| Revision as of 13:11, 10 April 2007 view sourceDaGizza (talk | contribs)Administrators34,671 edits rm dates, not because they necessarily wong, but because it not the right place, later on it already says elements of Hinduism emerged during the Early Harappan period← Previous edit | Revision as of 14:31, 10 April 2007 view source 69.223.67.6 (talk) Deleted...some crapNext edit → | ||
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| '''Hinduism''' (known as '''{{IAST|Hindū Dharma}}''' in some modern Indian languages<ref>such as ], ] and other contemporary ], as well as in several Dravidian tongues like ] and ]</ref>) is a ] that originated on the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary usage Hinduism is also referred to as '''{{IAST|Sanātana Dharma}}''' ({{lang|sa|सनातन धर्म}}), a ] phrase meaning "eternal ]".<ref>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000; The term can be traced to late 19th century ] (J. Zavos, ''Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India'', Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions," ''Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism'', edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987).</ref> | |||
| With its origins in the ] and ], it has no known founder,<ref>Osborne, E: "Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream.", page 9. Folens Limited, 2005.</ref><ref> Klostermaier, K:"A Survey of Hinduism", page 1. SUNY Press, 1994;</ref> being itself a conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions. It is considered the world's oldest extant religion, <ref>e.g. in by ], ], 2001. ISBN 81-85990-72-7</ref><ref> - National Geographic</ref> and has approximately a billion adherents, of whom about 890 million live in ],<ref>, Adherents.com (2005 figure)</ref> placing it as the world's ] after ] and ]. Other ] include ], ], ], ] and ]. | |||
| Hinduism provides a vast body of scriptures. Divided as ] and ] and developed over millennia, these scriptures expound on a broad of range of theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of ] (religious living). Among such texts, Hindus revere the '']'' and the '']'' and consider these as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the ] and the sectarian ], the '']'' and the ] '']'' and '']''. The '']'', a treatise excerpted from the ''{{IAST|Mahābhārata}}'', is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''.<ref>Swami Chidbhavananda. ''The Bhagavad Gita''. pp. 67-74. The ''Gita Dhyanam'' is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the ''Bhagavad Gita''. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them.</ref> | |||
| {{TOCleft}} | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| The ] term '']'' comes from the ] '']'', i.e. the ].<ref name=Hindu> </ref> In the ], the ] mention their land as ''Sapta Sindhu'' (the land of the seven rivers of the northwestern ], one of them being the Indus). This corresponds to ''Hapta-Hendu'' in the '']'' (''Vendidad: Fargard'' 1.18)—the sacred scripture of ] of ]. The term was used for people who lived in the Indian subcontinent beyond the "Sindhu".<ref>See ] for a discussion of the transition from "Sindhu" to "Hindu"</ref> | |||
| ==Beliefs== | |||
| ===Core concepts=== | |||
| Hinduism originates from the ancient ] tradition and other ] beliefs, incorporated over time. Prominent themes in Hinduism include '']'' (ethics and duties), '']'' (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), '']'' (action and subsequent reaction), and '']'' (liberation from the cycle of ''samsara''). ], ] and ] share traits with Hinduism, because these religions originated in India and focus on self-improvement with the general aim of attaining personal (]), spiritual experiences. They along with Hinduism are collectively known as ]s. | |||
| ===Concept of God=== | |||
| Hinduism is sometimes considered to be a ], but such a view tends to oversimplify a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning ], ],<ref name= "EBpolytheism"> , ], 2007 </ref> ], ] and even ]. For instance, the ] school holds that there is only one causal entity (]), which manifests itself to humans in multiple forms<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5">See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, ''The Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> while many scholars consider the ] school of thought to have had atheistic leanings. | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Brahman </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Brahman}} | |||
| According to the monistic/panentheistic theologies of Hinduism, ] (the greater Self or ]) is in the highest sense One and nondifferentiated from the world and its beings (hence 'nondualist'). In connoting Brahman's absolutely unparalleled nature, it is also called ''Parambrahman'', where the Sanskrit prefix ''param-'' denotes "ultimate". Brahman is also sometimes seen as synonymous with the concept of '']'' (Supreme Spirit). Beyond time and space, both immanent and transcendent,<ref name="baskar1">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility''</ref><ref></ref> ''Brahman'' is often described succinctly as ''sacchidananda'', meaning 'Truth-Consciousness-Bliss', not only possessing the qualities but also being their very essence. Advaita philosophy declares that ultimately Brahman (the impersonal God) is beyond mere intellectual description and can be understood only through direct spiritual experience, where the 'knower' and the 'known' are subsumed into the act of 'knowing'. The goal is to "wake up" and realize that one's ], or soul, is really identical to ], the uber-soul.<ref>See generally, ''Complete Works of ]'' ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref><ref>The presence of God within the heart of every living being is mentioned in the '']'' at 9.29, 15.15 and 18.61, which says that God is the source of inner direction and that it is through God's power alone that we have consciousness.</ref> | |||
| On the other hand, monotheistic (typically ]) and related devotional (]) schools, understand ] as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. In these conceptions, Brahman is associated with ], ] or ] depending on the sect. Brahman is seen as fundamentally separate from its reliant souls (humanity) so, in achieving liberation, individual beings experience God as an independent being, a living personality, and retain their individual identities. | |||
| ] representing the Hindu ]: ], ] and ].]] | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Ishvara </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Ishvara}} | |||
| When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle) God is called '']'' ("The Lord";<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."> Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary</ref>), '']'' ("The Auspicious One";<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>), or ''Parameshwara'' ("The Supreme Lord"<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>). ''Ishvara'' thus refers to the personal aspect of God in general; it is not specific to a particular deity. ''Ishvara'' transcends gender, yet can be looked upon as father, mother, friend, child, or even as sweetheart.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5"/> Some schools of Hindu philosophy do not believe in ''Ishvara'', while others interpret ''Ishvara'' in different ways.<ref name="ISBN 81-208-2144-0">See generally, Sinha, H.P. (1993), ''Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā'' (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ. ISBN 81-208-2144-0.</ref><ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5">See generally, Swami Bhaskarananda, ''The Essentials of Hinduism'' (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> Some schools do not distinguish between ''Ishvara'' and ''Brahman''. The ] school holds that ''Ishvara'' is not ],<ref name="ISBN 81-208-2144-0"/> but is infinite and a personal being. | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Devas and devis </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Deva (Hinduism)}} | |||
