form of ]... that a man is to be judged, not by his own character and actions, but by the characters and actions of a collective of ancestors,"<ref> Rand, Ayn. "Racism," in ''Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' ISBN 0-452-01184-1, p. 179, at {{cite web|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=media_topic_racism_and_diversity|title=The Ayn Rand Institute|accessdate=2006-03-31}}</ref> but also opposed governmental remedies for this problem: "Private racism is not a legal, but a moral issue – and can be fought only by private means, such as economic ] or social ostracism."<ref> "Racism," in ''Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'', p. 182 </ref> | |||
| ''See also: ]''<br> | |||
| ===HUAC testimony=== | |||
| In 1947, during the ], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the ].() Her testimony regarded the disparity between her personal experiences in the ] and the fanciful portrayal of it in the 1943 film ''Song of Russia''. Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union and portrayed life in the USSR as being much better than it actually was. Furthermore, she believed that even if a temporary alliance with the USSR was necessary to defeat the Nazis, the case for this should not have been made by portraying what she believed were falsely positive images of Soviet life: <blockquote>"If we had good reason, if that is what you believe, all right, then why not tell the truth? Say it is a ], but we want to be associated with it. Say it is worthwhile being associated with ], as ] said, in order to defeat another ] which is ]. There might be some good argument made for that. But why pretend that Russia was not what it was?"<ref name="HUAC">Rand's HUAC testimony, cited at {{cite web|url=http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html|title=The Objectivism Reference Center|accessdate=2006-04-07}}</ref></blockquote> After the hearings, when Rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations, she described the process as "futile."<ref name="HUAC"/> | |||
| ==Later years== | |||
| After a convoluted series of separations, Rand abruptly ended her relationship with both Nathaniel Branden and his wife, ], in 1968 when she learned of Nathaniel Branden's subsequent affair with ], and refused to have any further dealings with the NBI. She then published a letter in "The Objectivist" announcing her repudiation of Branden for various reasons, including dishonesty, but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism. The two never reconciled, and Branden remained '']'' in the Objectivist movement. | |||
| ===Visiting lecturer=== | |||
| Rand was a visiting lecturer at several universities, beginning in 1960 when she talked at ], ] and ]. In subsequent years, she went on to lecture at ], ], ] and ].<ref>Ayn Rand's Bibliography {{cite web|title="Ayn Rand's Bibliography"|url=http://festivals.iloveindia.com/teachers-day/famous-teachers/ayn-rand.html|accessdate=2006-10-22}}</ref> | |||
| For many years, she gave an annual lecture at the , answering questions from the audience afterward. | |||
| ===Declining health and death=== | |||
| ] and Ayn Rand.]]In 1973, she was briefly reunited with her youngest sister, Nora, who still lived in the Soviet Union.<ref name="JVL">Daligga, Catherine. {{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Rand.html|title="Ayn Rand" Biography at the Jewish Virtual Library|accessdate=2006-03024}}</ref> Although Rand had written 1,200 letters to her family in the Soviet Union, and had attempted to bring them to the United States, she had ceased contacting them in 1937 after reading a notice in the post office that letters from Americans might imperil Russians at risk from ] repression. Rand received a letter from Nora in 1973 and invited her and her husband to America; her sister's views had changed and, to Rand's disappointment, Nora voluntarily returned to the USSR.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?id=7581|title="Ayn Rand's Sister: Eleanora Drobyshev 1910-1999"|accessdate=2006-04-05}}</ref> | |||
| Rand underwent surgery for ] in 1974, and conflicts continued in the wake of the break with Branden and the subsequent collapse of the NBI. Many of her closest "Collective" friends began to part ways, and during the late 1970s, her activities within the formal Objectivist movement began to decline, a situation which increased after the death of her husband on ], ].<ref> ARI, {{cite web|title="Timeline of Ayn Rand's Life and Career."|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_aynrand_timeline|accessdate=2006-04-06}}</ref> One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged.'' She had also planned to write another novel, ''To Lorne Dieterling,'' but had only written "preliminary sketches."<ref name="Lewis"/> | |||
