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]")]]
] (term for government officials/administrators in modern Greece and North Macedonia) at ], ], 1908.]]
'''Vlach''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|ˈ|v|l|ɑː|x}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|l|æ|k}}), also '''Wallachian''' (and many other variants<ref name="Significance">{{cite web|url=http://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/48209/1/Pop%2bIoan%2bAurel-Despre%2bsemnificatia%2bunor%2bnume-2009.pdf|title=On the Significance of Certain Names: Romanian/Wallachian and Romania/Wallachia|author=Ioan-Aurel Pop|access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref>), is a term and ] used from the ] until the ] to designate speakers of ] living in ] — south of the Danube (the ]) and north of the ] which includes the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dexonline.ro/definitie/valah|publisher=dexonline.ro|title=Valah|work=Dicționare ale limbii române|access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref> The same name is still used in ]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Włochy – profil kraju członkowskiego UE {{!}} Unia Europejska |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/country-profiles/italy_pl |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-21 |title=Dlaczego mówimy "Włochy", a nie "Italia"? - Nasz Swiat |url=http://www.naszswiat.net/magazyn/magazyn/cos-wam-powiem/dlaczego-mowimy-wlochy-a-nie-italia.html |access-date=2023-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521230211/http://www.naszswiat.net/magazyn/magazyn/cos-wam-powiem/dlaczego-mowimy-wlochy-a-nie-italia.html |archive-date=21 May 2022 }}</ref>(''Włochy, Włosi, włoskie'') and Hungarian<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nyelvek, többnyelvűség, nyelvhasználati szabályok {{!}} Európai Unió |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/languages_hu |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Olaszország – Az uniós tagország bemutatása {{!}} Európai Unió |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/country-profiles/italy_hu |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=hu}}</ref> (''Olasz, Olaszország'') as an ] for Italy, while in Slovakian<ref>{{Cite web |title=Slovenské slovníky |url=https://slovnik.juls.savba.sk/?w=Vlach&s=exact&c=W1b8&cs=&d=peciar# |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=slovnik.juls.savba.sk}}</ref> (''Vlasi''), Czech<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-02 |title=Italians in Malá Strana / ENGLISH - Open House Praha : Open House Praha |url=https://www.openhousepraha.cz/en/2022/11/02/italians-in-mala-strana/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=www.openhousepraha.cz |language=en-GB}}</ref> (''Vlachy'') and Slovenian<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fran/iskanje/laški |url=https://fran.si/iskanje?View=1&Query=la%C5%A1ki&hs=12 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Fran |language=sl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fran/Pravopis |url=https://fran.si/134/slovenski-pravopis/3756610/lasko?View=1&Query=La%C5%A1ko |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Fran |language=sl}}</ref> (''Laško''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Snoj |first=Marko |title=Etimološki slovar slovenskih zemljepisnih imen |date=2009 |publisher=Modrijan Založba ZRC |isbn=978-961-241-360-6 |location=Ljubljana |pages=106, 227}}</ref>'', Láh, Láhinja,'' ''laško'') it was replaced with the endonym ''Italia.'' '''Vlach''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|ˈ|v|l|ɑː|x}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|l|æ|k}}), also '''Wallachian''' (and many other variants<ref name="Significance">{{cite web|url=http://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/48209/1/Pop%2bIoan%2bAurel-Despre%2bsemnificatia%2bunor%2bnume-2009.pdf|title=On the Significance of Certain Names: Romanian/Wallachian and Romania/Wallachia|author=Ioan-Aurel Pop|access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref>), is a term and ] used from the ] until the ] to designate speakers of ] living in ] — south of the Danube (the ]) and north of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dexonline.ro/definitie/valah|publisher=dexonline.ro|title=Valah|work=Dicționare ale limbii române|access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref>


Although it has also been used to name present-day ], the term "Vlach" today refers primarily to speakers of the ] who live south of the Danube, in ], ], northern ], ] and eastern ]. These people include the ethnic groups of the ], the ] and, in Serbia, the ].<ref name="britannica">{{Britannica|631511|Vlach}}</ref> The term also became a synonym in the ] for the social category of shepherds.<ref name="sugar">{{Cite book |last=Sugar |first=Peter F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYsVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |title=Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804 |date=1996 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0-295-96033-7 |page=39}}</ref> The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of ] who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians, as well as for ] and ].<ref name=":21">{{cite book| url=http://www.muzic-ivan.info/hrvatska_kronika.pdf| title=Hrvatska kronika u Ljetopisu pop Dukljanina| author=Ivan Mužić| publisher=Muzej hrvatski arheoloških spomenika| location=Split| year=2011| page=66 (''Crni Latini''), 260 (''qui illo tempore Romani vocabantur, modo vero Moroulachi, hoc est Nigri Latini vocantur.'')| quote=In some Croatian and Latin redactions of the ], from 16th century.}}</ref> Although it has also been used to name present-day ], the term "Vlach" today refers primarily to speakers of the ] who live south of the Danube, in ], ], northern ], ] and eastern ]. These people include the ethnic groups of the ], the ] and, in Serbia, the ].<ref name="britannica">{{Britannica|631511|Vlach}}</ref> The term also became a synonym in the ] for the social category of shepherds.<ref name="sugar">{{Cite book |last=Sugar |first=Peter F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gYsVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |title=Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804 |date=1996 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=0-295-96033-7 |page=39}}</ref> and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the ] derogatively.{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of ] who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians, as well as for ] and ].<ref name=":21">{{cite book| url=http://www.muzic-ivan.info/hrvatska_kronika.pdf| title=Hrvatska kronika u Ljetopisu pop Dukljanina| author=Ivan Mužić| publisher=Muzej hrvatski arheoloških spomenika| location=Split| year=2011| page=66 (''Crni Latini''), 260 (''qui illo tempore Romani vocabantur, modo vero Moroulachi, hoc est Nigri Latini vocantur.'')| quote=In some Croatian and Latin redactions of the ], from 16th century.}}</ref>


Currently, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the ] and ]).{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} Currently, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the ] and ]).{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}


== Etymology == == Etymology ==
{{further|Walhaz}}]The word ''Vlach''/''Wallachian'' (and other variants such as ''Vlah'', ''Valah'', ''Valach'', ''Voloh'', ''Blac'', ''oláh'', ''Vlas'', ''Ulah'', etc.<ref name="Significance"/>) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a ] tribe,{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} adopted into Proto-] ''*]'', which meant "stranger", from ''*Wolkā-''<ref name="Ringe 2009">Ringe, Don. "." ''Language Log,'' January 2009.</ref> (]'s {{lang-la|Volcae}}, ] and ]'s {{lang-gr |Ouolkai}}).<ref name="NuorluotoLeiwo2001">{{cite book|author1= Juhani Nuorluoto |author2= Martti Leiwo |author3= Jussi Halla-aho| title= Papers in Slavic, Baltic, and Balkan studies |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HGsXAQAAIAAJ|year=2001|publisher=Dept. of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures, University of Helsinki|isbn=978-952-10-0246-5|quote=<!--It is recorded by Caesar as Volcae, by Strabo and Ptolemy as Ouolkai, and it was in the transfer to Gothic (as *walhs) via Latin that the ethnonym took on the meaning 'foreigner' or 'those folks over there' or 'Romance speaker' (and, later, also 'transhumant shepherd' and other meanings). The use of Vlah as a derogatory word for Serb among Croatians as well as the association of the ethnonym with Italians in Poland {Wlochy 'Italy') and French-speakers in Switzerland (Welsch) is part ...-->}}</ref> Via ], in ], as {{lang|got|*walhs}}, the ] took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker" and later "shepherd, nomad".<ref name="NuorluotoLeiwo2001"/>{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} The term was adopted into Greek as ''Vláhoi'' or ''Blachoi'' ({{lang|he|Βλάχοι}}), ] as ''Vlah'' ({{Plural abbr|''Vlasi''}}) or ''Voloh'', ] as ''oláh'' and ''olasz'', etc.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History|journal=The Proceedings of the Friesian School |author= Kelley L. Ross|year=2003 |quote=Note: The Vlach Connection |url=http://www.friesian.com/decdenc2.htm |access-date=2008-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FGmJqMflYgoC&pg=PA42|year=2013 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-25076-5 |pages=42–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pop |first=Ioan-Aurel |trans-title=Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century. The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State |title=Românii şi maghiarii în secolele IX-XIV. Geneza statului medieval în Transilvania] |publisher=Center for Transylvanian Studies |year=1996 |page=32 }}</ref> The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for ] and ], and in Switzerland for ]-speakers ({{lang-de|Welsch}}),{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} and in Poland ''Włochy'' or in Hungary ''olasz'' became an exonym for Italians.<ref name="NuorluotoLeiwo2001"/><ref name="Significance"/> The Slovenian term ''Lahi'' has also been used to designate Italians.<ref name="WilsonDonnan2005">{{cite book |author1=Thomas M. Wilson |author2=Hastings Donnan |title=Culture and Power at the Edges of the State: National Support and Subversion in European Border Regions |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MS25xxY2LKQC&pg=PA122 |year=2005 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-8258-7569-5 |pages=122–}}</ref> {{further|Walhaz}} The word ''Vlach''/''Wallachian'' (and other variants such as ''Vlah'', ''Valah'', ''Valach'', ''Voloh'', ''Blac'', ''oláh'', ''Vlas'', ''Ulah'', etc.<ref name="Significance"/>) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a ] tribe,{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} adopted into Proto-] ''*]'', which meant "stranger", from ''*Wolkā-''<ref name="Ringe 2009">Ringe, Don. "." ''Language Log,'' January 2009.</ref> (]'s {{lang-la|Volcae}}, ] and ]'s {{lang-gr |Ouolkai}}).<ref name="NuorluotoLeiwo2001">{{cite book|author1= Juhani Nuorluoto |author2= Martti Leiwo |author3= Jussi Halla-aho| title= Papers in Slavic, Baltic, and Balkan studies |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HGsXAQAAIAAJ|year=2001|publisher=Dept. of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures, University of Helsinki|isbn=978-952-10-0246-5|quote=<!--It is recorded by Caesar as Volcae, by Strabo and Ptolemy as Ouolkai, and it was in the transfer to Gothic (as *walhs) via Latin that the ethnonym took on the meaning 'foreigner' or 'those folks over there' or 'Romance speaker' (and, later, also 'transhumant shepherd' and other meanings). The use of Vlah as a derogatory word for Serb among Croatians as well as the association of the ethnonym with Italians in Poland {Wlochy 'Italy') and French-speakers in Switzerland (Welsch) is part ...-->}}</ref> Via ], in ], as {{lang|got|*walhs}}, the ] took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker" and later "shepherd, nomad".<ref name="NuorluotoLeiwo2001"/>{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} The term was adopted into Greek as ''Vláhoi'' or ''Blachoi'' ({{lang|he|Βλάχοι}}), ] as ''Vlah'' ({{Plural abbr|''Vlasi''}}) or ''Voloh'', ] as ''oláh'' and ''olasz'', etc.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History|journal=The Proceedings of the Friesian School |author= Kelley L. Ross|year=2003 |quote=Note: The Vlach Connection |url=http://www.friesian.com/decdenc2.htm |access-date=2008-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FGmJqMflYgoC&pg=PA42|year=2013 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-25076-5 |pages=42–}}</ref><ref name="Pop 1996 32">{{Cite book|last=Pop |first=Ioan-Aurel |trans-title=Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century. The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State |title=Românii şi maghiarii în secolele IX-XIV. Geneza statului medieval în Transilvania] |publisher=Center for Transylvanian Studies |year=1996 |page=32 }}</ref> The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for ] and ], and in Switzerland for ]-speakers ({{lang-de|Welsch}}),{{sfn|Tanner|2004|p=203}} and in Poland ''Włochy'' or in Hungary ''olasz'' became an exonym for Italians.<ref name="NuorluotoLeiwo2001"/><ref name="Significance"/> The Slovenian term ''Lahi'' has also been used to designate Italians.<ref name="WilsonDonnan2005">{{cite book |author1=Thomas M. Wilson |author2=Hastings Donnan |title=Culture and Power at the Edges of the State: National Support and Subversion in European Border Regions |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MS25xxY2LKQC&pg=PA122 |year=2005 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-8258-7569-5 |pages=122–}}</ref> The same name is still used in ]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Włochy – profil kraju członkowskiego UE {{!}} Unia Europejska |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/country-profiles/italy_pl |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-21 |title=Dlaczego mówimy "Włochy", a nie "Italia"? - Nasz Swiat |url=http://www.naszswiat.net/magazyn/magazyn/cos-wam-powiem/dlaczego-mowimy-wlochy-a-nie-italia.html |access-date=2023-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521230211/http://www.naszswiat.net/magazyn/magazyn/cos-wam-powiem/dlaczego-mowimy-wlochy-a-nie-italia.html |archive-date=21 May 2022 }}</ref>(''Włochy, Włosi, włoskie'') and Hungarian<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nyelvek, többnyelvűség, nyelvhasználati szabályok {{!}} Európai Unió |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/languages_hu |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Olaszország – Az uniós tagország bemutatása {{!}} Európai Unió |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/country-profiles/italy_hu |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=hu}}</ref> (''Olasz, Olaszország'') as an ] for Italy, while in Slovakian<ref>{{Cite web |title=Slovenské slovníky |url=https://slovnik.juls.savba.sk/?w=Vlach&s=exact&c=W1b8&cs=&d=peciar# |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=slovnik.juls.savba.sk}}</ref> (''Vlasi''), Czech<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-02 |title=Italians in Malá Strana / ENGLISH - Open House Praha : Open House Praha |url=https://www.openhousepraha.cz/en/2022/11/02/italians-in-mala-strana/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=www.openhousepraha.cz |language=en-GB}}</ref> (''Vlachy'') and Slovenian<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fran/iskanje/laški |url=https://fran.si/iskanje?View=1&Query=la%C5%A1ki&hs=12 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Fran |language=sl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fran/Pravopis |url=https://fran.si/134/slovenski-pravopis/3756610/lasko?View=1&Query=La%C5%A1ko |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=Fran |language=sl}}</ref> (''Laško''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Snoj |first=Marko |title=Etimološki slovar slovenskih zemljepisnih imen |date=2009 |publisher=Modrijan Založba ZRC |isbn=978-961-241-360-6 |location=Ljubljana |pages=106, 227}}</ref>'', Láh, Láhinja,'' ''laško'') it was replaced with the endonym ''Italia.''


], ].]]
], 1851]]


Romanian scholars have suggested that the term ''Vlach'' appeared for the first time in the ] and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the ] (possibly by ]), who were in trade and military contact with ] during the ] (see also ]).<ref>Ilie Gherghel, Câteva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvântului "Vlach", București: Convorbiri Literare, 1920, p. 4-8.</ref><ref>G. Popa Lisseanu, Continuitatea românilor în Dacia, Editura Vestala, Bucuresti, 2014, p.78</ref> According to them the forms which were recognised by linguist to designate the "Vlachs" are: ''Blaci, Blauen, Blachi'' found in Western medieval sources, ''Balachi, Walati'' found in Western sources derived from medieval German, while the Germanic population from Transylvania used also the variants ''Woloch, Blôch''. French sources used mostly ''Valaques'' while the medieval ] used ''Blos''. In English and in modern German the forms ''Wallachians, Walachen'' appear, respectively. In the Balkan Peninsula various names such as ''Rumer, Tzintzars, Morlachs, Maurovlachs, Armâns, Cincars, Koutzovlachs'' were used while muslim sources speak of ''Ulak, Ilak, Iflak''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pintescu |first=Florin |date=April 2020 |title=Vlachs and Scandinavians in the Early Middle Ages |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340580493 |access-date=9 August 2023 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref> Romanian scholars have suggested that the term ''Vlach'' appeared for the first time in the ] and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the ] (possibly by ]), who were in trade and military contact with ] during the ] (see also ]).<ref>Ilie Gherghel, Câteva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvântului "Vlach", București: Convorbiri Literare, 1920, p. 4-8.</ref><ref>G. Popa Lisseanu, Continuitatea românilor în Dacia, Editura Vestala, Bucuresti, 2014, p.78</ref> According to them the forms which were recognised by linguist to designate the "Vlachs" are: ''Blaci, Blauen, Blachi'' found in Western medieval sources, ''Balachi, Walati'' found in Western sources derived from medieval German, while the Germanic population from Transylvania used also the variants ''Woloch, Blôch''. French sources used mostly ''Valaques'' while the medieval ] used ''Blos''. In English and in modern German the forms ''Wallachians, Walachen'' appear, respectively. In the Balkan Peninsula various names such as ''Rumer, Tzintzars, Morlachs, Maurovlachs, Armâns, Cincars, Koutzovlachs'' were used while muslim sources speak of ''Ulak, Ilak, Iflak''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pintescu |first=Florin |date=April 2020 |title=Vlachs and Scandinavians in the Early Middle Ages |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340580493 |access-date=9 August 2023 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref>


== History == == History ==

] paths of the Vlach shepherds in the past.]]


According to ], modern Romanians, ] and Aromanians originated from ].<ref name=":15">{{cite book |last=Fine |first=John V. A. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C |title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-472-08149-7 |location=Ann Arbor |page=10 |quote= |author-link=John Van Antwerp Fine Jr. |orig-year=1983}}</ref> According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the ]s in the lower Danube basin during the ].<ref>According to Cornelia Bodea, Ştefan Pascu, Liviu Constantinescu: "''România: Atlas Istorico-geografic''{{-"}}, Academia Română 1996, {{ISBN|973-27-0500-0}}, chap. II, "Historical landmarks", p. 50 (English text), the survival of the ]s in the Lower ] basin during the ] is an obvious fact: Thraco-Romans haven't vanished in the soil & Vlachs haven't appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation.<!-- This polemical remark is a blatant straw man, though – nobody claims something so obviously nonsensical. The main alternative hypothesis says that the Romanised Dacians north of the Danube were Slavicised in the Migration Period, while Vlachs immigrated from south of the Danube in the Middle Ages, re-Romanising the region. --></ref> On the other hand, most non-Romanian historian believe that Romanians, ], Aromanians and other Eastern Romance groups originated in the southern Balkans, what is now ], ], and ] and migrated north from there from the 11th-12th centuries onwards.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Malcolm |first=Noel |url=http://macedonia.kroraina.com/en/nm/kosovo.html |title=Kosovo, a short history |publisher=Macmilan |year=1998 |location=London |pages=22–40 |quote=The name 'Vlach' was a word used by the Slavs for those they encountered who spoke a strange, usually Latinate, language; the Vlachs' own name for themselves is 'Aromanians' (Aromani). As this name suggests, the Vlachs are closely linked to the Romanians: their two languages (which, with a little practice, are mutually intelligible) diverged only in the ninth or tenth century. While Romanian historians have tried to argue that the Romanian-speakers have always lived in the territory of Romania (originating, it is claimed, from Romanized Dacian tribes and/or Roman legionaries), there is compelling evidence to show that the Romanian-speakers were originally part of the same population as the Vlachs, whose language and way of life were developed somewhere to the south of the Danube. Only in the twelfth century did the early Romanian-speakers move northwards into Romanian territory.}}</ref><ref name=":9" /><ref name="Quote">Gottfried Schramm (2013) "Similarities between Romanian and Albanian are not limited to their common Balkan features and the assumed substrate words: the two languages share calques and proverbs, and display analogous phonetic changes."</ref> According to ], modern Romanians, ] and Aromanians originated from ].<ref name=":15">{{cite book |last=Fine |first=John V. A. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C |title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-472-08149-7 |location=Ann Arbor |page=10 |quote= |author-link=John Van Antwerp Fine Jr. |orig-year=1983}}</ref> According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the ]s in the lower Danube basin during the ].<ref>According to Cornelia Bodea, Ştefan Pascu, Liviu Constantinescu: "''România: Atlas Istorico-geografic''{{-"}}, Academia Română 1996, {{ISBN|973-27-0500-0}}, chap. II, "Historical landmarks", p. 50 (English text), the survival of the ]s in the Lower ] basin during the ] is an obvious fact: Thraco-Romans haven't vanished in the soil & Vlachs haven't appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation.<!-- This polemical remark is a blatant straw man, though – nobody claims something so obviously nonsensical. The main alternative hypothesis says that the Romanised Dacians north of the Danube were Slavicised in the Migration Period, while Vlachs immigrated from south of the Danube in the Middle Ages, re-Romanising the region. --></ref> On the other hand, most non-Romanian historian believe that Romanians, ], Aromanians and other Eastern Romance groups originated in the southern Balkans, what is now ], ], and ] and migrated north from there from the 11th-12th centuries onwards.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Malcolm |first=Noel |url=http://macedonia.kroraina.com/en/nm/kosovo.html |title=Kosovo, a short history |publisher=Macmilan |year=1998 |location=London |pages=22–40 |quote=The name 'Vlach' was a word used by the Slavs for those they encountered who spoke a strange, usually Latinate, language; the Vlachs' own name for themselves is 'Aromanians' (Aromani). As this name suggests, the Vlachs are closely linked to the Romanians: their two languages (which, with a little practice, are mutually intelligible) diverged only in the ninth or tenth century. While Romanian historians have tried to argue that the Romanian-speakers have always lived in the territory of Romania (originating, it is claimed, from Romanized Dacian tribes and/or Roman legionaries), there is compelling evidence to show that the Romanian-speakers were originally part of the same population as the Vlachs, whose language and way of life were developed somewhere to the south of the Danube. Only in the twelfth century did the early Romanian-speakers move northwards into Romanian territory.}}</ref><ref name=":9" /><ref name="Quote">Gottfried Schramm (2013) "Similarities between Romanian and Albanian are not limited to their common Balkan features and the assumed substrate words: the two languages share calques and proverbs, and display analogous phonetic changes."</ref>