| The Hindu scriptures also speak about many celestial entities, called '']'' ("The shining ones",<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/> also called ''{{IAST|devatās}}''). The word ''Devas'' may be translated into English as gods,<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/> demigods,<ref></ref> deities,<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/> celestial spirits<ref></ref> or angels.<ref></ref> The feminine of ''deva'' is ''{{Unicode|devī}}''. | |||
| The '']s'' and '']'' depict traditional stories about individual devas. The latter lauds the ] of ''{{Unicode|Mahādevas}}'' ("Great Gods"), which are the three aspects of God, Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva.<ref>C.J. Fuller, ''The Camphor Flame'' 32 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-12048-X</ref> Numerous other Devas have been worshipped throughout Hinduism's history. The ''devas'' are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in ], ] and through ]s. In their personal religious practices, Hindus worship primarily one or another of these deities, known as their ''i{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}a devatā'', or chosen ideal.<ref>Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' at 80 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref>Louis Renou, ''The Nature of Hinduism'' 55 (New York 1962)</ref> The particular form of God worshipped as one's chosen ideal is a matter of individual preference and needs,<ref>Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 106 in ''Contemporary Hinduism'', Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> influenced by regional and family traditions.<ref>Harman, William, "Hindu Devotion" 104 in ''Contemporary Hinduism'', Robin Rinehart, ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Avataras </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Avatar}} | |||
| ]) of Vishnu, with his consort ]]] Many denominations of Hinduism teach that from time to time God descends to Earth in corporeal form to help humans along in their struggle toward enlightenment in the form of '']'' or liberation from rebirth known as '']''. In a related capacity, God's incarnations bring the dharmic order back into balance whenever necessary. Such an incarnation of God is called an ]. The most famous avatars are of Vishnu, the two most popular being ], whose life is depicted in the ], and ], who is a central figure in the ] and whose life is depicted in the ]. | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Atheism </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Atheism in Hinduism}} | |||
| Mainstream Hindu philosophy talks about the existence of God, being heavily influenced by the ] school, the dominant philosophical school of Hinduism. Nonetheless, there were earlier atheistic schools such as ], which did not acknowledge the existence of God. | |||
| ===Atman=== | |||
| {{main|Ātman}} | |||
| Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul, the true "self" of every person, called the ], is eternal;<ref name="monierwilliams1">Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 27 (New Delhi 1974)</ref> as is Brahman, which may be seen as either the greater Self or as God, depending on the outlook. According to the ] (non-dualist) schools of philosophy, the individual self and greater Self are not fundamentally distinct. They argue that the core spirit, or "Self", of every individual person is identical with the greater Spirit. Referring to 'brahman' unequivocally as God may reveal problems of semantics, where certain traditions understand God to be a motivating agency with personality and others that it is without personality and form, beyond any sort of definition and thus non-equivalent to the 'God' as understood by dualist schools of Hinduism or Abrahamic understandings of God.<ref name="monierwilliams1"/> According to the ], whoever gains insight into the depths of his own nature and becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of his own Self will realize his identity with Brahman and will thereby reach Moksha.<ref name="monierwilliams1"/><ref name="ISBN 0-7007-0279-2 p 7">Karl Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism at 37 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2; See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).</ref> According to the ] (dualist) school, (often associated with ]), the ātman is not identical with Brahman, which is seen as being God with personality (though not limited); instead, the ātman is dependent on God. Moksha depends on the cultivation of love for God and on God's grace.<ref name="ISBN 0-7007-0279-2 p 7"/> | |||
| ===Karma, samsara and moksha === | |||
| {{main|Karma in Hinduism}} | |||
| ''Karma'' translates literally as action, work or deed<ref>Vaman S. Apte, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, (Nag Publishers, 1997)</ref> and is often described as the "moral law of cause and effect".<ref>Huston Smith, The World's Religions, pg 64 (HarperSanFrancisco 1991) ISBN 0-06-250799-0</ref> According to the ], an individual, known as the ''jiva-atma'', develops ]s (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The "linga sharira", a body more subtle than the physical one, but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.<ref> S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy - Vol.1, pg. 254 (Oxford University Press, 1996) ISBN 0 19 563819 0</ref> Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to ] as well as one's personality, characteristics and family. Karma threads together the notions of ] and ]. | |||
| This cycle of ''action, reaction, birth, death, and rebirth'' is a continuum called ]. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in much of Hindu thought. The ] states that: | |||
| <blockquote>As a person puts on new clothes, discarding old and torn clothes, | |||
| similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)<ref> Bhagavad Gita 2.22</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However only escaping the world of samsara through ] (liberation) is believed to ensure lasting happiness or peace.<ref>See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20</ref><ref>See Swami Vivekananda, ''Jnana Yoga'' 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)</ref> It is thought that after several reincarnations, an ''atman'' eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman). | |||
| The ultimate goal of life, referred to as '']'', '']'' or '']'', is described as the realization of one's union with God; realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; liberation from ignorance; attainment of perfect mental peace; or detachment from worldly desires. | |||
| Such a realization liberates one from ''samsara'' and ends the cycle of rebirth.<ref>Rinehart, Robin, ed., ''Contemporary Hinduism''19-21 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref><ref>Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism, 79-86 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, ] holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as part of Brahman. The followers of ] schools such as ] on the other hand, expect to spend eternity in a ], or heaven,<ref>The concepts of ] and ] do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as ] (the abode of Vishnu) or ''loka'' are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God. </ref> in the company of their chosen form of ''Ishvara''. Thus, it is said, the followers of ''dvaita'' wish to "taste sugar," while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar."<ref>Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Translation by Swami Nikhilananda (8th Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-911206-01-9</ref> | |||