| Rand died of ] on ], ] at her 34th Street home in ],<ref> Saxon, Wolfgang. {{cite web|url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/s/wolfgang_saxon/index.html?offset=80&s=oldest&inline=nyt-per|title="Ayn Rand, 'Fountainhead' Author, Dies."|accessdate=2006-04-06}} ''The New York Times,'' March 7, 1982.</ref> years after having successfully battled cancer, and was interred in the ], ]. ] read ] poem "]" at the graveside.<ref name="JVL"/> | |||
| Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including ]. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket.<ref name="Leiendecker"/> | |||
| ==Legacy== | |||
| Rand's novels continue to be widely sold and read, with more than 22 million books sold (as of 2005), and 500,000 more being sold each year.<ref>Cato: Ayn Rand at 100, {{cite web|title="Cato: Ayn Rand at 100"|url=http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=3661|accessdate=2006-04-23}}</ref> Following her death, continued conflict within the Objectivist movement led to establishment of independent organizations claiming to be her intellectual heirs. Rand and Objectivism are less well known outside ], although there are pockets of interest in ], Australia, and New Zealand. Her novels are reported to be popular in ]<ref>The Atlas Society, {{cite web|title="Celebrity Ayn Rand Fans"|url=http://www.atlassociety.org/rand_fans.asp|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in ]. She also enjoyed some popularity in Israel, through the early work of Moshe Kroy. Generally, her work has had little effect on academic philosophy; her followers have been largely drawn from the non-academic world. However, in recent years there has been notable interest in Ayn Rand's philosophy in academic philosophy. The Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship offers resources to study Objectivism at the University of Texas at Austin, Ashland University in Ohio, and the University of Pittsburgh. At the University of Pittsburgh, professors James Lennox and ] head the research. Both scholars are renowned for their illuminations of Aristotle's writings. ]'s professor, ], is a member of the Ayn Rand Institute and has lectured courses incorporating Objectivist literature and discussion. Professor ] also points to certain modern trends in academic philosophy which make philosophers more receptive to Objectivist ideas. Chief among them are the notions of essence and concept as epistemological, developments in virtue theory ethics, and very current projects in normative philosophies of science and logic. | |||
| ===Ayn Rand Institute=== | |||
| In 1985, ], a surviving member of "]" and Ayn Rand's designated heir, established "The ]: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism" (ARI). The Institute has since registered the name "Ayn Rand." The Ayn Rand Institute's main goal is to spread Objectivism throughout academia, particularly in humanities departments; it also works to expose high school and college students to Ayn Rand's writings and ideas. | |||
| ===The Objectivist Center and The Atlas Society=== | |||
| Another schism in the movement occurred in 1989, when Objectivist ] wrote "A Question of Sanction," in which he defended his choice to speak to non-Objectivist ] groups: "It was a response to an article by ] in The Intellectual Activist, demanding that those who speak to libertarians be ostracized from the movement... observed that Objectivism is not a closed system of belief; and that we might actually learn something by talking to people we disagree with." Kelley's description of the reasons behind the break is disputed by the Ayn Rand Institute.<ref>Kelley, David. {{cite web|url=http://www.objectivistcenter.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=39&h=51|title="Introduction to 'The Contested Legacy of Ayn Rand'"|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> Peikoff, in an article for '']'' called "Fact and Value" argued that Objectivism is, indeed, a closed system, and that truth and moral goodness are directly related.<ref name="factandvalue">Peikoff, Leonard. {{cite web|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_f-v|title="Fact and Value."|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> Peikoff expelled Kelley from his movement, whereupon Kelley founded The Institute for Objectivist Studies (now known as "]"). It has since created a division called ], which has its own web site that is focused on attracting Ayn Rand fiction readers, and downplays her role as a philosopher. This division is used for most public outreach efforts, with The Objectivist Center itself used principally for more academic ventures. | |||
| Edward Hudgins, a veteran of the Heritage Foundation, the Cato Institute and the Joint Economic Committee of Congress, is now executive director, with Kelley taking the title of Founder and Senior Scholar. The Atlas Society/Objectivist Center also publishes ''The New Individualist'' (formerly ''Navigator'') which comes out ten times a year. It has been given a major facelift by editor Robert Bidinotto and it was the first magazine in the U.S. to feature one of the ] on the cover. | |||