The term 'Vlach' first appeared in medieval sources and was used primarily as an exonym for speakers of the Balkan Romance languages, especially Romanians.<ref name="Significance"/><ref name="britannica"/> But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that, although in Europe and beyond, they were called ''Vlachs'' or ''Wallachians'' (''oláh'' in Hungarian, ''Vláchoi'' (Βλάχοι) in Greek, ''Volóxi'' (Воло́хи) in Russian, ''Walachen'' in German, ''Valacchi'' in Italian, ''Valaques'' in French, ''Valacos'' in Spanish), the Romanians used the ] ''Rumân'' or ''Român'', from the Latin ''Romanus'', meaning "]".<ref name="Significance"/><ref>{{cite book|author=H. C. Darby|chapter=The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|volume=1|year=1957|page=34}}</ref> The term 'Vlach' first appeared in medieval sources and was used primarily as an exonym for speakers of the Eastern Romance languages, especially Romanians.<ref name="Significance"/><ref name="britannica"/> But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that, although in Europe and beyond, they were called ''Vlachs'' or ''Wallachians'' (''oláh'' in Hungarian, ''Vláchoi'' (Βλάχοι) in Greek, ''Volóxi'' (Воло́хи) in Russian, ''Walachen'' in German, ''Valacchi'' in Italian, ''Valaques'' in French, ''Valacos'' in Spanish), the Romanians used the ] ''Rumân'' or ''Român'', from the Latin ''Romanus'', meaning "]".<ref name="Significance"/><ref>{{cite book|author=H. C. Darby|chapter=The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|volume=1|year=1957|page=34}}</ref>


However, in historical sources the term "Vlach" could also refer to different peoples: ''"Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian".''<ref>Jan Gawron; (2020) ''Locators of the settlements under Wallachian law in the Sambor starosty in XVth and XVIth c. Territorial, ethnic and social origins.'' p. 274-275; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA xxVI, </ref> In late Byzantine documents, the Vlachs are mentioned as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs (''Bulgaralbanitoblahos''), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs.<ref>Noel Malcolm; (1996) ''Bosnia: A Short History'' p. 101; NYU Press, {{ISBN|0814755615}}</ref> According to the Serbian historian ], the name "Vlach" in medieval sources had the same rank as the name "]", "]" or "Latin".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ćirković|first=Sima|title=Živeti sa istorijom|publisher=Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji|year=2020|location=Belgrade|page=309}}</ref> However, in historical sources the term "Vlach" could also refer to different peoples: ''"Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian".''<ref>Jan Gawron; (2020) ''Locators of the settlements under Wallachian law in the Sambor starosty in XVth and XVIth c. Territorial, ethnic and social origins.'' p. 274-275; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA xxVI, </ref> In late Byzantine documents, the Vlachs are mentioned as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs (''Bulgaralbanitoblahos''), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs.<ref>Noel Malcolm; (1996) ''Bosnia: A Short History'' p. 101; NYU Press, {{ISBN|0814755615}}</ref> According to the Serbian historian ], the name "Vlach" in medieval sources had the same rank as the name "]", "]" or "Latin".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ćirković|first=Sima|title=Živeti sa istorijom|publisher=Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji|year=2020|location=Belgrade|page=309}}</ref>


] peoples]]During the early history of the ] in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and ], made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until the beginning of the 17th century.<ref name="sugar" /> Some Greeks used ''Vlacho''{{When|date=March 2023}} as a pejorative term.{{cn|date=March 2023}} In ], members of the ] were called Vlachs, while in ], all inhabitants of Žumberak were called as such.{{cn|date=March 2023}} In the ] and ] areas, ] used the term ''Vlasi'' for all Christians (both Orthodox and Catholics), while the Catholics used that name to refer to ].{{cn|date=March 2023}} Under the Ottoman rule, a large part of the ] was repopulated by Slavic settlers, both Orthodox and Catholic, speaking the ] dialect and called Vlach or ] by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In these areas, the term ''Vlah'' evolved to ''Vlaj'' ({{Plural abbr|''Vlaji''}}) and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to the rural inhabitants of the hinterland, both Croats and Serbs, as "peasants" and "ignorants".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stjepanović |first=Dejan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1004716379 |title=Multiethnic regionalisms in Southeastern Europe: statehood alternatives |date=2018 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-58585-1 |location=London |oclc=1004716379 |page=110}}</ref> In ], the ethnonym Vlach is used by the ] Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro-Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Spicijarić Paškvan |first=Nina |chapter=Vlasi i krčki Vlasi u literaturi i povijesnim izvorima |trans-chapter=Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources |year=2014 |page=348 |title=Studii şi cercetări. Actele Simpozionului "Banat - istorie şi multiculturalitate". Zrenianin - 2012, Reşiţa - 2013 |editor=Editura Fundaţiei |location=Novi Sad, Zrenjanin |chapter-url=https://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/926881.studii_si_cercetari_2014.pdf |language=hr}}</ref> ] peoples]]During the early history of the ] in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and ], made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until the beginning of the 17th century.<ref name="sugar" /> Some Greeks used ''Vlacho''{{When|date=March 2023}} as a pejorative term.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} In ], members of the ] were called Vlachs, while in ], all inhabitants of Žumberak were called as such.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} In the ] and ] areas, ] used the term ''Vlasi'' for all Christians (both Orthodox and Catholics), while the Catholics used that name to refer to ].{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} Under the Ottoman rule, a large part of the ] was repopulated by Slavic settlers, both Orthodox and Catholic, speaking the ] dialect and called Vlach or ] by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In these areas, the term ''Vlah'' evolved to ''Vlaj'' ({{Plural abbr|''Vlaji''}}) and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to the rural inhabitants of the hinterland, both Croats and Serbs, as "peasants" and "ignorants".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stjepanović |first=Dejan |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1004716379 |title=Multiethnic regionalisms in Southeastern Europe: statehood alternatives |date=2018 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-58585-1 |location=London |oclc=1004716379 |page=110}}</ref> In ], the ethnonym Vlach is used by the ] Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro-Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Spicijarić Paškvan |first=Nina |chapter=Vlasi i krčki Vlasi u literaturi i povijesnim izvorima |trans-chapter=Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources |year=2014 |page=348 |title=Studii şi cercetări. Actele Simpozionului "Banat - istorie şi multiculturalitate". Zrenianin - 2012, Reşiţa - 2013 |editor=Editura Fundaţiei |location=Novi Sad, Zrenjanin |chapter-url=https://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/926881.studii_si_cercetari_2014.pdf |language=hr}}</ref>


Nowadays, the term ''Vlachs'' (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.<ref> at culturalsurvival.org</ref>) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.{{sfn|Demirtaş-Coşkun|2001}}{{sfn|Tanner|2004}} In Serbia the term ''Vlach'' (Serbian ''Vlah'', plural ''Vlasi'') is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia.<ref name="britannica"/> Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the ] form ''Vla'' (plural ''Vlaš'') in their own language.<ref name="britannica"/> Nowadays, the term ''Vlachs'' (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.<ref> at culturalsurvival.org</ref>) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.{{sfn|Demirtaş-Coşkun|2001}}{{sfn|Tanner|2004}} In Serbia the term ''Vlach'' (Serbian ''Vlah'', plural ''Vlasi'') is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia.<ref name="britannica"/> Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the ] form ''Vla'' (plural ''Vlaš'') in their own language.<ref name="britannica"/>


In modern ], ''Valasi'', other than denoting people of Vlachian ethnicity or origin, is synonymously and even more prominently used to describe ], more commonly apprentice shepherds. The term originated following Vlachian arrival in mounts and hills of present-day Slovakia in 14th century and coinciding development in sheep herding and dairy industry.<ref name="horváth">{{Cite web |last=Horváth |first=Stanislav |title=Valasi |url=https://www.ludovakultura.sk/polozka-encyklopedie/valasi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529152407/https://www.ludovakultura.sk/polozka-encyklopedie/valasi/ |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=Centrum pre tradičnú ľudovú kultúru |date=9 October 2017 |language=sk}}</ref> Further west, in ], the area of Moravian Wallachia is known as ] and the inhabitants as Valaši, names usually translated in English as Wallachia and Wallachians, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Košťálová |first=Petra |date=2022 |title=Contested Landscape: Moravian Wallachia and Moravian Slovakia |url=https://journals.openedition.org/res/5138 |access-date=9 August 2023 |journal=Revue des Études Slaves|volume=93 |pages=99–124 |doi=10.4000/res.5138 |s2cid=249359362 }}</ref> In modern ], ''Valasi'', other than denoting people of Vlachian ethnicity or origin, is synonymously and even more prominently used to describe ]s, more commonly apprentice shepherds. The term originated following Vlachian arrival in mounts and hills of present-day Slovakia in 14th century and coinciding development in sheep herding and dairy industry.<ref name="horváth">{{Cite web |last=Horváth |first=Stanislav |title=Valasi |url=https://www.ludovakultura.sk/polozka-encyklopedie/valasi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529152407/https://www.ludovakultura.sk/polozka-encyklopedie/valasi/ |archive-date=29 May 2023 |access-date=29 May 2023 |website=Centrum pre tradičnú ľudovú kultúru |date=9 October 2017 |language=sk}}</ref> Further west, in ], the area of Moravian Wallachia is known as ] and the inhabitants as Valaši, names usually translated in English as Wallachia and Wallachians, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Košťálová |first=Petra |date=2022 |title=Contested Landscape: Moravian Wallachia and Moravian Slovakia |url=https://journals.openedition.org/res/5138 |access-date=9 August 2023 |journal=Revue des Études Slaves|volume=93 |pages=99–124 |doi=10.4000/res.5138 |s2cid=249359362 }}</ref>

], Transylvania.)]]


== Medieval usage == == Medieval usage ==
{{See also|History of Romania|Origin of the Romanians|History of the Aromanians}} {{See also|History of Romania|Origin of the Romanians|History of the Aromanians}}
] between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions]] ] between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions]]
=== 8th century ===
First precise data about Vlachs are in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river (present-day ]); the original document containing the information is from the ].<ref>Stelian Brezeanu, O istorie a Bizanțului, Editura Meronia, București, 2005, p.126</ref>

=== 9th century ===
According to the medieval Hungarian book '']'' ("The deeds of the Hungarians"), when the ] of ] ] the ], ], ] and ''Blachij'', and also the ] (''sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum'') inhabited it.<ref name=":12">* (a translation by Martyn Rady)</ref> Most researchers identify the ''Blachij'' with the Vlachs.<ref>E.g. Armbruster, Adolf (1972). ''Romanitatea românilor: Istoria unei idei''; Kristó, Gyula (2002). ''Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon''; Spinei, Victor (2009). ''The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century''</ref> However, most Hungarian historians claim that the text is not historically accurate. It was written around 300 years after the described events. Other scholars assert that this work is generally credible even if it makes some chronological mistakes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |title=The Romanians in the Anonymous Gesta Hungarorum: Truth and Fiction |publisher=Romanian Cultural Institute, Center for Transylvanian Studies |year=2005 |isbn=973-7784-01-4 |page=147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Djuvara |first=Neagu |title=O scurtǎ istorie a românilor povestitǎ celor tineri |publisher=Istros |year=2003 |page=20 |language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Ioan-Aurel Pop |url=https://dspace.bcucluj.ro/bitstream/123456789/48217/1/Pop+Ioan+Aurel-Radacinile+medievale-2011.pdf |title=Economia regională:ipostaze rurale şi urbane |publisher=Presa Universitară Clujeană |year=2011 |page=147 |language=ro |chapter=Rădăcinile medievale ale regiunii (provinciei) istorice Transilvania (secolele IX-XIII)}}</ref>


=== 8th century ===
First uncertain data about Vlachs is in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river (present-day ]). The original document containing this information is from the ] and was written in the 17th century. It is supposed that it is based on a 9th-century Byzantine source describing earlier events.<ref>Stelian Brezeanu, O istorie a Bizanțului, Editura Meronia, București, 2005, p.126</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2023}}


=== 10th century === === 10th century ===
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=== 11th century === === 11th century ===


Vlachs were present in large numbers, on the ] around 1000, according to monastic documents from ]. On the peninsula, the Vlachs were famous for their cheese and meat products. In these texts sometimes they are called "''Vlachorynhinii''", which may be a mixture of the name "Vlach" and "]" a Slavic tribe who settled in the same area in the 7th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bujduveanu |first=Tănase |title=Aromâni si Muntele Athos |publisher=Societatea Académica Moscopolitană |year=2002}}</ref> Vlachs were present in large numbers, on the ] around 1000, according to monastic documents from ]. On the peninsula, the Vlachs were famous for their cheese and meat products. In these texts sometimes they are called "''Vlachorynhinii''", which may be a mixture of the name "Vlach" and "]" a Slavic tribe who settled in the same area in the 7th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bujduveanu |first=Tănase |title=Aromâni si Muntele Athos |publisher=Societatea Académica Moscopolitană |year=2002}}</ref>


In 1013, a Byzantine document mentions the settlement of "Kimbalongu" in the mountains near ], which was a Vlach settlement.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last=Pál |first=Hunfalvy |title=Hogyan csinálódik némely história? |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |pages=60–71 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> In 1013, a Byzantine document mentions the settlement of "Kimbalongu" in the mountains near ], which was a Vlach settlement.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last=Pál |first=Hunfalvy |title=Hogyan csinálódik némely história? |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |pages=60–71 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>
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The same chronicle the ] describes that in 1027 the ] army led by Orestes that tried to recapture ] from the ], also included many Vlachs recruited from ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olajos |first=Terézia |title=A felhasználhatatlan Bizánci forrás a Román nép történetéhez |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |year=1988 |page=514 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> The same chronicle the ] describes that in 1027 the ] army led by Orestes that tried to recapture ] from the ], also included many Vlachs recruited from ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olajos |first=Terézia |title=A felhasználhatatlan Bizánci forrás a Román nép történetéhez |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |year=1988 |page=514 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>


] writes about the revolt in 1066 in the region of ] led by ], nephew of the homonymous 10th century military commander, and father in law of the writer.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |trans-title=The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula |title=Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] |publisher=Editura Corint |year=2001 |isbn=973-653-191-0 |pages=57–58 }}</ref> ] writes about the revolt in 1066 in the region of ] led by ], nephew of the homonymous 10th century military commander, and father in law of the writer.<ref name="Madgearu 2001 57–58">{{Cite book|last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |trans-title=The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula |title=Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] |publisher=Editura Corint |year=2001 |isbn=973-653-191-0 |pages=57–58 }}</ref>


In 1071, a Byzantine document mentions that the herds of the Vlachs and their household spend the months of April to September beyond ], in the high mountains of Bulgaria, where it is very cold. (it is clear from the text that we are talking about the mountains of today's ]). The same text describes that the homeland of the Vlachs is Thessaly, precisely the part of the region divided by the river Pleres.<ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kekaumenos |title=DAS "STRATEGIKON" |year=1964 |language=german |translator-last=Hans Georg Beck}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kekaumenos |title=Consilia et Narrationes |year=2000 |language=Spanish |translator-last=J. Signes Codoner}}</ref> Florin Curta adds that ] calls Vlachs "migrants from the northern parts", as ] associates them with ] or ] of Antiquity.<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 37, 2015</ref> In 1071, a Byzantine document mentions that the herds of the Vlachs and their household spend the months of April to September beyond ], in the high mountains of Bulgaria, where it is very cold. (it is clear from the text that we are talking about the mountains of today's ]). The same text describes that the homeland of the Vlachs is Thessaly, precisely the part of the region divided by the river Pleres.<ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kekaumenos |title=DAS "STRATEGIKON" |year=1964 |language=german |translator-last=Hans Georg Beck}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kekaumenos |title=Consilia et Narrationes |year=2000 |language=Spanish |translator-last=J. Signes Codoner}}</ref> Florin Curta adds that ] calls Vlachs "migrants from the northern parts", as ] associates them with ] or ] of Antiquity.<ref name="Florin Curta page 37">Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 37, 2015</ref>


A ] author, ] writes about the Vlachs in ] in connection about their origin and way of life in the '']'' in 1075–1078.<ref name="Mocsy">{{Cite journal |last=Mócsy |first=András |date=1987 |title=A dunai-balkáni térség romanizációja |trans-title=Romanization of the Danube-Balkan region |url=https://epa.oszk.hu/03500/03576/00054/pdf/EPA03576_vilagtortenet_1987_03_003-017.pdf |journal=Világtörténet |language=Hungarian |volume=3 |issue=9}}</ref> According to Kekaumenos, the Vlachs were ] and Bessus, who lived near and south from the ] and the ], where the ] live now. They feigned loyalty to the Romans while they were constantly attacked and pillaged, therefore, ] launched a war, their leader, ] was also killed, and then the Vlachs were scattered in ], ] and ].{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=97–98}}<ref name="Elekes">{{Cite journal |last=Elekes |first=Lajos |title=Gyóni Mátyás: A legrégibb vélemény a román nép eredetéről. Kekaumenos művei, mint a román történet forrásai |trans-title=Mátyás Gyóni: The oldest opinion about the origin of the Romanian people. Kekaumenos' works as sources of Romanian history |url=http://real-j.mtak.hu/13695/1/Szazadok_1944.pdf |journal=Századok – A magyar történelmi társulat közlönye |pages=310–312}}</ref> Kekaumenos made the Dacians the ancestors of the Vlachs because he knew about the deceitfulness of the Dacians against the Romans, and according to him the Dacians and Vlachs had a perfectly matching nature, treachery and political unreliability, so much that in his opinion they should not be believed even if the Vlachs take an oath.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=97–98}}<ref name="Elekes" /> Kekaumenos arbitrarily identified the Vlachs with the Dacians according to the archaizing efforts of his time, because the tendency to refer to later peoples with classical names was common in Byzantium at the time of Kekaumenos.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=97–98}}<ref name="Mocsy" /><ref name="Elekes" /> Kekaumenos also confused the Roman province ] with ], and even he placed it further west where it actually was, that is why he mentioned the Serbian territory as the homeland,<ref name="Mocsy" /><ref name="Elekes" /> the Bessus tribe was a neighbor of the Roman province Macedonia.<ref name="Mocsy" /> A ] author, ] writes about the Vlachs in ] in connection about their origin and way of life in the '']'' in 1075–1078.<ref name="Mocsy">{{Cite journal |last=Mócsy |first=András |date=1987 |title=A dunai-balkáni térség romanizációja |trans-title=Romanization of the Danube-Balkan region |url=https://epa.oszk.hu/03500/03576/00054/pdf/EPA03576_vilagtortenet_1987_03_003-017.pdf |journal=Világtörténet |language=Hungarian |volume=3 |issue=9}}</ref> According to Kekaumenos, the Vlachs were ] and Bessus, who lived near and south from the ] and the ], where the ] live now. They feigned loyalty to the Romans while they were constantly attacked and pillaged, therefore, ] launched a war, their leader, ] was also killed, and then the Vlachs were scattered in ], ] and ].{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=97–98}}<ref name="Elekes">{{Cite journal |last=Elekes |first=Lajos |title=Gyóni Mátyás: A legrégibb vélemény a román nép eredetéről. Kekaumenos művei, mint a román történet forrásai |trans-title=Mátyás Gyóni: The oldest opinion about the origin of the Romanian people. Kekaumenos' works as sources of Romanian history |url=http://real-j.mtak.hu/13695/1/Szazadok_1944.pdf |journal=Századok – A magyar történelmi társulat közlönye |pages=310–312}}</ref> Kekaumenos made the Dacians the ancestors of the Vlachs because he knew about the deceitfulness of the Dacians against the Romans, and according to him the Dacians and Vlachs had a perfectly matching nature, treachery and political unreliability, so much that in his opinion they should not be believed even if the Vlachs take an oath.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=97–98}}<ref name="Elekes" /> Kekaumenos arbitrarily identified the Vlachs with the Dacians according to the archaizing efforts of his time, because the tendency to refer to later peoples with classical names was common in Byzantium at the time of Kekaumenos.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=97–98}}<ref name="Mocsy" /><ref name="Elekes" /> Kekaumenos also confused the Roman province ] with ], and even he placed it further west where it actually was, that is why he mentioned the Serbian territory as the homeland,<ref name="Mocsy" /><ref name="Elekes" /> the Bessus tribe was a neighbor of the Roman province Macedonia.<ref name="Mocsy" />