| ===The goals of life=== | |||
| {{main|Purusharthas}} | |||
| Classical Hindu thought accepts two main life-long dharmas: Grihastha Dharma and Sannyasin Dharma. | |||
| The ] ] recognize four goals as noble; these are known as the '']'', and they are: | |||
| # '']'': Sensual pleasure and enjoyment | |||
| # '']'': Worldly prosperity and success | |||
| # '']'': Following the laws and rule that an individual lives under | |||
| # '']'': Liberation from the cycle of samsara<ref name="ISBN 0-7007-0279-2">Werner, Karel, ''"A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism"'', Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref name="essenhinuism7">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 7 </ref> | |||
| Among these, dharma and moksha play a special role:<ref name="essenhinuism7"/> dharma must dominate an individual's pursuit of kama and artha while seeing moksha, at the horizon. | |||
| The Sannyasin Dharma recognizes, but renounces Kama, Artha and Dharma, focusing entirely on Moksha. As described ], the Grihasthi eventually enters this dharma as an eventual stage of life. However, some enter this stage immediately from whichever stage they may be in. | |||
| ===Yoga: multiple paths to the goal === | |||
| ] is traditionally a part of a practice that included meditation, pranayama, and right action—unlike the popular modern approach that emphasizes the physical aspect.]] | |||
| In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (]) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Someone who practices yoga is called a '']''. The chief texts dedicated to Yoga are the ], the ], the ] and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the ]. Paths one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (], ], or ]) include: | |||
| * ] (the path of love and devotion), | |||
| * ] (the path of right action), | |||
| * ] (the path of meditation) and | |||
| * ] (the path of wisdom).<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5"/> | |||
| An individual may prefer one yoga over others according to his or her inclination and understanding. For instance some followers of the ] school hold that ] ("devotion") is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for the majority of people, based on their belief that the earth is currently in the age of ] (one of four stages, or epochs, that are part of the ] cycle).<ref> "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." </ref> Practice of one yoga does not exclude the others. In fact, many schools believe that the different yogas naturally imply, blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of ''jnana yoga'', is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of ''bhakti yoga''), and vice versa.<ref> "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are."</ref> Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in ''raja yoga'') must embody the core principles of ''karma yoga'', ''jnana yoga'' and ''bhakti yoga'', whether directly or indirectly.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5"/><ref> See Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 116 (New Delhi 1974)</ref> | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Bhakti Yoga </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Bhakti yoga}} | |||
| The ] traditions emphasize cultivation of love and ] for God as the path to perfection. Followers of ] typically worship God as a divine personal being or ], such as ] or ]. Followers of the bhakti path strive to purify their minds and activities through the chanting of God's names (]), ], devotional hymns (]) and treating all living creatures with compassion. Bhakti followers seek to enjoy a loving relationship with God, rather than seek to merge their consciousness with ] as the followers of jnana yoga and raja yoga do. | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Karma Yoga </span>''' | |||
| ], shown here practicing ], was a Hindu '']'' (teacher) recognized for his inspiring lectures on topics such as ].]] | |||
| {{main|Karma yoga}} | |||
| The followers of karma yoga seek to achieve freedom by acting without attachment to the results of their actions. According to Hinduism, action is inevitable, and has one great disadvantage—any act done with attachment to its fruits generates karmic or psychological bondage.<ref name="ISBN 978-0949027047">Sivananda, Swami, ''Karma Yoga (Life and works of Swami Sivananda)''. Integral Yoga, 1987. ISBN 978-0949027047.</ref> Followers of karma yoga follow the injunction in the ]: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| Without being attached to the fruits of activities, one should act as a matter of duty; for by working without attachment, one attains the Supreme.<ref>Bhagavad Gita 3:19</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Many followers of karma yoga offer the results of every action to God, thus combining karma yoga with ]. However, it is possible for even an ] to follow karma yoga by remaining mentally detached from the fruits of their actions. Benefits of karma yoga include purification of the heart, freedom from bondage to the ego, humility, and the growing understanding that Brahman is in all people.<ref name="ISBN 978-0949027047"/> | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Raja Yoga </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Raja yoga}} | |||
| The followers of Raja yoga seek direct experience of spiritual truth through ] and yoga practices. Raja yoga is based on the ] of ],<ref name="ISBN 81-85301-75-1-V1-29">''Patanjali's Yoga Aphorisms'' II.29, English translation & commentary (side-by-side with original Sanskrit) in ''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' Vol. I, 29 ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> which has eight 'limbs' that describe the stages a yogi must pass through to reach the goal of ''samadhi''.<ref name="ISBN 978-1565892194"/> The eight limbs begin with right action ('']'' and '']'') and perfect meditative posture ('']''), and continue with control of the body's life force ('']''). From there, the yogi practices techniques of meditation that take him through the progressive stages of interiorization ('']''), concentration ('']'') and meditation ('']'').<ref name="ISBN 978-1425359829">Sivananda, Swami, ''Raja Yoga'', Divine Life Society.</ref><ref name="ISBN 978-1565892194">Kriyananda, Swami, ''The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: Explained by Paramhansa Yogananda, As Remembered by His Disciple, Swami Kriyananda''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1565892194</ref> The final goal of the raja yogi—and the eighth limb of Patanjali's Sutras—is '']'', or oneness with Brahman.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-03-3">Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''Meditation, Mind, and Patanjali's Yoga'' (Viveka Press 2001) ISBN 1-884852-03-3</ref> | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Jnana Yoga </span>''' | |||
| ], yogi, teacher, and founder of the ] in Rishikesh]] | |||
| {{main|Jnana yoga}} | |||
| Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom, or true knowledge, and appeals to people with an intellectual nature.<ref name="ISBN 978-8120818767">Kriyananda, Swami, ''Art and Science of Raja Yoga''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-8120818767</ref> The jnana yogi typically practices the four interrelated means to liberation: | |||
| # ''Viveka'': discrimination between what is real (the immortal Atman, or true self), and unreal (the changing universe) | |||
| # ''Vairāgya'', dispassion for the pleasures of this world. | |||
| # ''Shad-Sampat'', the ''six virtues'', which bring about mental control and discipline. | |||