| ===Popular interest and influence=== | |||
| ] on April 29, 1980, in her first public appearance since the death of her husband.]] | |||
| The column "Book Notes" of the New York Times, reported in 1991 that in a survey by the ] and the ], when asked what the most influential book in their lives was, Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged'' was the second most popular choice. The most popular choice was the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9D0CE7D61339F933A15752C1A967958260|title= Book Notes|author=Fein, Esther B|date=November 20, 1991|publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> | |||
| ], the drummer and lyricist of the Canadian progressive rock band ], was influenced by Rand's writings, as evidenced by the track "]" from the album '']'' (1975) and the title track from the album '']'' (1976). However, such an influence remains vague, and Peart denies being an Objectivist, although in the 1988 book ], author Bill Banasiewicz notes that Peart and Lee bonded over Objectivist theory. Rush also has the distinction of being the only rock group cited in the Journal of Ayn Rand Studies – its Fall 2002 publication of "Rand, Rush and Rock" was then followed with a Rush-dedicated symposium, detailed in its Fall 2003 issue, on such topics as "Rand, Rush, and De-Totalizing the Utopianism of Progressive Rock." | |||
| In "]", a season four episode of '']'', ] is placed in the "Ayn Rand School for Tots," where bottles and pacifiers are banned to encourage developing "the bottle within" and the school's grim proprietor reads from ''] Diet''. | |||
| The forthcoming PC and Xbox 360 game ] takes place in the ruins of a city described as the ultimate capitalistic and individualist paradise. Founded in 1946 by a Soviet expatriate named "Andrew Ryan" (clearly a wordplay on "Ayn Rand"), the city is purportedly an embodiment of the Objectivist ideal, although one that has fallen into ruin. | |||
| The 2003 novel ] by famed author ] contains an episode in which Rand appears as a guest lecturer at the elite New England prep school attended by the main character. The character reads ''The Fountainhead'', analyzes Rand in person, and compares her to the other two writers invited to the school – ] and ] – and ultimately discards her philosophy in favor of the more empathetic Hemingway. | |||
| Amongst many books recommended for reading in the liner notes of ]'s 2006 album '']'', ''The Fountainhead'' is one of them, in the company of such varied books as ''],'' ''],'' and ''],'' as well as several others. | |||
| Numerous prominent individuals have acknowledged that Rand greatly influenced their lives, including: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], Erika Holzer, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and many others.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The New Individualist|issue=Jan/Feb|year=2006}}</ref> Rand's philosophy of ] continues to influence workers in the , business, and . "," an online community devoted to admirers of Rand, maintains a ] citing Rand's influence on popular or newsworthy figures who cite the influence of Rand's works on their lives,<ref>{{cite web|title="The Atlasphere Metablog Celebrity Ayn Rand Fans Archive"|url=http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/cat/celebrity-rand-fans/|accessdate=2006-03-24}}</ref> while "Randex" updates a list of recent media references to Rand or her work.<ref>{{cite web|title="Media References to Ayn Rand "|url=http://randex.org/|accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> | |||
| ===Rand's Work and Academic Philosophy=== | |||
| Rand's work has been mostly ignored by the academic philosophers of the English-speaking world. Few leading research universities consider Rand or Objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area. Many adherents and practitioners of ] criticize her celebration of self-interest, so there has similarly been little focus on her work in this movement. However, since her death, there has been an increase in academic structures open to study of Ayn Rand's work. | |||
| :*There are fellowships for the study of Ayn Rand's ideas at academic institutions such as the University of Texas at Austin,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utexas.edu/opa/news/01newsreleases/nr_200110/nr_fellowship011016.html|title=''UT Texas Press Release''|accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> Ashland University in Ohio, and the University of Pittsburgh. Courses of the Ayn Rand Institute's are accredited, so students can obtain university credits for studying Objectivism.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=education_academic_oac_faq#ugrad | |||
| |title=''The Ayn Rand Institute - Frequently Asked Questions'' | |||