Alexius Komnenos mentions that in 1082 he passed through a Vlach settlement called Exeva in Macedonia.<ref name=":17" /> Alexius Komnenos mentions that in 1082 he passed through a Vlach settlement called Exeva in Macedonia.<ref name=":17" />


] mentions in her ] that in 1091 Emperor ] ordered ] to raise an army against invading ]. Melissenos recruited, among others, Bulgarians and "the nomadic tribes called Vlachs in popular parlance".<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 39, 2015</ref> ] mentions in her ] that in 1091 Emperor ] ordered ] to raise an army against invading ]. Melissenos recruited, among others, Bulgarians and "the nomadic tribes called Vlachs in popular parlance".<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 39, 2015</ref>


According to the Alexiad, in 1094–1095, Emperor ] was notified by a Vlach chieftain called Poudila about the crossing of the Danube by a ] army, and that to prepare himself for the attack,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |title=Archeologia Moldovei XXXVIII |publisher=Romanian Academy |year=2015 |location=București/Suceava |pages=38 |language=Romanian |chapter=Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii Cruciadei a IV-a. Până unde răzbate ecoul discuțiilor intelectuale de la Constantinopol? |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/20297336}}</ref>{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=98}} then the Vlachs likewise led the Cumans through the gorges of the Balkan Mountains.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=98}} According to the Alexiad, in 1094–1095, Emperor ] was notified by a Vlach chieftain called Poudila about the crossing of the Danube by a ] army, and that to prepare himself for the attack,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |title=Archeologia Moldovei XXXVIII |publisher=Romanian Academy |year=2015 |location=București/Suceava |pages=38 |language=Romanian |chapter=Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii Cruciadei a IV-a. Până unde răzbate ecoul discuțiilor intelectuale de la Constantinopol? |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/20297336}}</ref>{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=98}} then the Vlachs likewise led the Cumans through the gorges of the Balkan Mountains.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=98}}


Also in 1094 the first mention of Vlachs in ] region is made, the document is kept in the archive of the monastery Great Lavra on Mount Athos. According to this Emperor ] replies to the monks of the monastery complaining that people on their domain are not paying taxes. The document contains some of the first Romanian names, such as Stan, Radu cel Şchiop, and Peducel.<ref>Emil Țîrcomnicu: page 15</ref> Also in 1094 the first mention of Vlachs in ] region is made, the document is kept in the archive of the monastery Great Lavra on Mount Athos. According to this Emperor ] replies to the monks of the monastery complaining that people on their domain are not paying taxes. The document contains some of the first Romanian names, such as Stan, Radu cel Şchiop, and Peducel.<ref>Emil Țîrcomnicu: page 15</ref>
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In 1097, many Vlachs were resettled from the ] to the ] by order of the Byzantine emperor Komnenos Alexis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=László |first=Botos |title=Út a trianoni békeparancshoz |publisher=Magna Lingua |year=2001 |isbn= |pages=212}}</ref> In 1097, many Vlachs were resettled from the ] to the ] by order of the Byzantine emperor Komnenos Alexis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=László |first=Botos |title=Út a trianoni békeparancshoz |publisher=Magna Lingua |year=2001 |isbn= |pages=212}}</ref>


In 1099, ] were attacked by Vlachs, in the mountains along the road from ] to ].{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=98}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |trans-title=The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula |title=Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] |publisher=Editura Corint |year=2001 |isbn=973-653-191-0 |pages=57–58 }}</ref> In 1099, ] were attacked by Vlachs, in the mountains along the road from ] to ].{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=98}}<ref name="Madgearu 2001 57–58"/>


=== 12th century === === 12th century ===
] humanist ].]] ] humanist ].]]


The ], written c. 1113 states that the ] settled beside the ], then the ''Volochi'' people attacked the Slavs, settled among them and did them violance, leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the ] under the name of ''Leshi''.<ref>THE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE- Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol. 49 (1979), pp. 175-187, Peeters Publishers</ref> According to the chronicle the Slavs settled there first, and the ''Volochi'' seized the territory of the Slavs, later, the ] drove the ''Volochi'' away, took their land and settled among the Slavs.<ref>Samuel Hazzard Cross et Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (English), The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text, The Medieval Academy of America, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2012, p.62</ref><ref>C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire: 1790–1918, Faber & Faber, 4 sept. 2014, paragraf.185</ref> The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pop |first=Ioan-Aurel |trans-title=Romanians and Hungarians from the 9th to the 14th Century. The Genesis of the Transylvanian Medieval State |title=Românii şi maghiarii în secolele IX-XIV. Geneza statului medieval în Transilvania] |publisher=Center for Transylvanian Studies |year=1996 |page=32 }}</ref><ref>THE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE- Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol. 49 (1979), pp. 175-187, Peeters Publishers</ref> Other non-Romanian historians consider the ''Volochi'' the ], as their country is placed west to ] and near ] by the author of the work, ].<ref name=":10">Kristó, Gyula (2003). ''Early Transylvania (895–1324)''.Lucidus Kiadó. {{ISBN|963-9465-12-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Deletant |first=Dennis |title=Historians and the History of Transylvania |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0880332298 |volume=East European Monographs |location=New York |chapter=Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/20351101}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ferincz |first1=István |url=http://publicatio.bibl.u-szeged.hu/6261/1/MOK_30_nyomda_beliv.pdf |title=Régmúlt idők elbeszélése - A Kijevi Rusz első krónikája |last2=Balogh |first2=László |last3=Font |first3=Márta |last4=Kovács |first4=Szilvia |last5=Polgár |first5=Szabolcs |last6=Zimonyi |first6=István |publisher=Balassi Kiadó, Szegedi Tudományegyetem - Középkori Egyetemes Történeti Tanszék (University of Szeged - Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences - Department of Medieval History) |year=2015 |isbn=978-963-506-970-5 |editor1-last=Zimonyi |editor1-first=István |location=Budapest |pages=18–20 |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The first chronicle of Kievan Rus |issn=1215-4024 |editor2-last=Balogh |editor2-first=László |editor3-last=Kovács |editor3-first=Szilvia}}</ref> The ] stretched from the ] to the ]. The ], written c. 1113 states that the ] settled beside the ], then the ''Volochi'' people attacked the Slavs, settled among them and did them violance, leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the ] under the name of ''Leshi''.<ref name="Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol 1979 pp. 175-187">THE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE- Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol. 49 (1979), pp. 175-187, Peeters Publishers</ref> According to the chronicle the Slavs settled there first, and the ''Volochi'' seized the territory of the Slavs, later, the ] drove the ''Volochi'' away, took their land and settled among the Slavs.<ref>Samuel Hazzard Cross et Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (English), The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text, The Medieval Academy of America, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2012, p.62</ref><ref>C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire: 1790–1918, Faber & Faber, 4 sept. 2014, paragraf.185</ref> The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians.<ref name="Pop 1996 32"/><ref name="Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol 1979 pp. 175-187"/> Other non-Romanian historians consider the ''Volochi'' the ], as their country is placed west to ] and near ] by the author of the work, ].<ref name=":10">Kristó, Gyula (2003). ''Early Transylvania (895–1324)''.Lucidus Kiadó. {{ISBN|963-9465-12-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Deletant |first=Dennis |title=Historians and the History of Transylvania |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0880332298 |volume=East European Monographs |location=New York |chapter=Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/20351101}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ferincz |first1=István |url=http://publicatio.bibl.u-szeged.hu/6261/1/MOK_30_nyomda_beliv.pdf |title=Régmúlt idők elbeszélése - A Kijevi Rusz első krónikája |last2=Balogh |first2=László |last3=Font |first3=Márta |last4=Kovács |first4=Szilvia |last5=Polgár |first5=Szabolcs |last6=Zimonyi |first6=István |publisher=Balassi Kiadó, Szegedi Tudományegyetem - Középkori Egyetemes Történeti Tanszék (University of Szeged - Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences - Department of Medieval History) |year=2015 |isbn=978-963-506-970-5 |editor1-last=Zimonyi |editor1-first=István |location=Budapest |pages=18–20 |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The first chronicle of Kievan Rus |issn=1215-4024 |editor2-last=Balogh |editor2-first=László |editor3-last=Kovács |editor3-first=Szilvia}}</ref> The ] stretched from the ] to the ].


The Byzantine princess and scholar ], in her book ], mentions a Vlach settlement called Ezeba, which was near ] and Androneia. In the same work she also describes the Vlachs as "the nomadic tribes, called Vlachs in popular parlance".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Comnena |first=Anna |title=The Alexiad |publisher=In parentheses Publications Byzantine Series Cambridge |year=2000 |location=Ontario |pages=90,141 |translator-last=A. S. Dawes |translator-first=Elizabeth}}</ref> The Byzantine princess and scholar ], in her book ], mentions a Vlach settlement called Ezeba, which was near ] and Androneia. In the same work she also describes the Vlachs as "the nomadic tribes, called Vlachs in popular parlance".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Comnena |first=Anna |title=The Alexiad |publisher=In parentheses Publications Byzantine Series Cambridge |year=2000 |location=Ontario |pages=90,141 |translator-last=A. S. Dawes |translator-first=Elizabeth}}</ref>
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Byzantine historian ] described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.<ref>A. Decei, op. cit., p. 25.</ref><ref>V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta From the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p.132, {{ISBN|9789004175365}}</ref> ] says Vlachs were "colonists brought from Italy".<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 40, 2015</ref> Byzantine historian ] described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.<ref>A. Decei, op. cit., p. 25.</ref><ref>V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta From the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p.132, {{ISBN|9789004175365}}</ref> ] says Vlachs were "colonists brought from Italy".<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 40, 2015</ref>
], seat of Dobromir Chrysos]] ], seat of Dobromir Chrysos]]
The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a ] living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the ], also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 37, 2015</ref> The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a ] living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the ], also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.<ref name="Florin Curta page 37"/>


According to ], after the Byzantine emperor ] lost his wife, he wanted to marry the daughter of Bela III of Hungary, but there was not enough money for the wedding, so he imposed taxes in the regions and cities of the ], but he angered the "barbarians who dwelt in the ] mountains, who were once called ], but are now called Vlachs".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunfalvy |first=Pál |title=Az Oláhok Története |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |edition=I. |location=Budapest |pages=274 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> According to ], after the Byzantine emperor ] lost his wife, he wanted to marry the daughter of Bela III of Hungary, but there was not enough money for the wedding, so he imposed taxes in the regions and cities of the ], but he angered the "barbarians who dwelt in the ] mountains, who were once called ]ns, but are now called Vlachs".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hunfalvy |first=Pál |title=Az Oláhok Története |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |edition=I. |location=Budapest |pages=274 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>


Mentions of Vlachs in ] also come from ] who writes about a Vlach called ] who established an autonomous polity in the upper region of ] and ].<ref> page 15 </ref> A similar event is recorded by the same author in the area of ] where a Vlach called ], formerly a boyar at the ] brothers' court was given military command by ] and expanded his rule to ], ], and ].<ref> page 14 </ref> Mentions of Vlachs in ] also come from ] who writes about a Vlach called ] who established an autonomous polity in the upper region of ] and ].<ref> page 15</ref> A similar event is recorded by the same author in the area of ] where a Vlach called ], formerly a boyar at the ] brothers' court was given military command by ] and expanded his rule to ], ], and ].<ref> page 14</ref>


According to ], Thessaly and Macedonia is called "Magna Vlachia", ] and Acarnata are called "Little Vlachia" and north-eastern ] is called "Upper Vlachia".<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":17" /> According to ], Thessaly and Macedonia is called "Magna Vlachia", ] and Acarnata are called "Little Vlachia" and north-eastern ] is called "Upper Vlachia".<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":17" />


According to Niketas Choniates, the Vlachs are the barbarians who live in the ], in ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Niketas |first=Choniates |title=O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=1984 |location=Detroit |translator-last=Harry J. Magoulias |quote=provoking the barbarians who lived in the vicinity of Mount Haimos, formerly called Mysians and now named Vlachs, to declare war against him and the Romans.}}</ref> According to Niketas Choniates, the Vlachs are the barbarians who live in the ], in ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Niketas |first=Choniates |title=O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates |publisher=Wayne State University Press |year=1984 |location=Detroit |translator-last=Harry J. Magoulias |quote=provoking the barbarians who lived in the vicinity of Mount Haimos, formerly called Mysians and now named Vlachs, to declare war against him and the Romans.}}</ref>

In 1183 Hungarian documents mention, that ], in his campaign against the ], sacked ], and among the defenders there were many Vlachs. The King used the opportunity and "... took home a number of these valiant mountain soldiers, and settled them in the ]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Árpád |first=Kosztin |title=Magyar Térvesztés Román Térnyerés Erdélyben |publisher= |year=2003 |isbn=9639289604 |location=Budapest}}</ref>


A Byzantine church document mentions that in 1190, "the ] and the Vlachs take the relics of ] from ] to ] with a great pomp".<ref name=":17" /> A Byzantine church document mentions that in 1190, "the ] and the Vlachs take the relics of ] from ] to ] with a great pomp".<ref name=":17" />


According to the "]", the authenticity of which is highly disputed by historians, around 600 the ] conquered ], then, attacking further south, ravaged ] and the "land of the black Latins, now called ]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja |url=https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus6/Dukljanin/frametext.htm |archive-url= |website=Medieval Histrical Sources East and West}}</ref> According to the "]", the authenticity of which is highly disputed by historians, c. 600AD the ] conquered ], then, attacking further south, ravaged ] and the "land of the black Latins, now called ]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja |url=https://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus6/Dukljanin/frametext.htm |archive-url= |website=Medieval Histrical Sources East and West}}</ref>


The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of ], most likely 1198-1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of ] with aid from the inhabitants of the area of ].<ref></ref> The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of ], most likely 1198-1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of ] with aid from the inhabitants of the area of ].<ref></ref>
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] was given the title {{lang|la|imperator Caloihannes dominus omnium Bulgarorum atque Blachorum}} ("Emperor Kaloyan, Lord of All Bulgarians and Vlachs") by ] ]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9nzDQAAQBAJ|title=The Asanids: the political and military history of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1280)|first=Alexandru|last=Madgearu|publisher=]|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-33319-2}}</ref> and the title {{lang|la|Rex Bulgarorum et Blachorum}} ("King of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs") by ].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=266056|title=Ideas of federation and personal union with regard to Bulgaria and Romania|first=Blagovest|last=Nyagulov|journal=Bulgarian Historical Review|issue=3–4|pages=36–61|year=2012|issn=0204-8906}}</ref> ] was given the title {{lang|la|imperator Caloihannes dominus omnium Bulgarorum atque Blachorum}} ("Emperor Kaloyan, Lord of All Bulgarians and Vlachs") by ] ]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9nzDQAAQBAJ|title=The Asanids: the political and military history of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1280)|first=Alexandru|last=Madgearu|publisher=]|year=2016|isbn=978-90-04-33319-2}}</ref> and the title {{lang|la|Rex Bulgarorum et Blachorum}} ("King of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs") by ].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=266056|title=Ideas of federation and personal union with regard to Bulgaria and Romania|first=Blagovest|last=Nyagulov|journal=Bulgarian Historical Review|issue=3–4|pages=36–61|year=2012|issn=0204-8906}}</ref>


In 1204 and 1205 ] mentions the Vlachs as enemies of ]. <ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 27, 2015</ref> In 1204 and 1205 ] mentions the Vlachs as enemies of ].<ref name="Florin Curta page 27">Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 27, 2015</ref>


After 1207 ] mentions twelve times the Vlachs part of the armies of ], either as defenders against ] or among the ].<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 29, 2015</ref> After 1207 ] mentions twelve times the Vlachs part of the armies of ], either as defenders against ] or among the ].<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 29, 2015</ref>


Around the same time ] writes about the country he calls ''Blasquie'' ruled by ''Burile'' (Borilă). ] conquers this land and awards it to ''Burile's'' cousin ''Esclas'' (Slav). From there on the country will be know as ''Blakie la Grant'' (Great Valachia).<ref>Florin Curta: Imaginea vlahilor la cronicarii cruciadei a IV-a, page 27, 2015</ref> Around the same time ] writes about the country he calls ''Blasquie'' ruled by ''Burile'' (Borilă). ] conquers this land and awards it to ''Burile's'' cousin ''Esclas'' (Slav). From there on the country will be know as ''Blakie la Grant'' (Great Valachia).<ref name="Florin Curta page 27"/>


Sándor Timaru-Kast alleges that the Venetian Chronicle refers to the land that would become Wallachia as "Black Cumania", "the colony of black Vlachs who migrated northwards."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Timaru - Kast |first=Sándor |url=https://epa.oszk.hu/01400/01445/00056/pdf/EPA01445_acta_hungarica_2019_02_326-355.pdf |title=A románok eredetéről, Magna Vlachiától Ungrovlachiáig. A Kárpát-régió magyar földrajza |year=2019 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> Sándor Timaru-Kast alleges that the Venetian Chronicle refers to the land that would become Wallachia as "Black Cumania", "the colony of black Vlachs who migrated northwards."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Timaru - Kast |first=Sándor |url=https://epa.oszk.hu/01400/01445/00056/pdf/EPA01445_acta_hungarica_2019_02_326-355.pdf |title=A románok eredetéről, Magna Vlachiától Ungrovlachiáig. A Kárpát-régió magyar földrajza |year=2019 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>