| # ''Mumukshutva'', intense desire for liberation.<ref name=jnana>Sivananda, Swami, ''Jnana Yoga''. Divine Life Society, 1982.</ref> | |||
| These practices lead to the unfoldment of wisdom (intuitive perception), rather than mere intellectual knowledge.<ref name="ISBN 978-1565891364">Kriyananda, Swami, ''Awaken to Superconsciousness''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2000. ISBN 978-1565891364</ref> Through discrimination and introspection, the jnana yogi eventually realizes the highest truth, that "I am Brahman, the pure, all-pervading Consciousness."<ref name=jnana/> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{main|History of Hinduism}} | |||
| ===Origins=== | |||
| The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism dates back as far as the late ], to the ] period (ca. 5500–3300 BCE).<ref name=History> The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the ] as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".</ref> The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (ca. 1500-500 BCE) are called the "]". The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the ], which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on ] and philological evidence.<ref>T. Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100. </ref> | |||
| ===The Vedic period=== | |||
| {{main|Historical Vedic religion}} | |||
| ] in ] is regarded as the spiritual abode of Shiva.]] | |||
| Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas. The earliest of these, the '']'', centers on worship of deities such as '']'', '']'' and '']'', and on the '']'' ritual. The early Indo-Aryans performed fire-sacrifices, called '']'' and chanted Vedic mantras. However, they built no ]s or ]s. Animals were sacrificed in larger ''{{Unicode|yajñas}}'' as claimed by Buddhist and ] texts. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to ], as well as to other ] religions.<ref>The '']'' deity ''Dyaus'', regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically ] with ]—the king of the gods in ], ] (''gen. of'' Jupiter) —the king of the gods in ], and ] in ]. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other ] speaking peoples' mythologies; see ].</ref> | |||
| ===Epic and Puranic periods=== | |||
| The epic poems ] and ] were written roughly from 400 BCE to 200 CE, although they were transmitted orally for hundreds of years prior to this period.<ref>Robin Rinehart, ''Contemporary Hinduism'' 28 (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> The Ramayana and Mahabharata contain secular and mythological stories of the rulers and wars of ancient India as well as on the ]s Rama and Krishna respectively. They are interspersed with treatises on various Hindu philosophical concepts and themes, including the nature of the ], karma, dharma, moksha, and the organisation of society and government. The later ] recount tales about ], their interactions with humans and their battles against ]. | |||
| ===The age of Mahajanapadas=== | |||
| {{main|Mahajanapadas}} | |||
| During the ], several schools of thought arose and developed in ] such as ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Three key revolutions underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought: these were the spiritual upheaval initiated by the Upanishads, and the arrival of ] (founder of ]) and the ] (founder of ]). ], the leader of an atheistic materialist school, also came to the fore in ] in the sixth century BCE.<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"> A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9</ref> The ], ] and ] taught that to achieve ] or ], one did not have to accept the authority of the ] or the caste system; the Buddha went a step further and claimed that even the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.<ref> Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I (London 1954)</ref> In this intellectual ferment, many Hindus became followers of Buddhism while others were influenced by Buddhist and Jain teachings.<ref> Olivelle, Patrick, ''"The renouncer tradition"'', pp. 273-274; in "''Blackwell companion to Hinduism"'', Ed. Flood,Gavin, Blackwell Publ., 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2 </ref> | |||
| ===Islam and Bhakti === | |||
| Beginning around 1173 CE, successive waves of armies from ] countries invaded and to varying degrees, gained control over North India.<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> During this period Buddhism declined rapidly, and many Hindus converted to ]. Some Muslim rulers such as ] destroyed Hindu temples and otherwise persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as ], were more tolerant. | |||
| Hinduism underwent one of the most profound changes in its history, due in large part to the influence of the prominent teachers ], ], and ].<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> Followers of the ] movement moved away from the abstract concept of ], which was consolidated by the philosopher ] a few centuries before, to a focus on the more accessible ]s, especially Krishna and Rama.<ref name="ISBN 0-19-563921-9"/> A new attitude toward God—emotional, passionate love—replaced the old approaches of sacrificial rite and meditation on the formless Brahman.<ref>J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism,” in A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9</ref> | |||
| ===The 19th to 20th Centuries=== | |||
| This period saw largely unprecedented interaction between Hinduism and European thought (in the form of ] religions and ]). These intercultural conversations catalyzed developments in ], formations of new schools of Hindu thought, the spread of Hinduism across the world, and changes in many areas of Hindu society. At the same time, many traditional systems of Hinduism witnessed revivals or new developments that flourished independently of the globalization trend. | |||
| ] as an academic discipline studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by ] and ]. They brought much of the ], ] and ] literature, philosophy, religion, and practice back to European and ] universities. At the same time, societies such as the ] and the ] attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. | |||
| ] temple, in ], India]] | |||
| This period also saw the emergence of diverse movements which were more traditional in origin, though nevertheless innovative, sometimes based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with ] and ]. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including ] and ] (founder of ]) translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as ], ], ] and ] have been instrumental in raising the profiles of traditional ] and ] in the West. | |||
| In the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism is still practised by the majority of India's inhabitants although the number in the areas of modern ] and ] have dwindled due to the ]. Hinduism is also the official religion of the Kingdom of Nepal, which is thus the world's only Hindu state.<ref>, Government of Nepal website. Accessed: ], ]</ref><ref>, CIA Factbook.Accessed: ], ]</ref> Indonesia has experienced a ] in recent years, due to the efforts of ]. | |||
| {{see also|British Raj|Brahmo Samaj|Arya Samaj|ISKCON|Ramakrishna Math}} | |||
| ==Scriptures and theology== | |||
| Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times."<ref> Complete Works of ] Vol III. 118-120; Vol. I. 6-7.</ref> | |||
| The scriptures were transmitted orally, in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.<ref>Sargeant, Winthrop, Introduction to ''The Bhagavad Gita'' at 3 (New York, 1984) ISBN 0-87395-831-4</ref><ref name="ISBN 0-911206-15-9-E5-V1-3">Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 3 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref> Over many centuries, the teachings were refined by other sages, and the canon expanded. The majority of the ] are composed in the ]. Sanskrit continues to be used today in religious and literary settings. The scripture are collectively referred to as '']s'' and are classified into two classes: ''Shruti'' and ''Smriti''. | |||