| |accessdate=2007-01-11}}</ref> | |||
| :*Her supporters are beginning to bring Rand's work into the academic mainstream. For instance, the Ayn Rand Society, founded in 1987, is affiliated with the ], and has been active in sponsoring seminars. | |||
| :*A major inroad into academic territory is the ''Journal of Ayn Rand Studies ''(JARS). It is a scholarly, peer reviewed journal dedicated to the study of Ayn Rand - principally her philosophic work. It is published twice yearly. JARS is nonpartisan and accepts articles that are favorable to or critical of Rand's positions. The stated editorial position is to remain unaligned with any advocacy group, institution or person. "While we publish essays by Objectivists and those influenced by Rand, we are especially interested in publishing scholars who work in traditions outside of Objectivism--including those who are critical of Rand's thought. We promote and encourage scholarly give-and-take among diverse elements of the academy." They utilize a constructive double-blind peer review process and are widely abstracted and indexed and linked.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/reviews.asp|title=''Journal of Ayn Rand Studies''|accessdate=2006-03-28}}</ref> | |||
| In a 1999 interview in the ''Chronicle of Higher Education,'' Rand scholar Chris Matthew Sciabarra said, "I know they laugh at Rand," while also noting a growing interest in her work in the academic community.<ref>Sharlet, Jeff. {{cite web|url=http://chronicle.com/colloquy/99/rand/background.htm|title="Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars"|accessdate=2006-03-28}}</ref> | |||
| In 2006, ] published a volume on Rand's ethical theory written by ARI-affiliated scholar ], a philosophy professor at the ]. The book is titled ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist.'' Cambridge University, University of Texas at Austin, and University of Pittsburgh have recently established Fellowships for the Study of Objectivism.<ref></ref><ref></ref> Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews recently published a review of Smith's book by Helen Cullyer of the University of Pittsburgh. The review ends with the following: | |||
| <blockquote>;"It should be stressed in conclusion that whether one is a fan or a detractor of Ayn Rand, the issues raised by this book are manifold and provocative. This book should force a debate of renewed vigor about what we mean by egoism, whether and how the egoism/altruism dichotomy should be applied within eudaimonistic ethical theories, and what our ethical theories imply about our political outlook. Smith provides us with a version of egoism that will need to be argued against by those who find it distasteful or misguided, rather than simply dismissed." </blockquote> | |||
| In addition to the recent publication of Smith's book, the forthcoming issue of ''The Review of Metaphysics'' will publish an article by Allan Gotthelf on Rand's theory of concepts. A recent conference at the University of Pittsburgh, "Concept and Objectivity: Knowledge, Science, and Values," featured presentations by Objectivists Onkar Ghate, Allan Gotthelf, James Lennox, and Darryl Wright alongside influential mainstream academics such as A.P. Martinich and Peter Railton. | |||
| ===Student activism=== | |||
| One of the reasons for the prominence of Ayn Rand and Objectivism in the news and popular culture relative to other philosophical theories<ref>{{cite web|title="UK Guardian: A growing concern "|url= http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/worldwide/story/0,9959,615157,00.html| /=2006-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title="USA Today: Scandals lead execs to 'Atlas Shrugged' "|url= http://www.usatoday.com/money/companies/management/2002-09-23-ayn-rand_x.htm| /=2006-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title="202 stories with 'Ayn Rand' in Google News "|url= http://news.google.com/news?q=ayn+rand&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&scoring=d| /=2006-06-14}}</ref> may be related to the dozens of student groups dedicated to promoting and studying the philosophy of Objectivism<ref>{{cite web|title="Ayn Rand Institute Campus Clubs"|url= http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=education_campus_findclubs| /=2006-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title="TOC Ayn Rand Clubs"|url=http://www.objectivistcenter.org/cth-15-1448-Local_Clubs.aspx|accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title="Meetup.com Ayn Rand Groups"|url= http://aynrand.meetup.com/about/|accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref> spread across the U.S., Australia, Canada, Israel, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Norway.