According to the medieval Hungarian chronicle, the '']'' ("The deeds of the Hungarians"), written in the early 13th century, when the ] of ] ] the ], at that time ], ] and ''Blachij'', and also the ] (''sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum'') inhabited Pannonia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rady |first=Martyn |date=October 2009 |title=The Gesta Hungarorum of Anonymus, the Anonymous Notary of King Béla |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/18975/1/18975.pdf |journal=Slavonic and East European Review |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=|doi=10.1353/see.2009.0062 |s2cid=141192138 }}</ref> Most researchers say that the ''Blachij'' are the Vlachs,<ref>E.g. Armbruster, Adolf (1972). ''Romanitatea românilor: Istoria unei idei''; Kristó, Gyula (2002). ''Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon''; Spinei, Victor (2009). ''The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century''</ref> others that they are the ], a Turkic people.<ref name=":6">E.g. Györffy, György (1963). ''Az Árpád-kori Magyarország Történeti Földrajza;'' Faragó, Imre (2017). ''Térképészeti földrajz''; Rásonyi, László (1979), Bulaqs and Oguzs in Medieval Transylvania</ref> The chronicle's authenticity is in question in ], because it confuses the peoples living in the area in the 12th century and the peoples of the 9th century. Among others, it includes the ] in ], who arrived only centuries later.<ref name=":7">Thoroczkay, Gábor (2009). ''Írások az Árpád-korról''</ref><ref name=":8">Róna-Tas, András (1999)''Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History''</ref><ref>Gyula, Kristó (2002). ''Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon''</ref><ref name=":9">Macartney, Carlile Aylmer (1953). ''The Medieval Hungarian Historians: A Critical & Analytical Guide''</ref> Romanian historian ] states that some exaggerations and inaccuracies, typical of a chronicle at the time and mostly in favour of the ], are not a sufficient reason to discredit the entire document as a historical source.<ref>Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1996). Românii şi maghiarii în secolele IX-XIV. Geneza statului medieval în Transilvania] . Center for Transylvanian Studies. pages 84-85</ref> It is important to note, however, that the chronicle mentions many rulers, but none of them is mentioned in any other contemporary chronicle.<ref name=":10" /> According to Romanian historian ] and leading Romanian medievalist Radu Popa, during the 1960–1989 period, the archaeological evidences were manipulated to meet the demands of the nationalist policies of the ] regime, and Romanian archaeologists made every possible attempt to prove that the '']'' is a reliable source for the Romanian presence in Transylvania prior to the ], however no archaeological evidence was found to prove the subject. Hungarian archaeologist István Bóna also accused Romanian archaeologists of hiding evidence that did not fit their interpretation regarding the '']'' during the excavation of the early medieval hillfort at ] as ] capital city.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |url= |title=Europe around the year 1000 |publisher=Wydawn. DiG |year=2001 |isbn=978-83-7181-211-8 |edition=Urbańczyk, Przemysław |location=Warsaw |pages=141–165 |chapter=Transylvania around A.D. 1000 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/229524}}</ref>'' Wheter archeology supports the ''Gesta'' or not is disputed among historians.<ref name=":Madgearu">{{Cite book |last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru|title=Expansiunea maghiară în Transilvania|date=2019|pages=42, 43, 78, 150-151|publisher=Cetatea de Scaun|language=ro|isbn=978-606-537-443-0}}</ref> British-Romanian historian ] states the analysis of the '']'' shows that is too naive to claim it is an immaculate source, just as it is foolhardy to totally discredit its reliability, and the conclusion, the cases for and against the existence of ] and the Vlachs simply cannot be proven.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deletant |first=Dennis |title=Historians and the History of Transylvania |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0880332298 |volume=East European Monographs |location=New York |pages=71, 85|chapter=Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/20351101}}</ref> British historian ] writes in his critical and analytical guide of Anonymus that all Romanian historians refer to ], but they are not credible in the subject and the chronicle is not evidence for presence of Vlachs in Transylvania.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Macartney |first=Carlile Aylmer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Shk9AAAAIAAJ |title=The medieval Hungarian historians: a critical and analytical guide |date=2 January 1953 |pages=61, 75}}</ref> Madgearu attempts to prove that a Vlach-Slav population existed in Transylvania before the arrival of the Hungarians by recounting place names of Slavic origin he believes weren't adopted to Romanian via Hungarian.<ref name=":Madgearu"/> According to the medieval Hungarian chronicle, the '']'' ("The deeds of the Hungarians"), written in the early 13th century, when the ] of ] ] the ], at that time ], ] and ''Blachij'', and also the ] (''sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum'') inhabited Pannonia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rady |first=Martyn |date=October 2009 |title=The Gesta Hungarorum of Anonymus, the Anonymous Notary of King Béla |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/18975/1/18975.pdf |journal=Slavonic and East European Review |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=|doi=10.1353/see.2009.0062 |s2cid=141192138 }}</ref> Most researchers say that the ''Blachij'' are the Vlachs,<ref>E.g. Armbruster, Adolf (1972). ''Romanitatea românilor: Istoria unei idei''; Kristó, Gyula (2002). ''Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon''; Spinei, Victor (2009). ''The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century''</ref> others that they are the ], a Turkic people.<ref name=":6">E.g. Györffy, György (1963). ''Az Árpád-kori Magyarország Történeti Földrajza;'' Faragó, Imre (2017). ''Térképészeti földrajz''; Rásonyi, László (1979), Bulaqs and Oguzs in Medieval Transylvania</ref> The chronicle's authenticity is in question in ], because it confuses the peoples living in the area in the 12th century and the peoples of the 9th century. Among others, it includes the ] in ], who arrived only centuries later.<ref name=":7">Thoroczkay, Gábor (2009). ''Írások az Árpád-korról''</ref><ref name=":8">Róna-Tas, András (1999)''Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History''</ref><ref>Gyula, Kristó (2002). ''Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon''</ref><ref name=":9">Macartney, Carlile Aylmer (1953). ''The Medieval Hungarian Historians: A Critical & Analytical Guide''</ref> Romanian historian ] states that some exaggerations and inaccuracies, typical of a chronicle at the time and mostly in favour of the ], are not a sufficient reason to discredit the entire document as a historical source.<ref>Pop, Ioan-Aurel (1996). Românii şi maghiarii în secolele IX-XIV. Geneza statului medieval în Transilvania] . Center for Transylvanian Studies. pages 84-85</ref> It is important to note, however, that the chronicle mentions many rulers, but none of them is mentioned in any other contemporary chronicle.<ref name=":10" /> According to Romanian historian ] and leading Romanian medievalist Radu Popa, during the 1960–1989 period, the archaeological evidences were manipulated to meet the demands of the nationalist policies of the ] regime, and Romanian archaeologists made every possible attempt to prove that the '']'' is a reliable source for the Romanian presence in Transylvania prior to the ], however no archaeological evidence was found to prove the subject. Hungarian archaeologist István Bóna also accused Romanian archaeologists of hiding evidence that did not fit their interpretation regarding the '']'' during the excavation of the early medieval hillfort at ] as ] capital city.''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |url= |title=Europe around the year 1000 |publisher=Wydawn. DiG |year=2001 |isbn=978-83-7181-211-8 |edition=Urbańczyk, Przemysław |location=Warsaw |pages=141–165 |chapter=Transylvania around A.D. 1000 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/229524}}</ref>'' Wheter archeology supports the ''Gesta'' or not is disputed among historians.<ref name=":Madgearu">{{Cite book |last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru|title=Expansiunea maghiară în Transilvania|date=2019|pages=42, 43, 78, 150–151|publisher=Cetatea de Scaun|language=ro|isbn=978-606-537-443-0}}</ref> British-Romanian historian ] states the analysis of the '']'' shows that is too naive to claim it is an immaculate source, just as it is foolhardy to totally discredit its reliability, and the conclusion, the cases for and against the existence of ] and the Vlachs simply cannot be proven.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deletant |first=Dennis |title=Historians and the History of Transylvania |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0880332298 |volume=East European Monographs |location=New York |pages=71, 85|chapter=Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/20351101}}</ref> British historian ] writes in his critical and analytical guide of Anonymus that all Romanian historians refer to ], but they are not credible in the subject and the chronicle is not evidence for presence of Vlachs in Transylvania.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Macartney |first=Carlile Aylmer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Shk9AAAAIAAJ |title=The medieval Hungarian historians: a critical and analytical guide |date=2 January 1953 |pages=61, 75}}</ref> Madgearu attempts to prove that a Vlach-Slav population existed in Transylvania before the arrival of the Hungarians by recounting place names of Slavic origin he believes weren't adopted to Romanian via Hungarian.<ref name=":Madgearu"/>


In 1213, an army of Vlachs, ] and ], led by the ], ], attacked the ] - ] and ] in the ] of ].<ref>Curta, 2006, p. 385</ref> After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.<ref>Ş. Papacostea, Românii în secolul al XIII-lea între cruciată şi imperiul mongol, București, 1993, 36; A. Lukács, Ţara Făgăraşului, 156; T. Sălăgean, Transilvania în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului congregaţional, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, 26-27</ref> In 1213, an army of Vlachs, ] and ], led by the ], ], attacked the ] - ] and ] in the ] of ].<ref>Curta, 2006, p. 385</ref> After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.<ref>Ş. Papacostea, Românii în secolul al XIII-lea între cruciată şi imperiul mongol, București, 1993, 36; A. Lukács, Ţara Făgăraşului, 156; T. Sălăgean, Transilvania în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului congregaţional, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, 26-27</ref>
Line 139: Line 142:
] donates 200 families of Vlachs from ] and ] to ] monastery.<ref>Zef Mirdita (1995). "". ''Povijesni Prilozi'' (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. '''14''' (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades)</ref> ] donates 200 families of Vlachs from ] and ] to ] monastery.<ref>Zef Mirdita (1995). "". ''Povijesni Prilozi'' (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. '''14''' (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades)</ref>


In 1220, king ] proclaimed that all Vlachs of his kingdom belonged to the ].<ref>Zef Mirdita (1995). "". Povijesni Prilozi (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. 14 (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades).</ref> In 1220, king ] proclaimed that all Vlachs of his kingdom belonged to the ].<ref name="hrcak.srce.hr">Zef Mirdita (1995). "". Povijesni Prilozi (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. 14 (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades).</ref>


A royal chancellery document from 1223, connected to the foundation of the ] ] around 1202,{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=354}} which was granted land, mentions it was built in the land of the Vlachs/Romanians.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=189}} A royal chancellery document from 1223, connected to the foundation of the ] ] around 1202,{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=354}} which was granted land, mentions it was built in the land of the Vlachs/Romanians.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=189}} This is also the very first mention of the Vlachs in Hungarian documents.<ref name="Anonymus on the Hungarian Conquest of Transylvania">{{Cite book |last=Makkai |first=László |title=History of Transylvania Volume I. From the Beginnings to 1606 – III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526) – 1. Transylvania's Indigenous Population at the Time of the Hungarian Conquest |publisher=Columbia University Press, (The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences) |year=2001 |isbn=0-88033-479-7 |language=English |chapter=Anonymus on the Hungarian Conquest of Transylvania |chapter-url=http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/59.html}}</ref>{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=140–141}}


In the '']'' issued by King ] in 1224, ''"silva blacorum et bissenorum"'' was given to the ] settlers.<ref>J. DEER, Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II. Von 1222, în Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte, 10, 1952, pp. 104-138</ref> This is also the very first mention of the Vlachs in Hungarian documents.<ref name=":1">* (a translation by Martyn Rady)</ref> In the '']'' issued by King ] in 1224, ''"silva blacorum et bissenorum"'' was given to the ] settlers.<ref>J. DEER, Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II. Von 1222, în Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte, 10, 1952, pp. 104-138</ref>


The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to present day ], ], and ], and were granted autonomy under the <nowiki>''</nowiki>]<nowiki>''</nowiki>.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Oczko |first=Anna |date=2016 |title=Traces of Vlach Migratons in the Toponymy of Polish Podtatrze Region|url=https://www.academia.edu/33346009 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref> The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to the present day territory of ], ], and ], and were granted autonomy under the <nowiki>''</nowiki>]<nowiki>''</nowiki>.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Oczko |first=Anna |date=2016 |title=Traces of Vlach Migrations in the Toponymy of Polish Podtatrze Region|url=https://www.academia.edu/33346009 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref>


In 1230 ], in his writing about the conquests of Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen, notes that the "Magna Vlachia" is next to ].<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Lóránt |first=Ballai |title=Szkenderbég, a történelmi és irodalmi hős |year=1990 |pages=79 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> In 1230 ], in his writing about the conquests of Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen, notes that the "Magna Vlachia" is next to ].<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Lóránt |first=Ballai |title=Szkenderbég, a történelmi és irodalmi hős |year=1990 |pages=79 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>
Line 159: Line 162:
In 1256 King ], upon the complaint of Archbishop ] of ], confirms the right of the archdiocese to tithes from mining wages and from animal taxes collected from the Szeklers and Vlachs to the king or anyone else, among the judicial, accommodation and taxation privileges of the archdiocese, with the exception of land rents from Saxons, but also from Vlachs from everywhere and from anywhere they came.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=193&layout=s |page=197 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref> In 1256 King ], upon the complaint of Archbishop ] of ], confirms the right of the archdiocese to tithes from mining wages and from animal taxes collected from the Szeklers and Vlachs to the king or anyone else, among the judicial, accommodation and taxation privileges of the archdiocese, with the exception of land rents from Saxons, but also from Vlachs from everywhere and from anywhere they came.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=193&layout=s |page=197 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref>


King ] reports to ] that about ] of King ] on 12th of July 1260, on the border between Hungary and Austria, near the castle and town of Hemburg on the Moraua River. Among the people that fought in Béla's army Vlachs, called ''Walachorum'', are named.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=193&layout=s |page=203 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref> King ] reports to ] that about ] of King ] on 12 July 1260, on the border between Hungary and Austria, near the castle and town of Hemburg on the Moraua River. Among the people that fought in Béla's army Vlachs, called ''Walachorum'', are named.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=193&layout=s |page=203 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref>


In 1272, King ] donates the royal lands or villages of Budula and Tohou, also known as Olahteleky, to Simon's son, Nicholas of Brașov.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=193&layout=s |page=231 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref> In 1272, King ] donates the royal lands or villages of Budula and Tohou, also known as Olahteleky, to Simon's son, Nicholas of Brașov.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=193&layout=s |page=231 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref>
Line 165: Line 168:
From 1276 King Ladislaus allows the chapter of Alba Iulia to settle 60 Romanian households (mansiones) on the border of his estates called Fülesd and Enyed, separated from the episcopal lands, and to exempt them from all royal taxes, fiftieth and tithes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=240&layout=s |page=238 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref> From 1276 King Ladislaus allows the chapter of Alba Iulia to settle 60 Romanian households (mansiones) on the border of his estates called Fülesd and Enyed, separated from the episcopal lands, and to exempt them from all royal taxes, fiftieth and tithes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=240&layout=s |page=238 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref>


In a grant (around 1280) Queen Helena confirmed the grant given by ] to the ], the Vlachs are separately mentioned, along with ] (Albanians), Latins, and Serbs.<ref>Zef Mirdita (1995). "". Povijesni Prilozi (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. 14 (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades).</ref> In a grant (around 1280) Queen Helena confirmed the grant given by ] to the ], the Vlachs are separately mentioned, along with ] (Albanians), Latins, and Serbs.<ref name="hrcak.srce.hr"/>


In the 1280s, ] in the '']'' mentions the Vlachs in his work three times: After the land had been conquered by King ], several people left ], the Vlachs (''Blackis'') were elected to remain in Pannonia who had been their shepherds and husbandmen. The ] were settled with the Vlachs (''Blackis'') in the border mountains, mingling with them, and adopting their alphabet. After the withdrawal of the ], the only people left in Pannonia were immigrants, Slavs, Greeks, Germans, Moravians, and Vlachs (''Ulahis'') who had been servants of Attila.<ref name="Ryszard 2016">{{Cite journal |last=Grzesik |first=Ryszard |date=2016 |title=IUS VALACHICUM – The Valachian Way of Life in Stories About Domestic Origins in the Hungarian Medieval Chronicles |url=https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/bp/article/view/6320 |journal=Balcanica Posnaniensia. Acta et studia |location=Poznań |volume=23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Simon |first=of Kéza |title=The Deeds of the Hungarians |publisher=Central European University |year=1999 |isbn=978-963-9116-31-3 |editor-last=Veszprémy |editor-first=László |editor-last2=Schaer |editor-first2=Frank}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Szabó |first=Károly |url=https://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02249/02249.htm |title=Kézai Simon mester Magyar Krónikája |language=Hungarian}}</ref>{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=127, 155–156}} Hungarian historians point out that the (''Ulahis advenis'') "Vlach newcomer", the adjective classifying Romanians as immigrants was omitted from the Romanian translation.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=127, 155–156}} Several scholars and historians noted that Simon of Kéza used different spellings for ''{{Lang|la|Blackis}}'' and ''{{Lang|la|Ulahis}}'', arguing that ''{{Lang|la|Blackis}}'' were actually the Turkic people ] who were confused with the Vlachs.<ref name="Vásáry2005">{{citation |last=Vásáry |first=István |title=Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DJWyg97IggC |page=29 |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44408-8}}</ref> According to Polish historian Ryszard Grzesik, the Vlachs appeared in ] only in the 12th century, therefore Hungarian chroniclers identified the semi-nomadic lifestyle of the Vlachs as a distinguishing characteristic. Kézai wrote that the Vlachs gave script to the Székelys, but the reality is different, because Kézai wrote about the ], and his opinion was based on the observation that the Vlach shepherds engraved symbols while counting their sheep.<ref name="Ryszard 2016" /> Kézai confused the Székely runs with the Cyrillic script which was used by the Vlachs.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=127, 155–156}} In the 1280s, ] in the '']'' mentions the Vlachs in his work three times: After the land had been conquered by King ], several people left ], the Vlachs (''Blackis'') were elected to remain in Pannonia who had been their shepherds and husbandmen. The ] were settled with the Vlachs (''Blackis'') in the border mountains, mingling with them, and adopting their alphabet. After the withdrawal of the ], the only people left in Pannonia were immigrants, Slavs, Greeks, Germans, Moravians, and Vlachs (''Ulahis'') who had been servants of Attila.<ref name="Ryszard 2016">{{Cite journal |last=Grzesik |first=Ryszard |date=2016 |title=IUS VALACHICUM – The Valachian Way of Life in Stories About Domestic Origins in the Hungarian Medieval Chronicles |url=https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/bp/article/view/6320 |journal=Balcanica Posnaniensia. Acta et studia |location=Poznań |volume=23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Simon |first=of Kéza |title=The Deeds of the Hungarians |publisher=Central European University |year=1999 |isbn=978-963-9116-31-3 |editor-last=Veszprémy |editor-first=László |editor-last2=Schaer |editor-first2=Frank}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Szabó |first=Károly |url=https://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02249/02249.htm |title=Kézai Simon mester Magyar Krónikája |language=Hungarian}}</ref>{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=127, 155–156}} Hungarian historians point out that the (''Ulahis advenis'') "Vlach newcomer", the adjective classifying Romanians as immigrants was omitted from the Romanian translation.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=127, 155–156}} Several scholars and historians noted that Simon of Kéza used different spellings for ''{{Lang|la|Blackis}}'' and ''{{Lang|la|Ulahis}}'', arguing that ''{{Lang|la|Blackis}}'' were actually the Turkic people ] who were confused with the Vlachs.<ref name="Vásáry2005">{{citation |last=Vásáry |first=István |title=Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7DJWyg97IggC |page=29 |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44408-8}}</ref> According to Polish historian Ryszard Grzesik, the Vlachs appeared in ] only in the 12th century, therefore Hungarian chroniclers identified the semi-nomadic lifestyle of the Vlachs as a distinguishing characteristic. Kézai wrote that the Vlachs gave script to the Székelys, but the reality is different, because Kézai wrote about the ], and his opinion was based on the observation that the Vlach shepherds engraved symbols while counting their sheep.<ref name="Ryszard 2016" /> Kézai confused the Székely runs with the Cyrillic script which was used by the Vlachs.{{sfn|Miskolczy|2021|p=127, 155–156}}


Several sources cite that the passes of the Carpathians in ] were defended by the Vlachs together with ] and ] during the ] in 1285.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |date=2018 |title=The Mongol domination and the detachment of the Romanians of Wallachia from the domination of the Hungarian Kingdom |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/DMAE/article/download/76013/4564456556992 |journal=De Medio Aevo |pages=219–220 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sófalvi |first=András |url=https://www.academia.edu/6209609 |title=A székelység szerepe a középkori és fejedelemség kori határvédelemben |publisher=Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület (Transylvanian Museum Association) |year=2012 |location=Kolozsvár |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The role of Székelys in border defense during the Middle Ages and the age of Principality |quote=sed siculi, olachi et Saxones omnes vias ipsorum cum indaginibus stipaverunt sive giraverunt et sic (de vita ipsorum omnino sunt de) necessitate cogente ibidem castra eorum sunt metati}}</ref> Several sources cite that the passes of the Carpathians in ] were defended by the Vlachs together with ] and ] during the ] in 1285.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |date=2018 |title=The Mongol domination and the detachment of the Romanians of Wallachia from the domination of the Hungarian Kingdom |url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/DMAE/article/download/76013/4564456556992 |journal=De Medio Aevo |pages=219–220 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sófalvi |first=András |url=https://www.academia.edu/6209609 |title=A székelység szerepe a középkori és fejedelemség kori határvédelemben |publisher=Erdélyi Múzeum-Egyesület (Transylvanian Museum Association) |year=2012 |location=Kolozsvár |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The role of Székelys in border defense during the Middle Ages and the age of Principality |quote=sed siculi, olachi et Saxones omnes vias ipsorum cum indaginibus stipaverunt sive giraverunt et sic (de vita ipsorum omnino sunt de) necessitate cogente ibidem castra eorum sunt metati}}</ref>
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According to a legend, in 1290 ] was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove ] ] and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed ] along with its first capital ], as a Hungarian vassal state.<ref>D. CĂPRĂROIU, ON THE BEGINNINGS OF THE TOWN OF CÂMPULUNG, ″Historia Urbana″, t. XVI, nr. 1-2/2008, pp. 37-64</ref> According to a legend, in 1290 ] was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove ] ] and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed ] along with its first capital ], as a Hungarian vassal state.<ref>D. CĂPRĂROIU, ON THE BEGINNINGS OF THE TOWN OF CÂMPULUNG, ″Historia Urbana″, t. XVI, nr. 1-2/2008, pp. 37-64</ref>


In 1290 ], in a document, grants three ] noble families the right to invite Vlachs into the country "from South of the mountains".<ref name=":20" /> In 1290 ], in a document, grants three ]n noble families the right to invite Vlachs into the country "from South of the mountains".<ref name=":20" />


In 1291 ] presides over a meeting of "Nobles, Saxons, Szeklers, and Vlachs" in ].<ref>Ioan Aurel Pop: , Edit. „George Barițiu”, Cluj-Napoca, 1997, p.467</ref> In 1291 ] presides over a meeting of "Nobles, Saxons, Szeklers, and Vlachs" in ].<ref name="academia.edu">Ioan Aurel Pop: , Edit. „George Barițiu”, Cluj-Napoca, 1997, p.467</ref>