| ===Shruti: Vedic literature=== | |||
| {{main|Śruti}} | |||
| ]'' is one of the oldest ]. Shown here is a Rig Veda ] in ], early nineteenth century.]] | |||
| ''Shruti'' (lit: that which has been heard) refers to the ''Vedas'' ({{Unicode|वेद}}, Knowledge) which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While they have not been dated with much certainty, even the most conservative estimates date their origin to 1200 BCE or earlier.<ref>Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 7 (5th Ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref><ref>Coulson, Michael, ''Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language'' (2d Ed. 1992) ISBN 0-8442-3825-2</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Hindus revere the ] as eternal truths, revealed to ancient sages ('']s'') through meditation.<ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol III. 118.</ref> Many of these sages were women, called ''Ṛṣikās''.<ref > {{cite web|url=http://hinduwisdom.info/Women_in_Hinduism.htm|title=Hindu Wisdom - Women in Hinduism|accessdate=2006-01-02}}</ref> Most Hindus do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a God or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.<ref>Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, and are not eternal.</ref><ref>Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Vol. I. 6-7.</ref><ref>Swami Harshananda, "A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas," in ''Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World'' (2d Ed.) ISBN 81-7120-121-0</ref> | |||
| There are four Vedas (called ''Rik-, Sāma- Yajus- ''and ''Atharva-''). The '']'' is the first and the most important Veda.<ref>Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest ] texts. See: </ref> Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the ''Veda proper'', being the '']'', which contains sacred ''mantras'' in verse. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose, which are historically believed to be slightly later in age than the ''Saṃhitā''. These are: the '']'', '']'', and the ]s. The first two parts are called the ''Karmakāṇḍa'' (the ritualistic portion), while the last two form the ''Jñānakāṇḍa'' (the knowledge portion).<ref name="hinduwebsite"></ref><ref name="Shivananda"></ref><ref name="Vedah">, Vedah.com</ref> | |||
| The Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophy whereas the Vedas focus on rituals. These texts constitute a major portion of the Jnāna Kānda,<ref name="ISBN 0-911206-15-9-E5-V1-3"/> and contain much of the Vedas' philosophical teachings. The Upanishads discuss ] and ].<ref>See Karel Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' 166 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref><ref>Monier-Williams, ''Religious Life and Thought in India'' 25-41 (New Delhi 1974)</ref> | |||
| While the ''Vedas'' are not read by most ] Hindus, they are yet revered as the eternal knowledge whose sacred sounds help bring spiritual and material benefits. Theologically, they take precedence over the ''Smriti''.<ref></ref> | |||
| ''See also: ]'' | |||
| ===Smriti: non-Vedic literature=== | |||
| {{main|Smriti}} | |||
| ]'' describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi resting on ]. The sage ] and ] are also pictured.]] | |||
| Hindu texts other than the ''Shrutis'' are collectively called the ''Smritis'' (memory).<ref name=Smritis> by Swami Sivananda</ref> | |||
| The most notable of the smritis are the '']'' (]s), which consist of the '']'' and the '']''. ] is an integral part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical sermons told by ''Krishna'', an incarnation of ''Vishnu'', to the '']'' prince ] on the eve of a great war. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'' is described as the essence of the ''Vedas.''<ref>''{{Unicode|Sarvopaniṣado}} gāvo,'' etc. (''Gītā Māhātmya'' 6). ''Gītā Dhyānam'', ''cited in'' Introduction to .</ref> | |||
| Also widely known are the '']s'' ("ancient histories"), which illustrate Vedic ideas through vivid narratives dealing with deities, and their interactions with humans. Other key texts are the ''{{IAST|Devī Mahātmya}}'', the '']'', the '']'' as well as the ''{{Unicode|Mahanirvāṇa Tantra}}'', '']'' and '']''. Another important set of scriptures with a more sectarian nature are the '']'', which dedicate to rituals and worship associated with ''Vishnu'', ''Shiva'' and ''{{Unicode|Devī}}''. A more controversial text, the '']'' or "Code of Manu", is a prescriptive lawbook which epitomizes the societal codes of the Brahminical caste system. | |||
| Most Hindu scriptures, especially the epics and Puranas, are not typically interpreted literally and more importance is attached to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings derived from them.<ref>''See'' Swami Nikhilananda, ''The Upanishads: A New Translation'' Vol. I, at 8 (5th ed. 1990) ISBN 0-911206-15-9</ref> Hindu exegesis leans toward figurative interpretations of scriptures rather than literal ones. | |||
| ==="Many scriptures, many paths"=== | |||
| In contrast to the scriptural canons in some other religions, the Hindu scriptural canon is not closed even today. Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.<ref>''Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda'' II.374 (18th Printing 1995) ISBN 81-85301-75-1</ref> Some Hindus even venerate the scriptures of other religions, since they believe that God reveals itself in innumerable ways. One much-quoted verse from the ''Rigveda'' that emphasizes the diversity of paths to the one goal is: | |||
| :''{{IAST|ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadanty}}'' | |||
| :Truth is one, the wise call it in many different ways | |||
| :—<small>].164.46</small></blockquote> | |||
| This openness means that there is little theological quarrel between Hindu denominations<ref>''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' </ref> although these denominations may view God in a different form or sense.<ref>See Monier Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' 64, 66 (New Delhi 1974)</ref> | |||
| ===Schools of philosophy=== | |||
| {{main|Hindu philosophy}} | |||
| The six ''{{Unicode|Āstika}}'' or orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, which accept the authority of the Vedas, are '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'' (also called ''{{Unicode|Mīmāṃsā}}''), and '']'' (also called ''{{Unicode|Vedānta}}'').<ref name="Philosophy"></ref> The Heterodox ''{{Unicode|Nāstika}}'' schools, which do not rely on the authority of the Vedas, are ], ] and '']''. Although these philosophies are studied formally mainly by scholars, they influence the beliefs of average Hindus. | |||
| ==Practices== | |||
| Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. According to ]: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "The ideal of man is to see God in everything. But if you cannot see Him in everything, see Him in one thing, in that thing you like best, and then see Him in another. So on you go . . . Take your time and you will achieve your end."<ref>Swami Vivekananda, ''Vedanta: Voice of Freedom'', Ed. Swami Chetanananda (1990) ISBN 0-916356-63-9</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| ===Puja (worship)=== | |||
| {{main|Puja}} | |||
| Hindus may engage in some type of formal worship (]: {{IAST|pūjā}}, worship or veneration<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>) either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to the individual's chosen form(s) of God. Veneration may involve offering food, water, or flowers and may be expressed through the burning of incense, lighting of candles or oil-lamps, ringing a bell, waving a fan, or sounding a conch-shell. Other practices of Puja include ], the chanting of mantras, and the recitation of scriptures. | |||