<ref>{{cite web|title="UK Guardian: A growing concern"|url= http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/worldwide/story/0,9959,615157,00.html|accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref> These clubs often present controversial speakers on topics such as abortion, religion, and foreign policy, often allying with controversial conservative (and sometimes liberal) organizations to organize their events. For example the NYU Objectivism Club hosted a joint panel<ref>{{cite web|title="NYU Panel Commentary"|url= http://nyu.objectivismonline.net/content/view/16/9/|accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref> on the ] that received nationwide coverage for NYU's censorship of the cartoons.<ref>{{cite web|title="Inside Higher Education"|url=http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2006/03/30/cartoon |accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref> There are several dozen speakers sponsored by the Ayn Rand Institute<ref>{{cite web|title="Ayn Rand Institute Speaker List"|url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=media_speakers_writers |accessdate=2006-06-14}}</ref> and other organizations, who give nationwide tours each year speaking about Objectivism. | |||
| The ] has spent more than $5M on educational programs advancing Objectivism, including scholarships and clubs. These clubs often obtain educational materials and speakers from the ARI. The and provide free hosting and organizational resources for Ayn Rand clubs. There are also several conferences organized by various organizations, such as the , which are attended by several hundred "new intellectuals" each summer for two weeks and feature dozens of philosophy courses and presentations of new publications and research. | |||
| ==Criticism== | |||
| ===Philosophical criticism=== | |||
| A notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to Rand in philosophy is the essay "On the Randian Argument" by ] philosopher ], which appears in his collection, ''Socratic Puzzles.'' Nozick is sympathetic to Rand's political conclusions, but he does not think her arguments justify them. In particular, his essay criticizes her foundational argument in ethics, which claims that one's own life is, for each individual, the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible. Nozick says that to make this argument sound Rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer dying and having no values. Thus, he argues, her attempt to defend the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of ] and her solution to ]'s famous ] is unsatisfactory. | |||
| ===Literary criticism=== | |||
| Rand's novels, when they were first published, "received almost unanimously terrible reviews"<ref name="Turner" /> and were derided by some critics as long and melodramatic.<ref>Chapman, Steve{{cite web|url=http://washingtontimes.com/commentary/20050201-094832-2692r.htm|title=''The evolution of Ayn Rand''|accessdate=2006-04-09}} ''The Washington Times,'' February 2, 2005.</ref> Many of these, including her ''magnum opus,'' ''Atlas Shrugged,'' became bestsellers due largely to word of mouth.<ref name="Turner" /> Scholars of English and American ], with a few exceptions, have largely ignored her work. Rand did, however, receive some positive reviews even from the literary establishment. For example, Lorine Pruette, a '']'' reviewer, wrote that Rand "has written a hymn in praise of the individual," stating that "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our times."<ref>Berliner, Michael S., ''Letters of Ayn Rand'' (New York: Plume, 1995), pp. 74.</ref> | |||
| The most famous review of ''Atlas Shrugged'' from a conservative author was written by ] and appeared in '']'' in 1957. It was unrelentingly scathing. Chambers called the book "sophomoric"; and "remarkably silly," and said it "can be called a novel only by devaluing the term." The tone of the book was described as "shrillness without reprieve".<ref>{{Harvard reference | Surname=Chambers | Given=Whittaker | Authorlink=Whittaker Chambers | Title=Big Sister is Watching You| Journal=National Review| Year=1957 | Page=594-596 | URL=http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles2/ChambersAynRand.shtml}}</ref> ''The Intellectual Activist'' published a reply, alleging that Chambers did not actually read the book, as he misspells the names of several major characters and never uses quotations from the novel in his critique. | |||
| Rand herself replied to these literary criticisms (in advance of many of them) with her 1963 essay "The Goal of My Writing," and in essays collected in '']'' (2nd rev. ed. 1975), in which she states the goal of her fiction is to project her vision of an ideal man: not man as he is, but man as he might and ought to be. Defenders of Rand's novels have also responded that many of her heroes are far from flawless, and that some are not wealthy. They argue that Rearden, the Wet Nurse, and Fred Kinnan suffer due to either moral flaws or errors in reasoning ; further, they assert that not all of the villains in Rand's novels are thoroughly weak and pathetic: ] is portrayed as a masterful communicator, critic, and manipulator, while Robert Stadler is a brilliant scientist. | |||