In 1292, Andrew III of Hungary allows some Hungarian nobles to invite Vlachs to the country, to their estates called "Ilye", "Szád" and "Fenes".<ref name=":26">{{Cite book |last=Tamás |first=Lajos |title=Románok |publisher=Magyar Történelmi Társulat |pages=7}}</ref> In 1292, Andrew III of Hungary allows some Hungarian nobles to invite Vlachs to the country, to their estates called "Ilye", "Szád" and "Fenes".<ref name=":26">{{Cite book |last=Tamás |first=Lajos |title=Románok |publisher=Magyar Történelmi Társulat |pages=7}}</ref>
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In 1293, ], publishes an "angry" charter to the Transylvanian nobility, mentions that all the Vlachs were supposed to be settled on the royal crown's property called "Székes", not on their own estates.<ref name=":24" /> In 1293, ], publishes an "angry" charter to the Transylvanian nobility, mentions that all the Vlachs were supposed to be settled on the royal crown's property called "Székes", not on their own estates.<ref name=":24" />


In November 1293, King Andrew confirms King Ladislaus's earlier concession to the chapter of ] to keep the 60 households of Romanians (mansiones Olacorum) free from all taxes and services on the lands of Dalya, Ompaycza, Fylesd and Enugd, separated from the episcopal estates. These Romanians should not be forced by any royal tax collector to pay taxes, dues, or fiftieths. - The charter, confirmed by a double seal, is dated by the hand of Theodore, provost of Fehérvár, vice-chancellor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=301&layout=s |page=300 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref> In November 1293, King Andrew confirms King Ladislaus's earlier concession to the chapter of ] to keep the 60 households of Romanians (mansiones Olacorum) free from all taxes and services on the lands of Dalya, Ompaycza, Fylesd and Enugd, separated from the episcopal estates. These Romanians should not be forced by any royal tax collector to pay taxes, dues, or fiftieths. - The charter, confirmed by a double seal, is dated by the hand of ], provost of Fehérvár, vice-chancellor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Erdélyi okmánytár I. (1023-1300) (Magyar Országos Levéltár kiadványai, II. Forráskiadványok 26. Budapest, 1997) {{!}} Könyvtár {{!}} Hungaricana |url=https://library.hungaricana.hu/hu/view/MolDigiLib_MOLkiadv2_26/?pg=301&layout=s |page=300 |access-date=2023-08-18 |website=library.hungaricana.hu}}</ref>


=== 14th century === === 14th century ===
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Goods sold by the Vlachs are mentioned in after 1328 by Ragusan documents, among them ''formaedi vlacheschi'', a type of cheese.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Caciur |first=Dana |date=August 4, 2023 |title=In the Name of the Morlachs. The Memory of an Identity Along Centuries: Some working Hypotheses |url=https://www.academia.edu/52303751 |access-date=August 4, 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref> Goods sold by the Vlachs are mentioned in after 1328 by Ragusan documents, among them ''formaedi vlacheschi'', a type of cheese.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Caciur |first=Dana |date=August 4, 2023 |title=In the Name of the Morlachs. The Memory of an Identity Along Centuries: Some working Hypotheses |url=https://www.academia.edu/52303751 |access-date=August 4, 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref>


First mention of a Vlach called ''Radul'' in 1329, in the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |trans-title=The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula |title=Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] |publisher=Editura Corint |year=2001 |isbn=973-653-191-0 |page=59 }}</ref> First mention of a Vlach called ''Radul'' in 1329, in the ].<ref name="Madgearu 2001 59">{{Cite book|last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |trans-title=The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula |title=Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] |publisher=Editura Corint |year=2001 |isbn=973-653-191-0 |page=59 }}</ref>


In 1330 ] gifts to ] monastery the Vlach pastures and katuns along Drim and Lim rivers.<ref>Zef Mirdita (1995). "". Povijesni Prilozi (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. 14 (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades).</ref> In 1330 ] gifts to ] monastery the Vlach pastures and katuns along Drim and Lim rivers.<ref name="hrcak.srce.hr"/>


Croatian chronicler Miha de Barbazanis writes that Vlachs from the area of ] fought for ] against ] and Ban John Babonić.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dragomir |first=Silviu |trans-title= Origin of Romanian Colonies in Istria |title=Originea coloniilor române din Istria] |publisher=Cultura Națională |year=1924 |pages=3–4 }}</ref><ref>Srđan Rudić,Selim Aslantaş: , 2017, pages 33-34 </ref> Croatian chronicler Miha de Barbazanis writes that Vlachs from the area of ] fought for ] against ] and Ban John Babonić.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dragomir |first=Silviu |trans-title= Origin of Romanian Colonies in Istria |title=Originea coloniilor române din Istria] |publisher=Cultura Națională |year=1924 |pages=3–4 }}</ref><ref>Srđan Rudić,Selim Aslantaş: , 2017, pages 33-34</ref>


In the ] in the Kingdom of Hungary, one settlement mentioned in the source as Romanian: "''Căprioara''". This Romanian place-name is the very first recorded Romanian toponym in the ], including ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Makkai |first=László |url= |title=History of Transylvania Volume I. From the Beginnings to 1606 - III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526) - 2. From the Hungarian Conquest to the Mongol Invasion |publisher=Columbia University Press, (The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences) |year=2001 |isbn=0-88033-479-7 |location=New York |language=English |chapter=The Cumanian Country and the Province of Severin |chapter-url=https://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/74.html}}</ref><ref name=":203">{{Cite book |last=Kristó |first=Gyula |url=https://ojs.bibl.u-szeged.hu/index.php/acthist/article/view/10195 |title=Acta Historica |publisher=University of Szeged, Magyar Medievisztikai Kutatócsoport (Hungarian Medieval Research Group) |year=1986 |location=Szeged |language=Hungarian |trans-title= |chapter=Az 1332-1337. évi pápai tizedjegyzék és az erdélyi románság létszáma |trans-chapter=The list of papal tithes from 1332–1337 and the number of Romanians in Transylvania |issn=0324-6965 |chapter-url=https://ojs.bibl.u-szeged.hu/index.php/acthist/article/view/10195/10087}}</ref> In the ] in the Kingdom of Hungary, one settlement mentioned in the source as Romanian: "''Căprioara''". This Romanian place-name is the very first recorded Romanian toponym in the ], including ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Makkai |first=László |url= |title=History of Transylvania Volume I. From the Beginnings to 1606 - III. Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526) - 2. From the Hungarian Conquest to the Mongol Invasion |publisher=Columbia University Press, (The Hungarian original by Institute of History Of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences) |year=2001 |isbn=0-88033-479-7 |location=New York |language=English |chapter=The Cumanian Country and the Province of Severin |chapter-url=https://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/74.html}}</ref><ref name=":203">{{Cite book |last=Kristó |first=Gyula |url=https://ojs.bibl.u-szeged.hu/index.php/acthist/article/view/10195 |title=Acta Historica |publisher=University of Szeged, Magyar Medievisztikai Kutatócsoport (Hungarian Medieval Research Group) |year=1986 |location=Szeged |language=Hungarian |trans-title= |chapter=Az 1332-1337. évi pápai tizedjegyzék és az erdélyi románság létszáma |trans-chapter=The list of papal tithes from 1332–1337 and the number of Romanians in Transylvania |issn=0324-6965 |chapter-url=https://ojs.bibl.u-szeged.hu/index.php/acthist/article/view/10195/10087}}</ref>
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In 1341, a Hungarian royal document notes that the Hungarian Czibak noble family can invite and settle more Vlachs to their ] estate, "from the south".<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Vincze |first=Bunyitay |title=Biharvármegye Oláhjai |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |location=Budapest |pages=287–298 |language=Hungarian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=István |first=Nagy |title=Anjou-kor |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |edition=IV. |location=Budapest |pages=79 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> In 1341, a Hungarian royal document notes that the Hungarian Czibak noble family can invite and settle more Vlachs to their ] estate, "from the south".<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Vincze |first=Bunyitay |title=Biharvármegye Oláhjai |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |location=Budapest |pages=287–298 |language=Hungarian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=István |first=Nagy |title=Anjou-kor |publisher=Magyar Tudományos Akadémia |edition=IV. |location=Budapest |pages=79 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>


] styles himself "Imperator Raxie et Romanie, dispotus Lartae et Blachie comes" - Emperor of Rascia and Romania, despot of Arta and ] of Vlachia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Timaru - Kast |first=Sándor |url=https://epa.oszk.hu/01400/01445/00056/pdf/EPA01445_acta_hungarica_2019_02_326-355.pdf |title=A románok eredetéről, Magna Vlachiától Ungrovlachiáig. A Kárpát-régió magyar földrajza |year=2019 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> ] styles himself "Imperator Raxie et Romanie, dispotus Lartae et Blachie comes" - Emperor of Rascia and Romania, despot of Arta and ] of Vlachia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Timaru - Kast |first=Sándor |url=https://epa.oszk.hu/01400/01445/00056/pdf/EPA01445_acta_hungarica_2019_02_326-355.pdf |title=A románok eredetéről, Magna Vlachiától Ungrovlachiáig. A Kárpát-régió magyar földrajza |year=2019 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>


] donates 320 Vlach families to the ] monastery.<ref name=":25" /> ] donates 320 Vlach families to the ] monastery.<ref name=":25" />
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Morlachs are first recorded in 1344, during the struggle between the counts of the ] and ] families, in the regions near ] and ], when a region called "Morlacorum" mentioned.<ref name=":21" /> Morlachs are first recorded in 1344, during the struggle between the counts of the ] and ] families, in the regions near ] and ], when a region called "Morlacorum" mentioned.<ref name=":21" />


A letter from 1345 from Pope Clement VI to the Hungarian king Louis I, the phrase ''quod Olachi Romani'' appears, which can be interpreted as an expression of the papal chancellery's conviction about the Roman origin of the Wallachians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Obara-Pawłowska |first=Anna |date=20 February 2018 |title=Obraz Wołochów w piśmiennictwie Jana Długosza |url=https://core.ac.uk/display/154436910 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Core.ac.uk}}</ref> A letter from 1345 from Pope Clement VI to the Hungarian king Louis I, the phrase ''quod Olachi Romani'' appears, which can be interpreted as an expression of the papal chancellery's conviction about the Roman origin of the Wallachians.<ref name="Obara-Pawłowska">{{Cite web |last=Obara-Pawłowska |first=Anna |date=20 February 2018 |title=Obraz Wołochów w piśmiennictwie Jana Długosza |url=https://core.ac.uk/display/154436910 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Core.ac.uk}}</ref>


In 1349, another Hungarian royal charter mentions the Vlachs, allowing the ] voivode to send a Vlach priest to ], thus encouraging more Vlachs to settle in the ] from the south.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" /> In 1349, another Hungarian royal charter mentions the Vlachs, allowing the ]n voivode to send a Vlach priest to ], thus encouraging more Vlachs to settle in the ] from the south.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" />


A Hungarian charter of 1352 states that, the lord lieutenant of ] Szeri Pósa invited Vlachs to Hungary, to populate the area around the Mutnok stream.<ref name=":2" /> A Hungarian charter of 1352 states that, the lord lieutenant of ] Szeri Pósa invited Vlachs to Hungary, to populate the area around the Mutnok stream.<ref name=":2" />
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In 1358, a Hungarian royal chronicler named Márk mentions ] and its peoples: "''It is the richest part of the ], where Hungarian and ] cities bloom with industry and commerce, while the fertile lands of Hungarian farmers produce good wine, fat cattle, and plenty of grain for bread. High upon the mountains Vlach herdsmen tend to their sheep, and bring down good tasting cheese to the market-places''".<ref name=":20" /> In 1358, a Hungarian royal chronicler named Márk mentions ] and its peoples: "''It is the richest part of the ], where Hungarian and ] cities bloom with industry and commerce, while the fertile lands of Hungarian farmers produce good wine, fat cattle, and plenty of grain for bread. High upon the mountains Vlach herdsmen tend to their sheep, and bring down good tasting cheese to the market-places''".<ref name=":20" />


In 1359, the King of Hungary allowed a Vlach noble family and their household to settle in the country, first giving them 13 villages, and then 6 years later another 5 villages in the ]. <ref name=":23" /> In 1359, the King of Hungary allowed a Vlach noble family and their household to settle in the country, first giving them 13 villages, and then 6 years later another 5 villages in the ].<ref name=":23" />


Also in 1359, the village of Lakság "near ]", reports in a letter to the bishop of ] that "the first Vlach inhabitants have arrived".<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dr. Karácsonyi |first=János |title=Történelmi hazugságok |publisher=Szent István Társulat |location=Budapest |pages=729}}</ref> Also in 1359, the village of Lakság "near ]", reports in a letter to the bishop of ] that "the first Vlach inhabitants have arrived".<ref name=":14" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dr. Karácsonyi |first=János |title=Történelmi hazugságok |publisher=Szent István Társulat |location=Budapest |pages=729}}</ref>
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In a letter dates to 1374, the ] of ] complains that he has only 9 Vlach villages, and asks for permission "to invite more Vlachs into ]" and to "settle them on his estates". Also in the same letter, he asks the " border nobles " that " if strangers come from Wallachia, do not stop them".<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=István |first=Lipovniczky |title=A Váradi Püspökség Története |pages=192 |language=Hungarian}}</ref> In a letter dates to 1374, the ] of ] complains that he has only 9 Vlach villages, and asks for permission "to invite more Vlachs into ]" and to "settle them on his estates". Also in the same letter, he asks the " border nobles " that " if strangers come from Wallachia, do not stop them".<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=István |first=Lipovniczky |title=A Váradi Püspökség Története |pages=192 |language=Hungarian}}</ref>


Papal documents from late 14th century reference the conquest of Medieș fortress "from the hands of schismatic Vlachs" by an unnamed King of Hungary. Historian ] places this event close to the ]<ref>Ioan Aurel Pop: , Edit. „George Barițiu”, Cluj-Napoca, 1997, p.467</ref> Papal documents from late 14th century reference the conquest of Medieș fortress "from the hands of schismatic Vlachs" by an unnamed King of Hungary. Historian ] places this event close to the ]<ref name="academia.edu"/>


In 1374, the Cathedral chapter of ] complained that the Vlachs living in its territory are not willing to give up their nomadic lifestyle.<ref name=":14" /> In 1374, the Cathedral chapter of ] complained that the Vlachs living in its territory are not willing to give up their nomadic lifestyle.<ref name=":14" />
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In 1376 the ban of Knin is also called "comes Holachorum".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tanașoca |first1=Anca |last2=Tanașoca |first2=Nicolae-Șerban |date=2004 |title=Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică |url=https://www.academia.edu/10219111 |access-date=21 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu |page=283}}</ref> In 1376 the ban of Knin is also called "comes Holachorum".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tanașoca |first1=Anca |last2=Tanașoca |first2=Nicolae-Șerban |date=2004 |title=Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică |url=https://www.academia.edu/10219111 |access-date=21 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu |page=283}}</ref>


In 1381 Croatian documents from ] mention "universitas Valachorum".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tanașoca |first1=Anca |last2=Tanașoca |first2=Nicolae-Șerban |date=2004 |title=Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică |url=https://www.academia.edu/10219111 |access-date=21 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu |page=282-283}}</ref> In 1381 Croatian documents from ] mention "universitas Valachorum".<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite web |last1=Tanașoca |first1=Anca |last2=Tanașoca |first2=Nicolae-Șerban |date=2004 |title=Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică |url=https://www.academia.edu/10219111 |access-date=21 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu |pages=282–283}}</ref>


In 1383 the so-called "Peace convention of Christian" is signed by Saxons and Romanians (Vlachs) from the area of Sibiu, aimed to ensure the peace between the two communities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cosma |first=Ela |date=September 2022 |title=Enacted "Jus Valachicum" in South Transylvania (14th-18th Centuries) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364054329 |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=ResearchGate |page=4}}</ref> In 1383 the so-called "Peace convention of Christian" is signed by Saxons and Romanians (Vlachs) from the area of Sibiu, aimed to ensure the peace between the two communities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cosma |first=Ela |date=September 2022 |title=Enacted "Jus Valachicum" in South Transylvania (14th-18th Centuries) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364054329 |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=ResearchGate |page=4}}</ref>


In 1385, the King of Hungary settles 10 Vlachs villages on the royal estate of ] in the area of Szilágy.<ref name=":20" /> In 1385, the King of Hungary settles 10 Vlachs villages on the royal estate of ] in the area of Szilágy.<ref name=":20" />


Vlachs are a documented presence in ] since the rule of ], probaly as early as 1388.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jawor |first=Grzegorz |date=2016 |title=Northern Extent of Settlements on the Wallachian Law in Medieval Poland |url=https://www.academia.edu/98988253 |page=44 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref> Vlachs are a documented presence in ] since the rule of ], probaly as early as 1388.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jawor |first=Grzegorz |date=2016 |title=Northern Extent of Settlements on the Wallachian Law in Medieval Poland |url=https://www.academia.edu/98988253 |page=44 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref>


In the 14th century, royal charters from the ] included segregation policies stating that "a Serb shall not marry a Vlach."<ref name="Ćirković">Sima Ćirković; (2004) ''The Serbs'' p. 130; Wiley-Blackwell, {{ISBN|0631204717}}</ref><ref>Srđan Rudić,Selim Aslantaş: , 2017, page 31 </ref> However, these laws were not successful and intermarriage between Slavs, Vlachs and also Albanians did take place.<ref name="Ćirković" /> In the 14th century, royal charters from the ] included segregation policies stating that "a Serb shall not marry a Vlach."<ref name="Ćirković">Sima Ćirković; (2004) ''The Serbs'' p. 130; Wiley-Blackwell, {{ISBN|0631204717}}</ref><ref>Srđan Rudić,Selim Aslantaş: , 2017, page 31</ref> However, these laws were not successful and intermarriage between Slavs, Vlachs and also Albanians did take place.<ref name="Ćirković" />


=== 15th century === === 15th century ===
] paths of the Vlach shepherds in the past]]
In 1402 Magistro Nicolao di Flacho obtains half of ] island from a donation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spicijarić Paškvan |first=Nina |date=28 June 2018 |title=Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326033781 |access-date=August 4, 2023 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref>

In 1404, ], in his Libellus de notitia orbis, notes that the Vlachs originated from ], but were already living in "Great Vlachia" too, which corresponds to ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johannes |first=de Galonifontibus |title=Libellus de notitia orbis |language=Latin}}</ref> In 1404, ], in his Libellus de notitia orbis, notes that the Vlachs originated from ], but were already living in "Great Vlachia" too, which corresponds to ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Johannes |first=de Galonifontibus |title=Libellus de notitia orbis |language=Latin}}</ref>


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The biggest caravan shipment between ] in ] and ] was recorded on 9 August 1428, where Vlachs transported 1500 ] of ] with 600 horses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurtović|first=Esad|title=Esad Kurtović, Konj u srednjovjekovnoj Bosni, Filozofski fakultet, Sarajevo 2014.|journal=Filozofski Fakultet, Sarajevo| date=January 2014 |url=https://www.academia.edu/31875091|language=en|pages=205}}</ref><ref>„Crainich Miochouich et Stiepanus Glegieuich ad meliustenendem super se et omnia eorum bona se obligando promiserunt ser Тhome de Bona presenti et acceptanti conducere et salauum dare in Souisochi in Bosna Dobrassino Veselcouich nomine dicti ser Тhome modia salis mille quingenta super equis siue salmis sexcentis. Et dicto sale conducto et presentato suprascripto Dobrassino in Souisochi medietatem illius salis dare et mensuratum consignare dicto Dobrassino. Et aliam medietatem pro eorum mercede conducenda dictum salem pro ipsius conductoribus retinere et habere. Promittentes vicissim omnia et singularia suprascripta firma et rata habere et tenere ut supra sub obligatione omnium suorum bonorum. Renuntiando" (09.08. 1428.g.), Div. Canc., XLV, 31v.</ref> The biggest caravan shipment between ] in ] and ] was recorded on 9 August 1428, where Vlachs transported 1500 ] of ] with 600 horses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kurtović|first=Esad|title=Esad Kurtović, Konj u srednjovjekovnoj Bosni, Filozofski fakultet, Sarajevo 2014.|journal=Filozofski Fakultet, Sarajevo| date=January 2014 |url=https://www.academia.edu/31875091|language=en|pages=205}}</ref><ref>„Crainich Miochouich et Stiepanus Glegieuich ad meliustenendem super se et omnia eorum bona se obligando promiserunt ser Тhome de Bona presenti et acceptanti conducere et salauum dare in Souisochi in Bosna Dobrassino Veselcouich nomine dicti ser Тhome modia salis mille quingenta super equis siue salmis sexcentis. Et dicto sale conducto et presentato suprascripto Dobrassino in Souisochi medietatem illius salis dare et mensuratum consignare dicto Dobrassino. Et aliam medietatem pro eorum mercede conducenda dictum salem pro ipsius conductoribus retinere et habere. Promittentes vicissim omnia et singularia suprascripta firma et rata habere et tenere ut supra sub obligatione omnium suorum bonorum. Renuntiando" (09.08. 1428.g.), Div. Canc., XLV, 31v.</ref>