| ] and ], heavily laden with garlands, taken during a Hindu prayer ceremony.]] | |||
| ] is an important part of ''bhakti''. Devotional singing occurs in temples, in ]s, on the banks of holy rivers, at home and elsewhere. Hymns are in ] or in modern Indian languages such as ], ], ] or ]. Musical instruments accompanying devotional singing include the ], ], ], and ]. Another form of community worship is ] (fellowship), the practice of gathering for study or discussion of scriptures and religious topics as well as chanting ''mantras''.<ref></ref> | |||
| Vedic rites of icon-less fire-oblation (]), with traditional Vedic chanting, are now only occasional practices although they are highly revered in theory. In a Hindu wedding ceremony, however, the presence of sacred fire as the divine witness, the ''yajña'' and chanting of Vedic mantras is still the norm.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | |||
| '''<span style="font-size:120%"> Worship of God through icons </span>''' | |||
| {{main|Murti}} | |||
| <!-- ], known as ].]] --> | |||
| Hindus may worship God through ]s (]), such as statues or paintings symbolic of God's power and glory. The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshipper and God.<ref> Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 137 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> Another view is that the image is a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The ] states that the ''{{IAST|mūrti}}'' is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.<ref>''arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.''</ref> A few Hindu sects, such as the ], do not believe in worshiping God through icons. | |||
| ===Temples=== | |||
| {{main|Mandir}} | |||
| Hindu temples are a place of worship for Hindus. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities. However, some temples are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the '']'' and many are sites of pilgrimage. An important element of temple architecture and many Hindu households in general is ], the science of aesthetic and auspicious design. | |||
| Visiting temples is not obligatory for Hindus.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5 p 157">Swami Bhaskarananda, ''Essentials of Hinduism'' 157 (Viveka Press 1994)</ref> Many Hindus go to temples only during religious festivals, though others do so more regularly. Temples are not used for funerals, or as social hubs but some are used for weddings(e.g. temple of ] at ], ]). Many Hindus view the four ]s (the abbots of the monasteries of ], ], ] and ] — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at ] is also added) as the ]s of Hinduism. | |||
| === Hindu iconography === | |||
| {{main|Hindu iconography}} | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The symbols ] (which represents the ''Parabrahman''), ] (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings like ] identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, ] and ], with particular ''devas''. These associations distinguish the physical representations of the deities in sculptural or printed form and are based upon allegorical references in Hindu mythology. While most representations of deities are largely anthropomorphic there are exceptions. For instance the deity Shiva is worshipped in the form of a pillar-like stone called a '']''. | |||
| ===The guru-disciple tradition=== | |||
| {{main|Guru-shishya tradition}} | |||
| In many Hindu sects, spiritual aspirants are encouraged to adopt a personal spiritual teacher, called a ]. Traditionally, during ] (see ]) a Guru taught a disciple all things necessary to lead a ] life. The student is expected to follow the instructions of the guru and to have a spiritual life. The guru's recompense paid by the student is known as ]; in many traditions,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} this may not be monetary. | |||
| ===Japa and mantra=== | |||
| {{main|Japa|Mantra}} | |||
| ]s are prayers or chants that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a person focus their mind on holy thoughts or to express devotion to God. Mantras are meant to give courage in exigent times and invoke one's inner spiritual strength. | |||
| After the ] or "fundamental" mantra of "]", one of the most revered mantras in Hinduism is the ]. Hindus are initiated into this most sacred mantra at the time of their ] (thread ceremony). Many Hindus perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri or ] mantras. | |||
| ] (ritualistic chanting) is extolled as the greatest duty for the ] (what Hindus believe to be the current age), in the epic ]. Following this direction, many Hindu traditions adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice. The ] tradition chanting the ] mantra is one such example. | |||
| ===Pilgrimage=== | |||
| ] at one of the Hindu Holy city ] (]).]] | |||
| ] is not mandatory in Hinduism. Nevertheless, many Hindus undertake one or more pilgrimages during their lifetimes. There are many Hindu holy places in India. One of the most famous is the ancient city of ]. Other holy places in India include ] and ] in the ], the ] temple at ], ] and ] in the foothills of the Himalayas, ] (today Allahabad), ] in the South and ] in the east. The largest single gathering of pilgrims is during the annual ] fair held in one of four different cities on a rotating basis.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Another important "set" of pilgrimages are the 51 "]," where ] is worshipped, two principal ones being ] and ], which are incidentally major points of confluence for practitioners of ] and those who seek their guidance. ], the ] temple near ], ] is the second most visited religious shrine in India, after ] Mandir.<ref> | |||
| {{ cite web | | |||
| title = More pilgrim rush to Vaishno Devi this year | | |||
| url = http://www.siliconindia.com/shownews/33424 |date=October 08, 2006| | |||
| publisher = | | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| ===Hindu festivals=== | |||
| {{main|Hindu festivals}} | |||
| Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. Their dates are usually prescribed by the ] and typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes and occasions of importance in an agrarian society. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the ]. | |||
| Some widely observed ] are, | |||
| *], or ], celebrates events from Hindu mythology symbolizing the triumph of good over evil; | |||
| *], the festival of lights; | |||
| *], the festival celebrating ]; | |||
| *], the festival dedicated to Shiva; | |||
| *], celebrates the birth of Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu; | |||
| *], celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu; | |||
| *], a spring festival of colors and light; | |||
| *], a harvest festival of India | |||
| ===Cremation=== | |||
| On death, ] is considered obligatory for all except ]s, ], and children under five. Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a ]. Manikarnika Ghat, in ], is a famous site where bodies are cremated by the side of the river, in full view of the public. Those not cremated may be simply wrapped in cloth, weighted with stones and cast into a river. | |||
| Hinduism obliges the closest male relative (son, father, husband, etc.) of the deceased to immerse the cremated remains in the holy river ] (]), preferably at the holy city of ], India. The cremated remains may also be entombed, in case the deceased was a well-known person. | |||
| ==Society== | |||
| ===Denominations=== | |||
| {{main|Hindu denominations}} | |||
| ] in ] is regarded as one of the most sacred places in ].]] | |||