| Literary critic ] found Rand's fiction to have enough significance to include her in a critical anthology he edited, American Women Fiction Writers, 1900-1960, Vol. Three, (Chelsea House, 1998). | |||
| ===Cult accusations=== | |||
| :''See ].'' | |||
| Several authors, such as ] who helped define modern ] and ],<ref>Rothbard, Murray. {{cite web|title="The sociology of the Ayn Rand cult."|url=http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html|accessdate=2006-03-31}}</ref> ], author of ''The Ayn Rand Cult'',<ref>Walker, Jeff (1999). ''The Ayn Rand Cult''. Chicago: Open Court. ISBN 0-8126-9390-6</ref> and ], founder of ],<ref>Shermer, Michael. {{cite web|title="The Unlikeliest Cult in History"|url=http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml|accessdate=2006-03-30}} Originally published in ''Skeptic'' vol. 2, no. 2, 1993, pp. 74-81.</ref> have accused Objectivism of being a cult. | |||
| The Biographical FAQ of the Objectivism Reference Center website discusses these allegations and offer a letter in which Rand replies to a fan who wrote her offering cult-like allegiance by declaring "A blind follower is precisely what my philosophy condemns and what I reject. Objectivism is not a mystic cult".<ref>Rand, Ayn ''Letters'', p. 592 Letter dated December 10, 1961, Plume (1997), ISBN 0-452-27404-4, as cited in {{cite web|title="Ayn Rand Biographical FAQ: Did Rand organize a cult?"|url=http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html#Q3.3|accessdate=2006-06-25}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| ===Fiction=== | |||
| * '']'' (1934) ISBN 0-452-26486-3 | |||
| * '']'' (1936) ISBN 0-451-18784-9 | |||
| * '']'' (1938) ISBN 0-451-19113-7 | |||
| * '']'' (1943) ISBN 0-451-19115-3 | |||
| * '']'' (1957) ISBN 0-451-19114-5 | |||
| ===Nonfiction=== | |||
| * '']'' (1961) | |||
| * '']'' (with ]) (1964) | |||
| * '']'' (with ], ], and ]) (1966) | |||
| * '']'' (1967) | |||
| * '']'' (1969) | |||
| * '']'' (1971) | |||
| * '']'' posthumously edited by Leonard Peikoff (1982) | |||
| ===Posthumous works=== | |||
| * '']'' (edited and with commentary by ]) (1984) | |||
| * '']'' (edited by ]; additional essays by ] and ]) (1989) | |||
| * '']'' second edition (edited by ]; additional material by ]) (1990) | |||
| * ''Letters of Ayn Rand'' (edited by ]) (1995) | |||
| * ''Journals of Ayn Rand'' (edited by ]) (1997) | |||
| * ''Ayn Rand's Marginalia: Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors'' (edited by ]) (1998) | |||
| * '']'' (edited by ]) (1998) | |||
| * ''Russian Writings on Hollywood'' (edited by ]) (1999) | |||
| * '']'' (expanded edition of ''The New Left''; edited and with additional essays by ]) (1999) | |||
| * '']'' (edited by ]) (2000) | |||
| * '']'' (edited by ]) (2001) | |||
| * ''The Objectivism Research CD-ROM'' (collection of most of Rand's works in CD-ROM format) (2001) | |||
| * ''Three Plays'' (2005) | |||
| * '']'' (edited by Robert Mayhew)(2005) | |||
| ===Film adaptations=== | |||
| Without Rand's knowledge or permission, '']'' was made into a pair of films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira'' in 1942 by Scalara Films, ]. They were nearly censored by the ] government under ], but they were permitted because the novel upon which they were based was anti-Soviet. The films were successful and the public easily realized that they were as much against Fascism as Communism, and the government banned them quickly thereafter.<ref> A biographical article at the ] suggests the story about the ban may be apocryphal, {{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/special/threewomen/rand.html|title="Ayn Rand"|accessdate=2006-03-23}}, although other sources provide details of the suppression: {{cite web|url=http://www.neponset.com/brazzi/noi.htm|title=''Rossano Brazzi International Network'' article about "Noi Vivi."|accessdate=2006-03-28}}</ref> These films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''We the Living'' in 1986. | |||
| '''' was a ] film (1949, Warner Bros.) starring ], for which Rand wrote the screen-play. Rand initially insisted that ] design the architectural models used in the film, but relented when his fee was too high.<ref> Skousen, after ] ''The Passion of Ayn Rand'' ISBN 0-385-19171-5 </ref> | |||