In 1433 Vlach ], ], and juzi from Croatia vow to respect the property right of the local St. John church.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tanașoca |first1=Anca |last2=Tanașoca |first2=Nicolae-Șerban |date=2004 |title=Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică |url=https://www.academia.edu/10219111 |access-date=21 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu |page=282-283}}</ref> In 1433 Vlach ], ], and juzi from Croatia vow to respect the property right of the local St. John church.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>


Vlachs are mentioned in a document of Grand Duke ], in ], as part of the local population subject to mayor of Busk legal authority.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jawor |first=Grzegorz |date=April 2023 |title=Kolonizacja wołoska na obszarach Wołynia w XV i XVI wieku |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369850426 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref> Vlachs are mentioned in a document of Grand Duke ], in ], as part of the local population subject to mayor of Busk legal authority.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jawor |first=Grzegorz |date=April 2023 |title=Kolonizacja wołoska na obszarach Wołynia w XV i XVI wieku |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369850426 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref>
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In 1450, the Vlachs are granted a privilege in ], allowing the Vlachs to enter the town if they call themselves ].<ref name=":22" /> In 1450, the Vlachs are granted a privilege in ], allowing the Vlachs to enter the town if they call themselves ].<ref name=":22" />


Italian ] ] claims in 1450 that ] left a colony among the ] which still retains much of the Latin vocabulary, and that its members say: "''oculum, digitum, manum, panem,'' and many other things, from which it appears that the Latins, who remained there as settlers, used the Latin language".<ref>{{lang|la|"Apud superiores Sarmatas colonia est ab Traiano, ut aiunt, derelicta, quae nunc etiam inter tantam barbariem multa retinet latina vocabula, ab Italis, qui eo profecti sunt, notata. Oculum dicunt, digitum, manum, panem multaque alia quibus apparet ab Latinis, qui coloni ibidem relicti fureant manasse, eamque coloniam fuisse latino sermone usam."}} Poggio Bracciolini, ''Historia convivalis, utrum priscis Romanis latina lingua omnibus communis fuerit...'' in: Mirko Tavoni, Latino, grammatica, volgare: storia di una questione umanistica, 1984, p. 58</ref> Italian ] ] claims in 1450 that ] left a colony among the ] which still retains much of the Latin vocabulary, and that its members say: "''oculum, digitum, manum, panem,'' and many other things, from which it appears that the Latins, who remained there as settlers, used the Latin language".<ref>{{lang|la|"Apud superiores Sarmatas colonia est ab Traiano, ut aiunt, derelicta, quae nunc etiam inter tantam barbariem multa retinet latina vocabula, ab Italis, qui eo profecti sunt, notata. Oculum dicunt, digitum, manum, panem multaque alia quibus apparet ab Latinis, qui coloni ibidem relicti fureant manasse, eamque coloniam fuisse latino sermone usam."}} Poggio Bracciolini, ''Historia convivalis, utrum priscis Romanis latina lingua omnibus communis fuerit...'' in: Mirko Tavoni, Latino, grammatica, volgare: storia di una questione umanistica, 1984, p. 58</ref>


In 1453, ] notes that "the Dacians or Vlachs claim to have Roman origins and they think this fact is a decoration in itself" and that "when they spoke the language of their common and simple people it scent of a grammatically incorrect peasant Latin".<ref>{{lang|la|"Et qui e regione Danubio item adiacent Ripenses Daci, sive Valachi, originem, quam ad decus prae se ferunt praedicantque Romanam, loquela ostendunt, quos catholice christianos Romam quotannis et Apostolorum limina invisentes aliquando gavisi sumus ita loquentes audire, ut, quae vulgari communique gentis suae more dicunt, rusticam male grammaticam redoleant latinitatem."}} Flavio Biondo, ''Ad Alphonsum Aragonensem serenissimum regem de expeditione in Turchos Blondus Flavius Forliviensis'' in: Mirko Tavoni, Latino, grammatica, volgare: storia di una questione umanistica, 1984, p. 58</ref> In 1453, ] notes that "the Dacians or Vlachs claim to have Roman origins and they think this fact is a decoration in itself" and that "when they spoke the language of their common and simple people it scent of a grammatically incorrect peasant Latin".<ref>{{lang|la|"Et qui e regione Danubio item adiacent Ripenses Daci, sive Valachi, originem, quam ad decus prae se ferunt praedicantque Romanam, loquela ostendunt, quos catholice christianos Romam quotannis et Apostolorum limina invisentes aliquando gavisi sumus ita loquentes audire, ut, quae vulgari communique gentis suae more dicunt, rusticam male grammaticam redoleant latinitatem."}} Flavio Biondo, ''Ad Alphonsum Aragonensem serenissimum regem de expeditione in Turchos Blondus Flavius Forliviensis'' in: Mirko Tavoni, Latino, grammatica, volgare: storia di una questione umanistica, 1984, p. 58</ref>


King ] confirmed the liberties of the Vlachs in an open letter, issued March 31, 1474 in the town of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diaconescu |first=Marius |date=2015 |title=Census Valachorum in mid 16th century Upper Hungary |url=https://www.academia.edu/30713382 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref> King ] confirmed the liberties of the Vlachs in an open letter, issued March 31, 1474 in the town of ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diaconescu |first=Marius |date=2015 |title=Census Valachorum in mid 16th century Upper Hungary |url=https://www.academia.edu/30713382 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Academia.edu}}</ref>


] in his ''Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae'' wrote about Vlachs in Medieval Poland - Małopolska region, theorizing their origin as a population that came from Italy or ] who expeled the ] (Slavic) population from the Danube settlements, and then they themselves settled in the fertile lands there.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Obara-Pawłowska |first=Anna |date=20 February 2018 |title=Obraz Wołochów w piśmiennictwie Jana Długosza |url=https://core.ac.uk/display/154436910 |access-date=8 August 2023 |website=Core.ac.uk}}</ref> ] in his ''Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae'' wrote about Vlachs in Medieval Poland - Małopolska region, theorizing their origin as a population that came from Italy or ] who expeled the ] (Slavic) population from the Danube settlements, and then they themselves settled in the fertile lands there.<ref name="Obara-Pawłowska"/>


An attested reference to Romanian comes from a Latin title of an oath made in 1485 by the Moldavian Prince ] to the Polish King ], in which it is reported that {{lang|la|"Haec Inscriptio ex Valachico in Latinam versa est sed Rex Ruthenica Lingua scriptam accepta"}}—"This Inscription was translated from Valachian (Romanian) into Latin, but the King has received it written in the Ruthenian language (Slavic)".<ref name="ErnstGleßgen2008">{{Cite book |last=Dahmen |first=Wolfgang |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FzgmKbTN70C&pg=PA738 |title=Romanische Sprachgeschichte: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Geschichte der romanischen Sprachen |date=2008 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-014694-3 |editor-last=Ernst |editor-first=Gerhard |volume=1 |location=Berlin |pages=738<!-- 727–746 --> |language=de |chapter=Externe Sprachgeschichte des Rumänischen |editor-last2=Gleßgen |editor-first2=Martin-Dietrich |editor-last3=Schmitt |editor-first3=Christian |editor-last4=Schweickard |editor-first4=Wolfgang}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tomescu |first=Mircea |title=Istoria cărții românești de la începuturi până la 1918 |date=1968 |publisher=Editura Științifică |location=] |pages=40 |language=ro}}</ref> An attested reference to Romanian comes from a Latin title of an oath made in 1485 by the Moldavian Prince ] to the Polish King ], in which it is reported that {{lang|la|"Haec Inscriptio ex Valachico in Latinam versa est sed Rex Ruthenica Lingua scriptam accepta"}}—"This Inscription was translated from Valachian (Romanian) into Latin, but the King has received it written in the Ruthenian language (Slavic)".<ref name="ErnstGleßgen2008">{{Cite book |last=Dahmen |first=Wolfgang |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FzgmKbTN70C&pg=PA738 |title=Romanische Sprachgeschichte: Ein internationales Handbuch zur Geschichte der romanischen Sprachen |date=2008 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-014694-3 |editor-last=Ernst |editor-first=Gerhard |volume=1 |location=Berlin |pages=738<!-- 727–746 --> |language=de |chapter=Externe Sprachgeschichte des Rumänischen |editor-last2=Gleßgen |editor-first2=Martin-Dietrich |editor-last3=Schmitt |editor-first3=Christian |editor-last4=Schweickard |editor-first4=Wolfgang}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tomescu |first=Mircea |title=Istoria cărții românești de la începuturi până la 1918 |date=1968 |publisher=Editura Științifică |location=] |pages=40 |language=ro}}</ref>


== Toponymy == == Toponymy ==
]In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Slavonian Census of 1698. Part I: Structure and Meaning, European Journal of Population|author=Hammel, E. A. and Kenneth W. Wachter|publisher=University of California|url=http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/~gene/hammel_1-fmt.html}}</ref> In search of better pasture, they were called ''Vlasi'' or ''Valaši'' by the Slavs. In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Slavonian Census of 1698. Part I: Structure and Meaning, European Journal of Population|author=Hammel, E. A. and Kenneth W. Wachter|publisher=University of California|url=http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/~gene/hammel_1-fmt.html}}</ref> In search of better pasture, they were called ''Vlasi'' or ''Valaši'' by the Slavs.
States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}
* '']'' – between the ] and the ] ('']'' in Romanian); Bassarab-Wallachia (] and ] or Wallachia Transalpina in administrative sources;{{which|date=March 2021}} * '']'' – between the ] and the ] ('']'' in Romanian); Bassarab-Wallachia (] and ] or Wallachia Transalpina in administrative sources;{{which|date=March 2021}}
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*'']'', between the Carpathians and the ] – ''Regnum Bulgarorum et Blachorum'' in documents by ]{{which|date=March 2021}}{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} *'']'', between the Carpathians and the ] – ''Regnum Bulgarorum et Blachorum'' in documents by ]{{which|date=March 2021}}{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}
*''Terra Prodnicorum'' (or Terra ]), mentioned by Pope Honorius III in 1222. Vlachs led by Ploskanea supported the Tatars in the 1223 Battle of Kalka. Vlach lands near ] in the west, ] in the north, Moldova in the south and the Bolohoveni lands in the east were conquered by Galicia.<ref>A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992, pp 98-106</ref>{{POV statement|date=March 2021}} *''Terra Prodnicorum'' (or Terra ]), mentioned by Pope Honorius III in 1222. Vlachs led by Ploskanea supported the Tatars in the 1223 Battle of Kalka. Vlach lands near ] in the west, ] in the north, Moldova in the south and the Bolohoveni lands in the east were conquered by Galicia.<ref>A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992, pp 98-106</ref>{{POV statement|date=March 2021}}
*'']'' was Vlach land between ] and the ] in Ukraine. Place names were Olohovets, Olshani, Voloschi and Vlodava, mentioned in 11th-to-13th-century Slavonic chronicles. It was conquered by Galicia.<ref>A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992</ref>{{POV statement|date=March 2021}} But it is important to note that among historians, the Bolokhoveni are clearly a Slavic people, as their name and their archaeological finds clearly position them as Slavs, and written sources all refer to them as Slavs.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spinei |first=Victor |title=The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-04-17536-5 |pages=161–162}}</ref>


Regions and places are: Regions and places are:
*] in ]<ref name="ReferenceA">Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, ''Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană'', Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : ''Istoria Românilor'', Petre Ș. Năsturel ''Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie'', vol. XVI, 1998</ref>{{quote needed|date=April 2016}} *] in ]<ref name="ReferenceA">Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, ''Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană'', Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : ''Istoria Românilor'', Petre Ș. Năsturel ''Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie'', vol. XVI, 1998</ref>{{request quotation|date=April 2016}}
*] (''Μεγάλη Βλαχία''; ''Megáli vlahía'') in ]<ref name="ReferenceA"/> *] (Μεγάλη Βλαχία, ''Megáli vlahía'') in ]<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
*Small Wallachia (''Μικρή Βλαχία''; ''Mikrí vlahía'') in ], ], ] and ]<ref name="ReferenceA"/> *Small Wallachia (Μικρή Βλαχία, ''Mikrí vlahía'') in ], ], ] and ]<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
*], in ]-] *], in ]-]
*] (''Άνω Βλαχία''; ''Áno Vlahía'') in southern ], ] and ] *Upper Wallachia (Άνω Βλαχία, ''Áno Vlahía'') in southern ], ] and ]
*Magna Vlachia in southern ], ] and ]<ref name=":18" />
*''Stari Vlah'' ("the Old Vlach"), a region in southwestern ] *''Stari Vlah'' ("the Old Vlach"), a region in southwestern ]
*''Maior Vlachia'', a region in southwestern part of Croatia mentioned in 1373<ref>{{Cite book|last=Madgearu |first=Alexandru |trans-title=The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula |title=Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] |publisher=Editura Corint |year=2001 |isbn=973-653-191-0 |page=59 }}</ref> *''Maior Vlachia'', a region in southwestern part of Croatia mentioned in 1373<ref name="Madgearu 2001 59"/>
*] mountain (''Romanija planina'') in eastern ]<ref>Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : ''Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde'', vol. IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases – these names disappear after 1980.</ref> *] mountain (''Romanija planina'') in eastern ]<ref>Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : ''Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde'', vol. IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases – these names disappear after 1980.</ref>
*], a former county of southern Wallachia (derived from Slavic ''Vlaška'') *], a former county of southern Wallachia (derived from Slavic ''Vlaška'')
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== Gallery == == Gallery ==
<gallery widths="200" heights="200"> <gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Théodore Valerio, Paysans valaques des environs de Lugos, Romanian peasants from around Lugos, 1851.jpg|Théodore Valerio, Paysans valaques des environs de Lugos. Vlach/Romanian peasants from around ], 1851
File:Bosniangraves bosniska gravar februari 2007 stecak stecci3.jpg|Medieval necropolis in ], ].
File:Vlachs transhumance in Western Balkans and some Vlach necropolises.jpg|alt=Detailed map depicting Vlach transhumance in the Western Balkans, showcasing several examples of Vlach necropolises.|Hypothetical map depicting Vlach transhumance in the Western Balkans, showcasing several examples of Vlach necropolises.<ref>Anca Tanașoca & ], Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică, Editura Fundației Pro, 2004</ref>
File:Raffet - Berger du Banat.jpg|alt=|Vlach shepherd of ] (], c. 1837) File:Raffet - Berger du Banat.jpg|alt=|Vlach shepherd of ] (], c. 1837)
File:A Morlach couple, Geissler.jpg|A ] couple (]), Christian Geissler, before 1844 File:A Morlach couple, Geissler.jpg|A ] couple (]), Christian Geissler, before 1844
File:Théodore Valerio, Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz, Romanian shepherd from Zăbalț, 1852.jpg|{{ill|Théodore Valerio|fr}}, 1852: ''Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz'' (Wallahian Shepherd from ], Transylvania.)
File:Rumanians in America.jpg|alt=|Romanian immigrants in ], United States File:Rumanians in America.jpg|alt=|Romanian immigrants in ], United States
File:Femmes valaques revêtues du costume national - Van Den Brule Alfred - 1907.jpg|Vlach women in traditional dress, North Macedonia/Greece, Van Den Brule Alfred, 1907 File:Femmes valaques revêtues du costume national - Van Den Brule Alfred - 1907.jpg|Vlach women in traditional dress, North Macedonia/Greece, Van Den Brule Alfred, 1907
File:Vlach revolutionaries from Ber or Veria.jpg|Vlach revolutionaries from ] (today in northern Greece), between 1900 and 1908 File:Vlach revolutionaries from Ber or Veria.jpg|Vlach revolutionaries in the ] against the Ottoman Empire from ] (today in northern Greece), between 1900 and 1908.
File:Koutso-Valaques rentrant dans leur village.jpg|Vlachs returning to their village in ], Greece, 1915. File:Koutso-Valaques rentrant dans leur village.jpg|Vlachs returning to their village in ], Greece, 1915.
</gallery> </gallery>
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* Th Capidan, Aromânii, Dialectul Aromân, ed2 Εditură Fundaţiei Culturale Aromâne, București 2005 * Th Capidan, Aromânii, Dialectul Aromân, ed2 Εditură Fundaţiei Culturale Aromâne, București 2005
* ]. * ].
* {{Cite book |last=Kristó |first=Gyula |title=Early Transylvania (895–1324) |publisher=Lucidus |year=2003 |isbn=963-9465-12-7 |location=Budapest}}
*{{Cite book |last=Miskolczy |first=Ambrus |url=https://mek.oszk.hu/22600/22639/22639.pdf |title=A román középkor időszerű kérdései |publisher=Magyarságkutató Intézet |year=2021 |isbn=978-615-6117-41-0 |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |trans-title=Timely questions of the Romanian Middle Ages |issn=2677-0261}} *{{Cite book |last=Miskolczy |first=Ambrus |url=https://mek.oszk.hu/22600/22639/22639.pdf |title=A román középkor időszerű kérdései |publisher=Magyarságkutató Intézet |year=2021 |isbn=978-615-6117-41-0 |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |trans-title=Timely questions of the Romanian Middle Ages |issn=2677-0261}}


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* ], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714231000/http://www.geo.fr/photos/reportages-geo/les-valaques-le-peuple-le-plus-discret-des-balkans |date=14 July 2014 }} * ], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714231000/http://www.geo.fr/photos/reportages-geo/les-valaques-le-peuple-le-plus-discret-des-balkans |date=14 July 2014 }}
* Adina Berciu-Drăghicescu, Aromâni, meglenoromâni, istroromâni : aspecte identitare şi culturale, Editura Universităţii din București, 2012, {{ISBN|978-606-16-0148-6}} * Adina Berciu-Drăghicescu, Aromâni, meglenoromâni, istroromâni : aspecte identitare şi culturale, Editura Universităţii din București, 2012, {{ISBN|978-606-16-0148-6}}
* Octavian Ciobanu, "The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.", Journal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp. 11–32. * Octavian Ciobanu, "The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.", Journal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp.&nbsp;11–32.
* A.J.B Wace,M.A. & M.S. Thompson, M.A. 'The Nomads of The Balkans' An Account Of Life And Customs Among The Vlachs of Northen Pindus, Methuen & Co. LTD. London, 1914


== External links == == External links ==
{{wiktionary|Vlach}} {{wiktionary|Vlach}}
{{commons category|Vlachs}} {{commons category|Vlachs}}
{{EB1911 Poster|Vlachs}} {{EB1911 poster|Vlachs}}
* —Maria Magiru about Aromanians {{in lang|Ro}} * —Maria Magiru about Aromanians {{in lang|Ro}}
* *
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* (in Vlach, EN and RO) * (in Vlach, EN and RO)
* —a short Czech film from 1955 depicting life of Vlachs in Czech Moravia * —a short Czech film from 1955 depicting life of Vlachs in Czech Moravia
*


] ]

Revision as of 11:48, 2 March 2024

Romance-speaking populations in the Balkans For other uses, see Vlachs (disambiguation). "Vlach", "Wallach", and "Oláh" redirect here. For other uses, see Vlach (disambiguation), Wallach (disambiguation), and Oláh (disambiguation).

Théodore Valerio, 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz ("Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț")

Vlach (English: /ˈvlɑːx/ or /ˈvlæk/), also Wallachian (and many other variants), is a term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in Southeast Europe — south of the Danube (the Balkan peninsula) and north of the Danube.

Although it has also been used to name present-day Romanians, the term "Vlach" today refers primarily to speakers of the Eastern Romance languages who live south of the Danube, in Albania, Bulgaria, northern Greece, North Macedonia and eastern Serbia. These people include the ethnic groups of the Aromanians, the Megleno-Romanians and, in Serbia, the Timok Romanians. The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds. and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively. The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of Moravian Vlachs who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians, as well as for Morlachs and Istro-Romanians.

Currently, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the Romanian diaspora and Moldovan diaspora).