| Many Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination at all.<ref>Karl Werner, ''A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism'' at 73 (Curzon Press 1994) ISBN 0-7007-0279-2</ref> However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: ], ], ] and ]. The denominations differ primarily in the God worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that God. | |||
| ] worship ''{{IAST|Viṣhṇu}}''; ] worship ''Shiva''; ] worship '']'' (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, '']''; while ] believe in the essential sameness of all deities and that they are all Brahman. | |||
| There are also many movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami ]'s '']'', which condemns image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire sacrifices ('']''). In ], the Goddess is considered the power of ''Shiva'', and thus represents a combination of the Shaiva and shakta denominations. | |||
| As in every religion, some view their own denomination as superior to others. However, many Hindus consider other denominations to be legitimate alternatives to their own. ] is therefore generally not an issue for Hindus.<ref> ''India and Hinduism - Background of relativism''</ref> | |||
| ===Ashramas: Stages of Grihastha Life=== | |||
| {{main|Ashrama}} | |||
| Traditionally, the life of a male Hindu was divided into four '']s'' ("phases" or "stages"; unrelated meanings of āshrama include "monastery" or "refuge"). | |||
| The first part of one's life, ''Brahmacharya,'' the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a ], building up the mind for the realization of truth. | |||
| ''Grihastha'' is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies '']'' and '']'' within one's married and professional life respectively (see the ]). Among the moral obligations of a Hindu householder are the duties to support one's parents, children, guests, priests (''Brahmins''), and monks (''sanyāsis''). | |||
| ''{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}},'' the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. | |||
| Finally, in ''{{Unicode|Sannyāsa}}'', the stage of ], one renounces all worldly attachments, often envisioned as seclusion, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or for liberation).<ref name="ISBN 1-57607-905-8 p 165-68">S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", 165-68, ''in'' Contemporary Hinduism (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> | |||
| ===Monasticism=== | |||
| {{main|Sannyasa}} | |||
| In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of ] (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5 p 112">Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"The Essentials of Hinduism"'', Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> A Hindu monk is called a s''anyāsī, ]'', or '']''.<ref>R.S. McGregor, ''The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary'' (5th ed. 1999) ISBN 0-19-563846-8</ref> A female renunciate is called a ''sanyāsini''. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for ''mental'' renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.<ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 316 (Princeton 1998) ISBN 0-691-08953-1</ref> It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus, or any brahmana, with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.<ref name="ISBN 1-884852-02-5 p 112"/> | |||
| ===Varnas and the caste system=== | |||
| {{main|Varnashrama dharma}} | |||
| Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called ''Varnas'' (''Sanskrit'': "color, form, appearance");<ref name="MW Sanskrit dict."/>. It is argued that in ancient times, the ''Varṇas'' were merely labels based upon occupation (as opposed to the hereditary ] currently present in India) — | |||
| * the '']s'': teachers and priests; | |||
| * the '']s'': warriors and kings; | |||
| * the '']s'': farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and | |||
| * the '']s'': servants and labourers. | |||
| Hindus and scholars debate whether the caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.<ref>Alex Michaels, ''Hinduism: Past and Present'' 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1</ref><ref name=castesystem> View of Scholars</ref> Although the scriptures contain passages that can be interpreted to sanction the ''Varna'' system, they contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion, and both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The oldest scriptures, the ''Vedas,'' place little emphasis on the caste system, mentioning it rarely and in a cursory manner. A verse from the ] indicates that a person's caste was not necessarily determined by that of his family: | |||
| <blockquote>"I am a bard, my father is a physician, my mother's job is to grind the corn." (Rig Veda 9.112.3)<ref>Later scriptures, however, such as the '']'' () state that the four ''{{IAST|varṇa}}'' divisions are created by God, and the '']'' categorizes the different castes. 1.87-1.91 However, at the same time, the ''Gītā'' says that one's ''{{Unicode|varṇa}}'' is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth. This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage '']'' was a king of the '']'' caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, '']'', once a low-caste robber, ''became'' a sage. '']'', another sage, was the son of a fisherwoman (Sabhlok, Prem. . Page 21). | |||
| </ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| In the Vedic Era, there was no prohibition against the ''Shudras'' (which later on became the low-castes) listening to the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.<ref>White Yajurveda 26.2</ref> | |||
| Mobility and flexibility within the varnas belie allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists.<ref name="Silverberg Paper">{{cite journal | |||
| |author = James Silverberg | |||
| |date = November 1969 | |||
| |year = 1969 | |||
| |month = Nov | |||
| |title = Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium | |||
| |journal = The American Journal of Sociology | |||
| |volume = 75 | |||
| |issue = 3 | |||
| |pages = 443-444 | |||
| }}</ref><ref>''Social Structure & Mobility in Economic Development'', By Neil J. Smelser, Seymour Martin Lipset, Published 2005</ref> Several prominent Hindu figures who were born as Shudras became Brahmins through various actions. For example ], author of the ], was originally a thief. | |||
| Many social reformers, including ] and ], criticized caste discrimination.<ref>Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India," ''in Contemporary Hinduism'', Robert Rinehart, Ed. (2004) ISBN 1-57607-905-8</ref> The religious teacher ] (1836-1886) taught that | |||
| <blockquote>"Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through ] (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."<ref> M, ''Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna'', Translation by Swami Nikhilananda 155 (Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, 8th Printing 1992)</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| However, it is not only in the modern era that major figures of Hinduism have aggressively denied casteism. ], who lived some time in the 5th century CE, was outspoken against caste, frequently citing scripture in defense of his then heterodox viewpoint.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} The ] that developed as a tradition distinct from orthodox Hinduism between the 8th and 11th centuries CE<ref>Flood, Gavin, "The Śaiva Traditions" in: Flood (2005; paperback edition of Flood 2003) p.208</ref> also relaxed many societal strictures regarding class and caste distinction. However it would be an overgeneralization to say that the Tantrics did away with all caste restrictions, as N. N. Bhattacharyya explains: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| "For example, Tantra according to its very nature has nothing to do with the caste system but in the later Tantras caste elements are pronounced. This is due to the fact that although many of our known Tantric teachers were non-Brāhmaṇas, rather belonging to the lower ranks of society, almost all of the known authors of the Tantric treatises were Brāhmaṇas who could not give up their caste prejudices notwithstanding their conversion to Tantrism."<ref>N. N. Bhattacharyya. ''History of the Tantric Religion'', p. 44-5.</ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Discrimination based on caste, including ] against the so-called low castes, is criminalized by the ]. | |||