| An adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is currently in pre-production.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0480239/|title=Atlas Shrugged, at the IMDB|accessdate=2006-03-31}}</ref> As of April 2006, Lionsgate Film reports that it is moving forward with their plans for the movie, with Howard and Karen Baldwin as producers and screen stars ] and ] reported to be interested in playing the parts of John Galt and Dagny Taggart.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/529.php|title=Atlas Shrugged Movie: Lionsgate Moving Forward|accessdate=2006-05-09}}</ref> The movie may be created in multiple parts to allow a fuller presentation of the novel's elaborate plot.<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/530.php|title=Atlas Shrugged Movie to Come in Multiple Parts?|accessdate=2006-05-09}}</ref> On September 21, 2006, it was announced that Angelina Jolie will indeed play Dagny Taggart in the movie adaptation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.variety.com/VR1117950446.html|title=Jolie shoulders 'Atlas'|accessdate=2006-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> | |||
| <references /> | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Baker | first = James T. | |||
| | authorlink = James T. Baker | |||
| | title = Ayn Rand | |||
| | publisher = Twayne | |||
| | location = Boston | |||
| | year = 1987 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-8057-7497-1 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Branden | first = Barbara | |||
| | authorlink = Barbara Branden | |||
| | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand | |||
| | publisher = Doubleday & Company | |||
| | location = Garden City, New York | |||
| | year = 1986 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-385-19171-5 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel | |||
| | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | |||
| | title = My Years with Ayn Rand | |||
| | publisher = Jossey Bass | |||
| | location = San Francisco | |||
| | year = 1998 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-7879-4513-7 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel | |||
| | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | |||
| | coauthors = ] | |||
| | title = Who Is Ayn Rand? | |||
| | publisher = Random House | |||
| | location = New York | |||
| | year = 1962 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Britting | first = Jeff | |||
| | authorlink = Jeff Britting | |||
| | title = Ayn Rand | |||
| | publisher = Overlook Duckworth | |||
| | location = New York | |||
| | year = 2005 | |||
| | id = ISBN 1-58567-406-0 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Gladstein | first = Mimi Reisel | |||
| | authorlink = Mimi Reisel Gladstein | |||
| | title = The New Ayn Rand Companion | |||
| | publisher = Greenwood Press | |||
| | location = Westport, Connecticut | |||
| | year = 1999 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-313-30321-5 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | author = ] and ] (editors) | |||
| | title = Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand | |||
| | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | |||
| | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | |||
| | year = 1999 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-271-01830-5 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | first = Stephen | last = Hicks | |||
| | authorlink = Stephen Hicks | |||
| | title = Ayn Rand and Contemporary Business Ethics | |||
| | year = 2003 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | |||
| | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | |||
| | title = Ayn Rand and Song of Russia | |||
| | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | |||
| | location = Lanham, Maryland | |||
| | year = 2004 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-8108-5276-4 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | |||
| | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | |||
| | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem | |||
| | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | |||
| | location = Lanham, Maryland | |||
| | year = 2005 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-7391-1031-4 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Mayhew | first = Robert | |||
| | authorlink = Robert Mayhew | |||
| | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living | |||
| | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | |||
| | location = Lanham, Maryland | |||
| | year = 2004 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-7391-0698-8 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Paxton | first = Michael | |||
| | authorlink = Michael Paxton | |||
| | title = Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life (The Companion Book) | |||
| | publisher = Gibbs Smith | |||
| | location = Layton, Utah | |||
| | year = 1998 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-87905-845-5 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite journal | |||
| | last = Peikoff | first = Leonard | |||
| | authorlink = Leonard Peikoff | |||
| | title = My Thirty Years with Ayn Rand: An Intellectual Memoir | |||
| | journal = The Objectivist Forum | |||
| | volume = 8 | |||
| | issue = 3 | |||
| | year = 1987 | |||
| | pages = 1–16 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Peikoff | first = Leonard | |||