Etymology

Further information: Walhaz

The word Vlach/Wallachian (and other variants such as Vlah, Valah, Valach, Voloh, Blac, oláh, Vlas, Ulah, etc.) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe, adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz, which meant "stranger", from *Wolkā- (Caesar's Template:Lang-la, Strabo and Ptolemy's Template:Lang-gr). Via Latin, in Gothic, as *walhs, the ethnonym took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker" and later "shepherd, nomad". The term was adopted into Greek as Vláhoi or Blachoi (Βλάχοι), Slavic as Vlah (pl.Vlasi) or Voloh, Hungarian as oláh and olasz, etc. The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon, and in Switzerland for Romansh-speakers (Template:Lang-de), and in Poland Włochy or in Hungary olasz became an exonym for Italians. The Slovenian term Lahi has also been used to designate Italians. The same name is still used in Polish(Włochy, Włosi, włoskie) and Hungarian (Olasz, Olaszország) as an exonym for Italy, while in Slovakian (Vlasi), Czech (Vlachy) and Slovenian (Laško, Láh, Láhinja, laško) it was replaced with the endonym Italia.

Medieval necropolis in Radimlja, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Romanian scholars have suggested that the term Vlach appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen (possibly by Varangians), who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages (see also Blakumen). According to them the forms which were recognised by linguist to designate the "Vlachs" are: Blaci, Blauen, Blachi found in Western medieval sources, Balachi, Walati found in Western sources derived from medieval German, while the Germanic population from Transylvania used also the variants Woloch, Blôch. French sources used mostly Valaques while the medieval Song of Roland used Blos. In English and in modern German the forms Wallachians, Walachen appear, respectively. In the Balkan Peninsula various names such as Rumer, Tzintzars, Morlachs, Maurovlachs, Armâns, Cincars, Koutzovlachs were used while muslim sources speak of Ulak, Ilak, Iflak.

History

Hypothetical map projecting the transhumance paths of the Vlach shepherds in the past.

According to one origin theory, modern Romanians, Moldovans and Aromanians originated from Dacians. According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the lower Danube basin during the Migration Period. On the other hand, most non-Romanian historian believe that Romanians, Moldovans, Aromanians and other Eastern Romance groups originated in the southern Balkans, what is now North-Macedonia, Kosovo, and Thessaly and migrated north from there from the 11th-12th centuries onwards.

The term 'Vlach' first appeared in medieval sources and was used primarily as an exonym for speakers of the Eastern Romance languages, especially Romanians. But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that, although in Europe and beyond, they were called Vlachs or Wallachians (oláh in Hungarian, Vláchoi (Βλάχοι) in Greek, Volóxi (Воло́хи) in Russian, Walachen in German, Valacchi in Italian, Valaques in French, Valacos in Spanish), the Romanians used the endonym Rumân or Român, from the Latin Romanus, meaning "Roman".

However, in historical sources the term "Vlach" could also refer to different peoples: "Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian". In late Byzantine documents, the Vlachs are mentioned as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs (Bulgaralbanitoblahos), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs. According to the Serbian historian Sima Ćirković, the name "Vlach" in medieval sources had the same rank as the name "Greek", "Serb" or "Latin".

Map depicting the current distribution of Eastern Romance-speaking peoples

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia, made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until the beginning of the 17th century. Some Greeks used Vlacho as a pejorative term. In Žumberak, members of the Greek Catholic Church were called Vlachs, while in Carniola, all inhabitants of Žumberak were called as such. In the Posavina and Bihać areas, Muslims used the term Vlasi for all Christians (both Orthodox and Catholics), while the Catholics used that name to refer to Eastern Christian Orthodox. Under the Ottoman rule, a large part of the Dalmatian hinterland was repopulated by Slavic settlers, both Orthodox and Catholic, speaking the Shtokavian dialect and called Vlach or Morlach by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In these areas, the term Vlah evolved to Vlaj (pl.Vlaji) and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to the rural inhabitants of the hinterland, both Croats and Serbs, as "peasants" and "ignorants". In Istria, the ethnonym Vlach is used by the Chakavian-speaking Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro-Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Nowadays, the term Vlachs (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia. In Serbia the term Vlach (Serbian Vlah, plural Vlasi) is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia. Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla (plural Vlaš) in their own language.

In modern Slovak, Valasi, other than denoting people of Vlachian ethnicity or origin, is synonymously and even more prominently used to describe shepherds, more commonly apprentice shepherds. The term originated following Vlachian arrival in mounts and hills of present-day Slovakia in 14th century and coinciding development in sheep herding and dairy industry. Further west, in Czech Republic, the area of Moravian Wallachia is known as Valašsko and the inhabitants as Valaši, names usually translated in English as Wallachia and Wallachians, respectively.

Théodore Valerio, 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz (Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț, Transylvania.)

Medieval usage

See also: History of Romania, Origin of the Romanians, and History of the Aromanians
Map of southeastern Europe, delineating Roman and Greek influence
The Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions

8th century

First uncertain data about Vlachs is in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river (present-day North Macedonia). The original document containing this information is from the Konstamonitou monastery and was written in the 17th century. It is supposed that it is based on a 9th-century Byzantine source describing earlier events.

10th century

During the Middle Ages, the term "Magna Vlachia" appears in Byzantine documents, which means the ancestral homeland of the Vlachs. This name was used for Thessaly and present-day North Macedonia.

John Skylitzes mentioned the Vlachs in 976, as guides and guards of Byzantine caravans in the Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria, they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David. The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle.

Ibn al-Nadīm published in 998 the work Kitāb al-Fihrist mentioning "Turks, Bulgars and Vlahs" (using Blagha for Vlachs) It is important to note, however, that Ibn al-Nadim is very clear that in this list he is talking about Turkic or Turkic-related peoples.

A monastic document from Mount Athos mentions that 300 Vlach families live near the mountain, and in their own language they call their settlements "Catuns".

Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon (1078), writes about a leader, Nikulitsa, who is given command by Basil II over the Vlachs in Hellada theme. Nikulitsa switched alliance to Samuel of Bulgaria after the conquest of Larissa by the Bulgarian Tsar.

Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, "They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks and many other peoples". According to other non-Romanian historians, based on the context, the "Waladj" are not the Vlachs, but a people living around the Volga.

11th century

Vlachs were present in large numbers, on the Chalkidiki peninsula around 1000, according to monastic documents from Mount Athos. On the peninsula, the Vlachs were famous for their cheese and meat products. In these texts sometimes they are called "Vlachorynhinii", which may be a mixture of the name "Vlach" and "Rynhini" a Slavic tribe who settled in the same area in the 7th century.

In 1013, a Byzantine document mentions the settlement of "Kimbalongu" in the mountains near Ohrid, which was a Vlach settlement.

The names Blakumen or Blökumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th and 13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the Vlachs. Other scholars on the subject, such as Omeljan Pritsak, however, point out that the texts probably refer to a nomadic Turkic people, since the "Blakumen" in the texts are "non-christian heathens" and nomadic horsemans.

In 1020, the Archdiocese of Ohrid was founded, which was responsible for "the spiritual care of all the Vlachs".

In 1022, Vlach sheperds from Thessaly and the Pindus mountains provided cheese for Constantinople.

In 1025, the Annales Barenses mentions a people called "Vlach" who live near the river Vardar.

The same chronicle the Annales Barenses describes that in 1027 the Byzantine army led by Orestes that tried to recapture Sicily from the Arabs, also included many Vlachs recruited from Macedonia.

Kekaumenos writes about the revolt in 1066 in the region of Thessaly led by Nikoulitzas Delphinas, nephew of the homonymous 10th century military commander, and father in law of the writer.

In 1071, a Byzantine document mentions that the herds of the Vlachs and their household spend the months of April to September beyond Thessaly, in the high mountains of Bulgaria, where it is very cold. (it is clear from the text that we are talking about the mountains of today's North Macedonia). The same text describes that the homeland of the Vlachs is Thessaly, precisely the part of the region divided by the river Pleres. Florin Curta adds that Kekaumenos calls Vlachs "migrants from the northern parts", as Kekaumenos associates them with Dacians or Bessi of Antiquity.

A Byzantine author, Kekaumenos writes about the Vlachs in Greece in connection about their origin and way of life in the Strategikon in 1075–1078. According to Kekaumenos, the Vlachs were Dacians and Bessus, who lived near and south from the Danube and the Sava, where the Serbs live now. They feigned loyalty to the Romans while they were constantly attacked and pillaged, therefore, Trajan launched a war, their leader, Decebalus was also killed, and then the Vlachs were scattered in Macedonia, Epirus and Hellas. Kekaumenos made the Dacians the ancestors of the Vlachs because he knew about the deceitfulness of the Dacians against the Romans, and according to him the Dacians and Vlachs had a perfectly matching nature, treachery and political unreliability, so much that in his opinion they should not be believed even if the Vlachs take an oath. Kekaumenos arbitrarily identified the Vlachs with the Dacians according to the archaizing efforts of his time, because the tendency to refer to later peoples with classical names was common in Byzantium at the time of Kekaumenos. Kekaumenos also confused the Roman province Dacia Traiana with Dacia Aureliana, and even he placed it further west where it actually was, that is why he mentioned the Serbian territory as the homeland, the Bessus tribe was a neighbor of the Roman province Macedonia.

Alexius Komnenos mentions that in 1082 he passed through a Vlach settlement called Exeva in Macedonia.

Anna Komnene mentions in her Alexiad that in 1091 Emperor Alexios ordered Nikephoros Melissenos to raise an army against invading Pechenegs. Melissenos recruited, among others, Bulgarians and "the nomadic tribes called Vlachs in popular parlance".

According to the Alexiad, in 1094–1095, Emperor Alexius Komnenos was notified by a Vlach chieftain called Poudila about the crossing of the Danube by a Cuman army, and that to prepare himself for the attack, then the Vlachs likewise led the Cumans through the gorges of the Balkan Mountains.

Also in 1094 the first mention of Vlachs in Moglena region is made, the document is kept in the archive of the monastery Great Lavra on Mount Athos. According to this Emperor Alexios I Komnenos replies to the monks of the monastery complaining that people on their domain are not paying taxes. The document contains some of the first Romanian names, such as Stan, Radu cel Şchiop, and Peducel.

In 1097, many Vlachs were resettled from the Chalkidiki peninsula to the Peloponnese by order of the Byzantine emperor Komnenos Alexis.

In 1099, crusading armies were attacked by Vlachs, in the mountains along the road from Braničevo to Niš.

12th century

Map of Central-Southern Europe during the late Middle Ages/early Modern period by Transylvanian Saxon humanist Johannes Honterus.

The Russian Primary Chronicle, written c. 1113 states that the Slavs settled beside the Danube, then the Volochi people attacked the Slavs, settled among them and did them violance, leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the Vistula under the name of Leshi. According to the chronicle the Slavs settled there first, and the Volochi seized the territory of the Slavs, later, the Hungarians drove the Volochi away, took their land and settled among the Slavs. The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians. Other non-Romanian historians consider the Volochi the Franks, as their country is placed west to Baltic Sea and near England by the author of the work, Nestor the Chronicler. The Frankish Empire stretched from the North Sea to the Danube.

The Byzantine princess and scholar Anna Komnene, in her book Alexiad, mentions a Vlach settlement called Ezeba, which was near Larissa and Androneia. In the same work she also describes the Vlachs as "the nomadic tribes, called Vlachs in popular parlance".

In 1109, monks on Mount Athos mention the Vlachs in Chalkidiki and that the presence of women disturbed the monachal activities.

Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population. In his work he mentions that these Vlachs live high up in the mountains of Thessaly, and from there they sometimes come down to plunder, which they do quickly, as swift as deers, for which reasons there is no king to rule them.

Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166. John Kinnamos says Vlachs were "colonists brought from Italy".

Plan of the fortress Prosek, seat of Dobromir Chrysos

The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire, also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.

According to Niketas Choniates, after the Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos lost his wife, he wanted to marry the daughter of Bela III of Hungary, but there was not enough money for the wedding, so he imposed taxes in the regions and cities of the empire, but he angered the "barbarians who dwelt in the Haemos mountains, who were once called Moesians, but are now called Vlachs".

Mentions of Vlachs in Medieval Bulgaria also come from Niketas Choniates who writes about a Vlach called Dobromir Chrysos who established an autonomous polity in the upper region of Vardar river and Moglena. A similar event is recorded by the same author in the area of Philippopolis where a Vlach called Ivanko, formerly a boyar at the Asen brothers' court was given military command by Emperor Isaac and expanded his rule to Smolyan, Mosynopolis, and Xanthi.

According to Niketas Choniates, Thessaly and Macedonia is called "Magna Vlachia", Aetolia and Acarnata are called "Little Vlachia" and north-eastern Epirus is called "Upper Vlachia".

According to Niketas Choniates, the Vlachs are the barbarians who live in the Balkan mountains, in Moesia.

In 1183 Hungarian documents mention, that King Béla III of Hungary, in his campaign against the Byzantine Empire, sacked Sofia, and among the defenders there were many Vlachs. The King used the opportunity and "... took home a number of these valiant mountain soldiers, and settled them in the Szeben County".

A Byzantine church document mentions that in 1190, "the Cumans and the Vlachs take the relics of Saint Ryli from Sofia to Tirnovo with a great pomp".

According to the "Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja", the authenticity of which is highly disputed by historians, c. 600AD the Avars conquered Salona, then, attacking further south, ravaged Macedonia and the "land of the black Latins, now called Morvlachs".

The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of Stefan Nemanjić, most likely 1198-1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of Hilandar monastery with aid from the inhabitants of the area of Prizren.

The "History of the Expedition of the Emperor Frederick" mention the Vlachs as people living in the mountains and forests of the Balkans. The chronicle also describes the Vlachs' homeland as being near Thessaloniki. The chronicle describes how the Crusaders captured several Vlachs who told them that the Vlachs live in Macedonia, Thessaly and Bulgaria, and that because they were heavily taxed, they were rebelling.

Numerous Serbian documents from the very end of the 12th century speak of Vlach shepherds in the mountains between the Drina and the Morava.

13th century

Kaloyan was given the title imperator Caloihannes dominus omnium Bulgarorum atque Blachorum ("Emperor Kaloyan, Lord of All Bulgarians and Vlachs") by Patriarch Basil I of Bulgaria and the title Rex Bulgarorum et Blachorum ("King of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs") by Pope Innocent II.

In 1204 and 1205 Raimbaut de Vaqueiras mentions the Vlachs as enemies of Boniface of Montferrat.

After 1207 Geoffrey of Villehardouin mentions twelve times the Vlachs part of the armies of Kaloyan of Bulgaria, either as defenders against Henry of Flanders or among the attackers of Adrianopole.

Around the same time Henry of Valenciennes writes about the country he calls Blasquie ruled by Burile (Borilă). Henry of Flanders conquers this land and awards it to Burile's cousin Esclas (Slav). From there on the country will be know as Blakie la Grant (Great Valachia).

Sándor Timaru-Kast alleges that the Venetian Chronicle refers to the land that would become Wallachia as "Black Cumania", "the colony of black Vlachs who migrated northwards."

According to the medieval Hungarian chronicle, the Gesta Hungarorum ("The deeds of the Hungarians"), written in the early 13th century, when the Hungarians of Grand Prince Árpád conquered the Carpathian Basin, at that time Slavs, Bulgarians and Blachij, and also the shepherds of the Romans (sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum) inhabited Pannonia. Most researchers say that the Blachij are the Vlachs, others that they are the Bulaqs, a Turkic people. The chronicle's authenticity is in question in historiography, because it confuses the peoples living in the area in the 12th century and the peoples of the 9th century. Among others, it includes the Cumans in Transylvania, who arrived only centuries later. Romanian historian Ioan-Aurel Pop states that some exaggerations and inaccuracies, typical of a chronicle at the time and mostly in favour of the Royal House, are not a sufficient reason to discredit the entire document as a historical source. It is important to note, however, that the chronicle mentions many rulers, but none of them is mentioned in any other contemporary chronicle. According to Romanian historian Florin Curta and leading Romanian medievalist Radu Popa, during the 1960–1989 period, the archaeological evidences were manipulated to meet the demands of the nationalist policies of the Ceaușescu's regime, and Romanian archaeologists made every possible attempt to prove that the Gesta Hungarorum is a reliable source for the Romanian presence in Transylvania prior to the Hungarian conquest, however no archaeological evidence was found to prove the subject. Hungarian archaeologist István Bóna also accused Romanian archaeologists of hiding evidence that did not fit their interpretation regarding the Gesta Hungarorum during the excavation of the early medieval hillfort at Dăbâca as Gelou's capital city. Wheter archeology supports the Gesta or not is disputed among historians. British-Romanian historian Dennis Deletant states the analysis of the Gesta Hungarorum shows that is too naive to claim it is an immaculate source, just as it is foolhardy to totally discredit its reliability, and the conclusion, the cases for and against the existence of Gelou and the Vlachs simply cannot be proven. British historian Carlile Aylmer Macartney writes in his critical and analytical guide of Anonymus that all Romanian historians refer to Anonymus, but they are not credible in the subject and the chronicle is not evidence for presence of Vlachs in Transylvania. Madgearu attempts to prove that a Vlach-Slav population existed in Transylvania before the arrival of the Hungarians by recounting place names of Slavic origin he believes weren't adopted to Romanian via Hungarian.

In 1213, an army of Vlachs, Saxons and Pechenegs, led by the Count of Sibiu, Joachim Türje, attacked the Second Bulgarian Empire - Bulgarians and Cumans in the fortress of Vidin. After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.

Stefan the First-Crowned donates 200 families of Vlachs from Prokletije and Peći to Žiča monastery.

In 1220, king Stefan the First-Crowned proclaimed that all Vlachs of his kingdom belonged to the Eparchy of Žiča.

A royal chancellery document from 1223, connected to the foundation of the Cistercian abbey at Cârța around 1202, which was granted land, mentions it was built in the land of the Vlachs/Romanians. This is also the very first mention of the Vlachs in Hungarian documents.

In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, "silva blacorum et bissenorum" was given to the Saxon settlers.

The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to the present day territory of Poland, Slovakia, and Czech Republic, and were granted autonomy under the ''Vlach law''.

In 1230 Constantine Akropolites, in his writing about the conquests of Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen, notes that the "Magna Vlachia" is next to Albania.

Pope Gregory IX wrote several letters to the Hungarian king, in which he talks about the conversion of the Cumans who lived in the southern part of present-day Romania (Wallachia). In one of his letters he mentions the Vlachs, asking King Béla IV of Hungary to let them into his country: "for the sake of God, give refuge to those poor Vlachs who tried to escape from their Cuman rulers."

In 1247, Béla IV of Hungary gives the "Land of Severin" to the Knights Hospitallers with two polities (kenezatus of John and Farkas), except kenezatus of voivode Litovoi which was left to the Vlachs as they held it. The land of Hateg is excepted, while the voivodate of Seneslaus the king keeps for himself.

In 1247, a Hungarian royal document allowed the nobles of Hátszeg and Máramaros to settle Vlach families on their estates.

In 1252 King Béla IV of Hungary, for his services in various foreign embassies, donates to Vince,Comes of the Szekler of Sebus, the land called Zek between the territory of the Vlachs of Kyrch, the Saxons of Barasu, and the Szeklers of Sebus, which once belonged to a Saxon estate called Fulkun, but has been uninhabited since the Mongol invasion.

In 1256 King Béla IV of Hungary, upon the complaint of Archbishop Benedict of Esztergom, confirms the right of the archdiocese to tithes from mining wages and from animal taxes collected from the Szeklers and Vlachs to the king or anyone else, among the judicial, accommodation and taxation privileges of the archdiocese, with the exception of land rents from Saxons, but also from Vlachs from everywhere and from anywhere they came.

King Ottokar II of Bohemia reports to Pope Alexander IV that about the defeated of King Béla IV of Hungary on 12 July 1260, on the border between Hungary and Austria, near the castle and town of Hemburg on the Moraua River. Among the people that fought in Béla's army Vlachs, called Walachorum, are named.

In 1272, King Ladislaus donates the royal lands or villages of Budula and Tohou, also known as Olahteleky, to Simon's son, Nicholas of Brașov.

From 1276 King Ladislaus allows the chapter of Alba Iulia to settle 60 Romanian households (mansiones) on the border of his estates called Fülesd and Enyed, separated from the episcopal lands, and to exempt them from all royal taxes, fiftieth and tithes.

In a grant (around 1280) Queen Helena confirmed the grant given by Stefan Vladislav to the Vranjina monastery, the Vlachs are separately mentioned, along with Arbanasi (Albanians), Latins, and Serbs.

In the 1280s, Simon of Kéza in the Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum mentions the Vlachs in his work three times: After the land had been conquered by King Attila, several people left Pannonia, the Vlachs (Blackis) were elected to remain in Pannonia who had been their shepherds and husbandmen. The Székelys were settled with the Vlachs (Blackis) in the border mountains, mingling with them, and adopting their alphabet. After the withdrawal of the Huns, the only people left in Pannonia were immigrants, Slavs, Greeks, Germans, Moravians, and Vlachs (Ulahis) who had been servants of Attila. Hungarian historians point out that the (Ulahis advenis) "Vlach newcomer", the adjective classifying Romanians as immigrants was omitted from the Romanian translation. Several scholars and historians noted that Simon of Kéza used different spellings for Blackis and Ulahis, arguing that Blackis were actually the Turkic people Bulaqs who were confused with the Vlachs. According to Polish historian Ryszard Grzesik, the Vlachs appeared in Transylvania only in the 12th century, therefore Hungarian chroniclers identified the semi-nomadic lifestyle of the Vlachs as a distinguishing characteristic. Kézai wrote that the Vlachs gave script to the Székelys, but the reality is different, because Kézai wrote about the Székelys runs, and his opinion was based on the observation that the Vlach shepherds engraved symbols while counting their sheep. Kézai confused the Székely runs with the Cyrillic script which was used by the Vlachs.

Several sources cite that the passes of the Carpathians in Transylvania were defended by the Vlachs together with Székelys and Saxons during the Second Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1285.

According to the old Russian chronicle, Ladislaus IV of Hungary asked for help from Rome and Constantinople because he feared an invasion by the Tartars. Constantinople sent an army of Vlachs from what is now Serbia, but after the victorious battle, the Vlachs refused to go home and settled in the territory of Maramures.

Also in 1285, Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos decides to move the Vlachs from Thrace to Asia-Minor, fearing their possible alliance with the Tatars. The same Emperor, in 1289, confirms the rights of St. Andrew Monastery from Thessaly over the village Praktikatous or Vlachokatouna.

According to a legend, in 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Câmpulung, as a Hungarian vassal state.

In 1290 Andrew III of Hungary, in a document, grants three Transylvanian noble families the right to invite Vlachs into the country "from South of the mountains".

In 1291 Andrew III of Hungary presides over a meeting of "Nobles, Saxons, Szeklers, and Vlachs" in Alba Iulia.

In 1292, Andrew III of Hungary allows some Hungarian nobles to invite Vlachs to the country, to their estates called "Ilye", "Szád" and "Fenes".

In 1293, Andrew III of Hungary, publishes an "angry" charter to the Transylvanian nobility, mentions that all the Vlachs were supposed to be settled on the royal crown's property called "Székes", not on their own estates.

In November 1293, King Andrew confirms King Ladislaus's earlier concession to the chapter of Alba Iulia to keep the 60 households of Romanians (mansiones Olacorum) free from all taxes and services on the lands of Dalya, Ompaycza, Fylesd and Enugd, separated from the episcopal estates. These Romanians should not be forced by any royal tax collector to pay taxes, dues, or fiftieths. - The charter, confirmed by a double seal, is dated by the hand of Theodore, provost of Fehérvár, vice-chancellor.

14th century

Stefan Milutin Serbian king donated 6 katuns to the church of St Nikita in Bania.

Stefan Milutin, in another medieval Serbian document, mentions that 30 Vlach families live on a church estate near Pristina.

In 1321 on the island of Krk, a priest gave land to the church, and the given land extended to the land of Kneže, where Vlachs lived.

In a battle, Vlachs fought alongside Mladen Šubić near Trogir in 1322.

Fra Mauro's map, sector XXIX, showing Vlachia Piccola in Thessaly and Monte de Murlachi in Dalmatia - ca. 1450 CE

King Władysław I Łokietek attacks Brandenburg with neighboring Vlach reinforcements "etiam vicinorum populorum, videlicet Ruthenorum, Walachorum et Lithwanorum stipatusc".

Goods sold by the Vlachs are mentioned in after 1328 by Ragusan documents, among them formaedi vlacheschi, a type of cheese.

First mention of a Vlach called Radul in 1329, in the Istrian Peninsula.

In 1330 Stefan Dečanski gifts to Visoki Dečani monastery the Vlach pastures and katuns along Drim and Lim rivers.

Croatian chronicler Miha de Barbazanis writes that Vlachs from the area of Cetina River fought for Mladen II Šubić of Bribir against Charles I of Hungary and Ban John Babonić.

In the list of Papal Tithes from 1332–1337 in the Kingdom of Hungary, one settlement mentioned in the source as Romanian: "Căprioara". This Romanian place-name is the very first recorded Romanian toponym in the Kingdom of Hungary, including Transylvania.

In 1335, a royal commissioner, on the orders of the King of Hungary, arranges for a Vlach voivode named Bogdan to move to the Kingdom of Hungary "with his entire household and people". According to the charter, the settlement of the Vlach voivode and his people lasted from 1 November 1334 to 15 August 1335.

In 1341, a Hungarian royal document notes that the Hungarian Czibak noble family can invite and settle more Vlachs to their Mező-Telegd estate, "from the south".

Stefan Dušan styles himself "Imperator Raxie et Romanie, dispotus Lartae et Blachie comes" - Emperor of Rascia and Romania, despot of Arta and ispan of Vlachia.

Stefan Dušan donates 320 Vlach families to the Bistrica monastery.

A charter, issued by Stefan Dušan, mentions that, Dobrodoliane is inhabited by Vlachs.

Morlachs are first recorded in 1344, during the struggle between the counts of the Kurjaković and Nelipić families, in the regions near Knin and Krbava, when a region called "Morlacorum" mentioned.

A letter from 1345 from Pope Clement VI to the Hungarian king Louis I, the phrase quod Olachi Romani appears, which can be interpreted as an expression of the papal chancellery's conviction about the Roman origin of the Wallachians.

In 1349, another Hungarian royal charter mentions the Vlachs, allowing the Wallachian voivode to send a Vlach priest to Transylvania, thus encouraging more Vlachs to settle in the Hungarian kingdom from the south.

A Hungarian charter of 1352 states that, the lord lieutenant of Krassó County Szeri Pósa invited Vlachs to Hungary, to populate the area around the Mutnok stream.

Around 1355, Bogdan of Cuhea, former Voivode of Maramureș, but now in conflict with Louis I of Hungary, crosses the mountains with other Vlachs from Maramureș and takes over Moldavia.

In 1358, a Hungarian royal chronicler named Márk mentions Transylvania and its peoples: "It is the richest part of the Hungarian Kingdom, where Hungarian and Saxon cities bloom with industry and commerce, while the fertile lands of Hungarian farmers produce good wine, fat cattle, and plenty of grain for bread. High upon the mountains Vlach herdsmen tend to their sheep, and bring down good tasting cheese to the market-places".

In 1359, the King of Hungary allowed a Vlach noble family and their household to settle in the country, first giving them 13 villages, and then 6 years later another 5 villages in the Banat.

Also in 1359, the village of Lakság "near Várad", reports in a letter to the bishop of Várad that "the first Vlach inhabitants have arrived".

In 1365 Balc, son of Voivode Sas of Moldavia, defeated by Bogdan, moves to the Kingdom of Hungary and is given by Louis I of Hungary the confiscated domains of his opponent. Later, Balc became the head of Szatmár (Sătmar), Ugocsa and Máramaros (Maramureș) counties in the Kingdom of Hungary, and he was also invested with the title of Count of the Székelys.

Vlachs from the domain of Vidčeselo, between Lika and Zrmanja, are rewarded for their military support by the ban of Croatia .

In June 1366 King Louis I of Hungary grants through the Decree of Turda special privileges to the Transylvanian noblemen to take measures against malefactors belonging to any nation, especially the Vlachs.

In 1370, Louis I of Hungary decreed that only those Vlach settlers who were Catholic could receive royal grants.

The village of Wołodź in Ruthenia was first documented in 1373 as a Vlach settlement.

In a letter dates to 1374, the Cathedral chapter of Várad complains that he has only 9 Vlach villages, and asks for permission "to invite more Vlachs into the country" and to "settle them on his estates". Also in the same letter, he asks the " border nobles " that " if strangers come from Wallachia, do not stop them".

Papal documents from late 14th century reference the conquest of Medieș fortress "from the hands of schismatic Vlachs" by an unnamed King of Hungary. Historian Ioan-Aurel Pop places this event close to the Fourth Council of the Lateran

In 1374, the Cathedral chapter of Várad complained that the Vlachs living in its territory are not willing to give up their nomadic lifestyle.

In 1374, Bishop László of Várad obliges his successors not to prevent the Vlach knezes from settle further "foreigners" to the border areas of Bónafalva, Királybányatoplica and Keresztényfalva.

In 1376 the ban of Knin is also called "comes Holachorum".

In 1381 Croatian documents from Knin mention "universitas Valachorum".

In 1383 the so-called "Peace convention of Christian" is signed by Saxons and Romanians (Vlachs) from the area of Sibiu, aimed to ensure the peace between the two communities.

In 1385, the King of Hungary settles 10 Vlachs villages on the royal estate of Aranyosmedgyes in the area of Szilágy.

Vlachs are a documented presence in Belz region since the rule of Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia, probaly as early as 1388.

In the 14th century, royal charters from the Kingdom of Serbia included segregation policies stating that "a Serb shall not marry a Vlach." However, these laws were not successful and intermarriage between Slavs, Vlachs and also Albanians did take place.

15th century

In 1404, Archbishop Johannes de Galonifontibus, in his Libellus de notitia orbis, notes that the Vlachs originated from Macedonia, but were already living in "Great Vlachia" too, which corresponds to Wallachia.

In 1412, the captain of Zadar saved 3000 ducats to organise an army against the looting Morlachs, who lived in Ostravica, whose castle has even been taken by them. The leader of the Morlahcs was a person called Sandallor.

The biggest caravan shipment between Podvisoki in Bosnia and Republic of Ragusa was recorded on 9 August 1428, where Vlachs transported 1500 modius of salt with 600 horses.

In 1433 Vlach knezes, voievodes, and juzi from Croatia vow to respect the property right of the local St. John church.

Vlachs are mentioned in a document of Grand Duke Švitrigaila, in Kremenets, as part of the local population subject to mayor of Busk legal authority.

Nicholas of Ilok styled himself as "Bosniae and Valachiae Rex".

In 1450, the Vlachs are granted a privilege in Šibenik, allowing the Vlachs to enter the town if they call themselves Croats.

Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini claims in 1450 that Trajan left a colony among the Sarmatians which still retains much of the Latin vocabulary, and that its members say: "oculum, digitum, manum, panem, and many other things, from which it appears that the Latins, who remained there as settlers, used the Latin language".

In 1453, Flavio Biondo notes that "the Dacians or Vlachs claim to have Roman origins and they think this fact is a decoration in itself" and that "when they spoke the language of their common and simple people it scent of a grammatically incorrect peasant Latin".

King Matthias confirmed the liberties of the Vlachs in an open letter, issued March 31, 1474 in the town of Ružomberok.

Jan Długosz in his Annales seu cronici incliti regni Poloniae wrote about Vlachs in Medieval Poland - Małopolska region, theorizing their origin as a population that came from Italy or Rome who expeled the Ruthenian (Slavic) population from the Danube settlements, and then they themselves settled in the fertile lands there.

An attested reference to Romanian comes from a Latin title of an oath made in 1485 by the Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great to the Polish King Casimir, in which it is reported that "Haec Inscriptio ex Valachico in Latinam versa est sed Rex Ruthenica Lingua scriptam accepta"—"This Inscription was translated from Valachian (Romanian) into Latin, but the King has received it written in the Ruthenian language (Slavic)".

Toponymy

In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia. In search of better pasture, they were called Vlasi or Valaši by the Slavs. States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:

Regions and places are:

Shepherd culture

As national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the transhumance groups. During the Middle Ages, many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland (Podhale) and the eastern Czech Republic (Moravia) by following the Carpathians, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus Mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east. In Slovak language, the term Valasi became a synonym for apprentice shepherds.

Some researchers, like Bogumil Hrabak and Marian Wenzel, theorized that the origins of Stećci tombstones, which appeared in medieval Bosnia between 12th and 16th century, could be attributed to Vlach burial culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that times.

Gallery

Legacy

According to Ilona Czamańska "for several recent centuries the investigation of the Vlachian ethnogenesis was so much dominated by political issues that any progress in this respect was incredibly difficult." The transhumance of Vlachs, the heirs of Roman citizens, may be a key for solving the problem of ethnogenesis, but the problem is that many migrations were in multiple directions during the same time. These migrations were not just part of the Balkans and the Carpathians, they exist and in the Caucasus, the Adriatic islands and possibly over the entire region of the Mediterranean Sea. Because of this, our knowledge concerning primary migrations of the Vlachs and the ethnogenesis is more than modest.

Researcher have also raised a concern about cultural appropriation of Vlach heritage in the Balkans, denial of Vlach descend of various groups and personalities, and exclusion from political life.

See also

Notes

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  2. "Valah". Dicționare ale limbii române. dexonline.ro. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  3. ^ Vlach at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  4. ^ Sugar, Peter F. (1996). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804. University of Washington Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-295-96033-7.
  5. ^ Tanner 2004, p. 203.
  6. ^ Ivan Mužić (2011). Hrvatska kronika u Ljetopisu pop Dukljanina (PDF). Split: Muzej hrvatski arheoloških spomenika. p. 66 (Crni Latini), 260 (qui illo tempore Romani vocabantur, modo vero Moroulachi, hoc est Nigri Latini vocantur.). In some Croatian and Latin redactions of the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, from 16th century.
  7. Ringe, Don. "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence." Language Log, January 2009.
  8. ^ Juhani Nuorluoto; Martti Leiwo; Jussi Halla-aho (2001). Papers in Slavic, Baltic, and Balkan studies. Dept. of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures, University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-952-10-0246-5.
  9. Kelley L. Ross (2003). "Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History". The Proceedings of the Friesian School. Retrieved 13 January 2008. Note: The Vlach Connection
  10. Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies. BRILL. 2013. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-90-04-25076-5.
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  27. Malcolm, Noel (1998). Kosovo, a short history. London: Macmilan. pp. 22–40. The name 'Vlach' was a word used by the Slavs for those they encountered who spoke a strange, usually Latinate, language; the Vlachs' own name for themselves is 'Aromanians' (Aromani). As this name suggests, the Vlachs are closely linked to the Romanians: their two languages (which, with a little practice, are mutually intelligible) diverged only in the ninth or tenth century. While Romanian historians have tried to argue that the Romanian-speakers have always lived in the territory of Romania (originating, it is claimed, from Romanized Dacian tribes and/or Roman legionaries), there is compelling evidence to show that the Romanian-speakers were originally part of the same population as the Vlachs, whose language and way of life were developed somewhere to the south of the Danube. Only in the twelfth century did the early Romanian-speakers move northwards into Romanian territory.
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  32. Noel Malcolm; (1996) Bosnia: A Short History p. 101; NYU Press, ISBN 0814755615
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  36. The Balkan Vlachs: Born to Assimilate? at culturalsurvival.org
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  46. Spinei, V. (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century. Brill, p. 152
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  48. Spinei, Victor, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century. Brill. 2009, p. 83
  49. ibn Isḥāq al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad (987). Kitāb al-Fihrist (in Arabic and English). pp. 36–37. Remarks about the Turks and Those Related to Them. The Turks, the Bulgars, the Blagha, the Burghaz, the Khazar, the Llan, and the types with small eyes and extreme blondness have no script, except that the Bulgarians and the Tibetans write with Chinese and Manichean, whereas the Khazars write Hebrew. My information about the Turks is what Abu al-Hasan Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn Ashnas related to me.
  50. ^ Földes, János. Az Oláh erdei pásztornépről (in Hungarian). Székely és Illés. pp. 4–7.
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  54. Huart, Clément. Ibid. pp. 62–63.
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  188. ^ Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană, Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : Istoria Românilor, Petre Ș. Năsturel Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, vol. XVI, 1998
  189. Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde, vol. IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases – these names disappear after 1980.
  190. Mircea Mușat; Ion Ardeleanu (1985). From Ancient Dacia to Modern Romania. Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. that in 1550 a foreign writer, the Italian Gromo, called the Banat "Valachia citeriore" (the Wallachia that stands on this side).
  191. Z. Konečný, F. Mainus, Stopami minulosti: Kapitoly z dějin Moravy a Slezska/Traces of the Past: Chapters from the History of Moravia and Silesia, Brno:Blok,1979
  192. Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172
  193. Marian Wenzel, "Bosnian and Herzegovinian Tombstobes—Who Made Them and Why?" Sudost-Forschungen 21 (1962): 102–143
  194. Ilona Czamańska; (2015) The Vlachs – several research problems p. 14; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1 IUS VALACHICUM I,
  195. Octavian Ciobanu: Cultural appropriation of the Vlachs' heritage in Balkans

References

  • G. Weigand, Die Aromunen, Bd.Α΄-B΄, J. A. Barth (A.Meiner), Leipzig 1895–1894.
  • George Murnu, Istoria românilor din Pind, Vlahia Mare 980–1259 ("History of the Romanians of the Pindus, Greater Vlachia, 980–1259"), Bucharest, 1913
  • Ilie Gherghel, Câteva consideraţiuni la cuprinsul noţiunii cuvântului "Vlach". Bucuresti: Convorbiri Literare, (1920).
  • Theodor Capidan, Aromânii, dialectul aromân. Studiul lingvistic ("Aromanians, Aromanian dialect, Linguistic Study"), Bucharest, 1932
  • A.Hâciu, Aromânii, Comerţ. Industrie. Arte. Expasiune. Civiliytie, tip. Cartea Putnei, Focşani 1936.
  • Steriu T. Hagigogu, "Romanus şi valachus sau Ce este romanus, roman, român, aromân, valah şi vlah", Bucharest, 1939
  • Τ. Winnifrith, The Vlachs. The History of a Balkan People, Duckworth 1987
  • A. Koukoudis, Oi mitropoleis kai i diaspora ton Vlachon , publ. University Studio Press, Thessaloniki 1999.
  • A. Keramopoulos, Ti einai oi koutsovlachoi , publ 2 University Studio Press, Thessaloniki 2000.
  • Birgül Demirtaş-Coşkun; Ankara University. Center for Eurasian Strategic Studies (2001). The Vlachs: a forgotten minority in the Balkans. Frank Cass.
  • Victor A. Friedman, "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" in Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, et al. Slavica Helsingiensa: 21, Helsinki: University of Helsinki. 2001. 26–50. full text Though focussed on the Vlachs of North Macedonia, has in-depth discussion of many topics, including the origins of the Vlachs, their status as a minority in various countries, their political use in various contexts, and so on.
  • Asterios I. Koukoudis, The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora, 2003, ISBN 960-7760-86-7
  • Tanner, Arno (2004). The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe: The History and Today of Selected Ethnic Groups in Five Countries. East-West Books. pp. 203–. ISBN 978-952-91-6808-8.
  • Th Capidan, Aromânii, Dialectul Aromân, ed2 Εditură Fundaţiei Culturale Aromâne, București 2005
  • Trifon, Nicolas. Les Aroumains, un peuple qui s'en va (Paris, 2005) ; Cincari, narod koji nestaje (Beograd, 2010)
  • Kristó, Gyula (2003). Early Transylvania (895–1324). Budapest: Lucidus. ISBN 963-9465-12-7.
  • Miskolczy, Ambrus (2021). A román középkor időszerű kérdései [Timely questions of the Romanian Middle Ages] (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyarságkutató Intézet. ISBN 978-615-6117-41-0. ISSN 2677-0261.

Further reading

  • The Watchmen, a documentary film by Alastair Kenneil and Tod Sedgwick (USA) 1971 describes life in the Vlach village of Samarina in Epiros, Northern Greece
  • John Kennedy Campbell, 'Honour Family and Patronage' A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community, Oxford University Press, 1974
  • Gheorghe Bogdan, MEMORY, IDENTITY, TYPOLOGY: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY RECONSTRUCTION OF VLACH ETHNOHISTORY, B.A., University of British Columbia, 1992
  • Franck Vogel, a photo-essay on the Valchs published by GEO magazine (France), 2010. Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  • Adina Berciu-Drăghicescu, Aromâni, meglenoromâni, istroromâni : aspecte identitare şi culturale, Editura Universităţii din București, 2012, ISBN 978-606-16-0148-6
  • Octavian Ciobanu, "The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.", Journal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp. 11–32.
  • A.J.B Wace,M.A. & M.S. Thompson, M.A. 'The Nomads of The Balkans' An Account Of Life And Customs Among The Vlachs of Northen Pindus, Methuen & Co. LTD. London, 1914

External links

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