| | authorlink = Leonard Peikoff | |||
| | title = Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand | |||
| | publisher = Plume | |||
| | year = 1991 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-452-01101-9 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Rothbard | first = Murray N. | |||
| | authorlink = Murray N. Rothbard | |||
| | title = The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult | |||
| | url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html | |||
| | publisher = Liberty | |||
| | location = Port Townsend, Washington | |||
| | year = 1987 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Sures | first = Mary Ann | |||
| | authorlink = Mary Ann Sures | |||
| | coauthors = ] | |||
| | title = Facets of Ayn Rand | |||
| | publisher = Ayn Rand Institute Press | |||
| | location = Los Angeles | |||
| | year = 2001 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-9625336-5-3 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew | |||
| | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | |||
| | title = Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical | |||
| | location = University Park, Pennsylvania | |||
| | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | |||
| | year = 1995 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-271-01440-7 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite journal | |||
| | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew | |||
| | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | |||
| | title = The Rand Transcript | |||
| | url = http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm | |||
| | journal = The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies | |||
| | volume = 1 | |||
| | issue = 1 | |||
| | year = 1999 | |||
| | pages = 1–26 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite journal | |||
| | last = Shermer | first = Michael | |||
| | authorlink = Michael Shermer | |||
| | url = http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml | |||
| | title = The Unlikeliest Cult In History | |||
| | journal = Skeptic | |||
| | volume = 2 | |||
| | issue = 2 | |||
| | year = 1993 | |||
| | pages = 74–81 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Valliant | first = James S. | |||
| | authorlink = James S. Valliant | |||
| | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand's Critics | |||
| | location = Dallas | |||
| | publisher = Durban House | |||
| | year = 2005 | |||
| | id = ISBN 1930754671 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | author = ] (editor) | |||
| | title = The Literary Art of Ayn Rand | |||
| | location = Poughkeepsie, New York | |||
| | publisher = The Objectivist Center | |||
| | year = 2005 | |||
| | id = ISBN 1-57724-070-7 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| | last = Walker | first = Jeff | |||
| | authorlink = Jeff Walker | |||
| | title = The Ayn Rand Cult | |||
| | location = Chicago | |||
| | publisher = Open Court | |||
| | year = 1999 | |||
| | id = ISBN 0-8126-9390-6 | |||
| }} | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{sisterlinks|Ayn Rand}} | |||
| ===General information=== | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * ] 2002 ] videos. | |||
| ===Rand's writing and speeches=== | |||
| * — The complete text of the novel, which has fallen into the public domain | |||
| * — Book outline | |||
| * — Book outline | |||
| * — Book outline | |||
| * — Address To The Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974 | |||
| * — Transcript | |||
| * — Video outline | |||
| * {{gutenberg author| id=Ayn+Rand | name=Ayn Rand}} | |||
| * | |||
| ===Films=== | |||
| *{{imdb name | id=0709446 | name=Ayn Rand}} | |||
| ===Organizations promoting Ayn Rand's philosophy=== | |||
| * — Information on Ayn Rand and her philosophy. Founded by ], Ayn Rand’s heir. | |||
| * | |||
| * — Commentary from a pro-capitalist perspective. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * — Daily news and commentary from the Objectivist perspective by e-mail | |||
| * — Online community of Ayn Rand admirers. Over 400 articles on culture, politics, and economics. | |||
| ===Critical views=== | |||
| * by ] | |||
| * by ], originally from the ] | |||
| ===Audio / Video=== | |||
| * by ] | |||
| * | |||
| <!-- Metadata: see ] --> | |||
| {{Persondata | |||
| |NAME= Rand, Ayn | |||
| |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Rosenbaum, Alisa Zinov'yevna; Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум (Russian) | |||
| |SHORT DESCRIPTION= novelist, philosopher, playwright, screenwriter | |||
| |DATE OF BIRTH= ], ] | |||
| |PLACE OF BIRTH= ] | |||
| |DATE OF DEATH= ], ] | |||
| |PLACE OF DEATH= ] | |||
| }} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Rand, Ayn}} | |||
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Revision as of 22:04, 5 April 2007
DICK HEAD