| ===Ahimsa and vegetarianism=== | |||
| {{main|Ahimsa|Sacred cow|Vegetarianism and religion}} | |||
| Hindus advocate the practice of ''ahiṃsā'' (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants, insects, and non-human animals.<ref>Monier-Williams, ''Religious Thought and Life in India'' (New Delhi, 1974 edition)</ref> There is no sharp distinction between humans and other forms of life. The term ''ahiṃsā'' first appears in the ]s, and is the first of the five ''Yamas'' (eternal vows/restraints) in ]. | |||
| In accordance with ''ahiṃsā'', many Hindus embrace ] to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a requirement of Hinduism, it is recommended for a '']'' (purifying) lifestyle. Estimates of the number of ]s in India (includes inhabitants of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.<ref name = "veg"> Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: , and . Results indicate that even Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical. </ref> The food habits usually vary with the community and region, with some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.<ref>Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox.</ref><ref name=Food_habits_of_a_nation>{{cite news | author = Yadav, Y.| coauthors= Kumar, S|title = The food habits of a nation| url = http://www.thehindu.com/2006/08/14/stories/2006081403771200.htm | work = The Hindu | date = ], ]|accessdate = 2006-11-17 }}</ref> Some Hindus avoid even ] and ], which are regarded as '']ic'' foods. Some avoid meat on specific holy days. | |||
| Observant ] who do eat meat almost always abstain from ]. The largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied heavily on the cow for ]-rich milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and as a provider of fuel and fertilizer. Thus, it was identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure. While most contemporary Hindus do not worship the cow, it holds an honored place in Hindu society as a symbol of unselfish giving among all animals. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.<ref name=beef_without_borders>{{cite news | first = R. | last = Krishnakumar | title = Beef without borders | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2018/stories/20030912004703100.htm | work = Frontline | publisher = Narasimhan Ram|date = ]-], ] | accessdate = 2006-10-07 }}</ref> | |||
| ===Conversion=== | |||
| Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of ], the question of whether Hindus should ] is open to interpretation.<ref name="conversion">{{cite web | url = http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/books/hbh/hbh_ch-5.html | title = Does Hinduism Accept Newcomers? | accessdate = 2006-11-14}}</ref> Those who see Hinduism mainly as a philosophy, a set of beliefs, or a way of life generally believe that one can convert to Hinduism by incorporating Hindu beliefs into one's life and considering oneself a Hindu.<ref name="conversion"/> Some view Hinduism as more of an ethnicity than a religion and believe being born a Hindu makes one a Hindu for life. These people tend to believe that there is an assumption that one is Hindu when they come from India.<ref> ''The eternal religion's defining moment in time''</ref> The Supreme Court of India has taken the former view, holding that the question of whether a person is a Hindu should be determined by the person's belief system, not by their ethnic or racial heritage.<ref>''Brahmachari Siddheshwar Shai v. State of West Bengal'' (Supreme Court of India), ''available at'' </ref> | |||
| There is no formal process for conversion to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called ''dīkshā'' ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life. Most Hindu sects do not actively recruit converts because they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.<ref>See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5</ref> Nevertheless, Hindu "missionary" groups operate in various countries to provide spiritual guidance to persons of any religion. Examples include the ], ], ], ] and the ]. | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| <!-- Please do not edit here, if you came here to provide citations please read WP:CITE for more info on how to do so. Thank you --> | |||
| {{reflist|3}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| <!-- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ | |||
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| {{refbegin|2}} | |||
| * Basham, A.L., (Ed.), ''"A Cultural History of India"'', ], 1999. ISBN 0-19-563921-9 | |||
| * Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"The Essentials of Hinduism"'', Viveka Press, 1994. ISBN 1-884852-02-5 | |||
| * Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"Meditation: Mind & Patanjali's Yoga"'', Viveka Press, 2001. ISBN 1-884852-03-3 | |||
| * Bhaskarananda, Swami, ''"Ritualistic Worship and Its Utility"'' | |||
| * Bhattacharyya, N. N. ''History of the Tantric Religion'', Manohar Publications, Second Revised Edition, 1999. ISBN 81-7304-025-7 | |||
| * Bhatia V.P., ''"Secularisation of a Martyrdom"'', Organiser, 11-11998. | |||
| * Chidbhavananda, Swami. ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam, 1997. | |||
| * Coulson, Michael, ''"Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language"'', ], 1992. ISBN 0-8442-3825-2 | |||
| * Bowes, Pratima,''"The Hindu Religious Tradition: A Philosophical Approach"'', Allied Pub., 1976. ISBN 0710086687 | |||
| * ], | |||
| * Flood, Gavin (Ed.), "''Blackwell companion to Hinduism"'', ], 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2 | |||
| * ], '''', Voice of India, 2001. ISBN 81-85990-72-7 | |||
| * Fox, Michael Allen, ''"Deep Vegetarianism"'', Temple University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-566397-05-7 | |||
| * Fuller, C.J., ''"The Camphor Flame"'', ], 2004. ISBN 0-691-12048-X | |||
| * Harshananda, Swami, ''"A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas"'' in ''"Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World"'' (2d Ed.). ISBN 81-7120-121-0 | |||
| * Kriyananda, Swami, ''Awaken to Superconsciousness''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2000. ISBN 978-1565891364 | |||
| * Kriyananda, Swami, ''The Art and Science of Raja Yoga''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-8120818767 | |||
| * Kriyananda, Swami, ''The Essence of the Bhagavad Gita: Explained by Paramhansa Yogananda, As Remembered by His Disciple, Swami Kriyananda''. Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1565892194 | |||
| * Klostermaier, K, ''"A Survey of Hinduism"'', SUNY Press, 1994. | |||
| * Mani, Vettam, ''"Puranic Encyclopedia"'', ], Delhi, 1998. ISBN 81-208-0597-6 | |||
| * McGregor, R.S., ''"The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary"'', ], 5th ed., 1999. ISBN 0-19-563846-8 | |||
| * Michaels, Alex, ''"Hinduism: Past and Present"'', ], 2004. ISBN 0-691-08953-1 | |||
| * ], ''"Brahmanism and Hinduism"'', New York, 1891. | |||
| * ], ''"Religious thought and life in India"'', Oriental Books Reprint, 1974. | |||
| * ], ''"Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary"'', Nataraj Books, 2006, ISBN 18-81338-58-4 | |||
| * ], ''"The Upanishads: A New Translation"'', Vol. I (5th Ed) 1990. ISBN 0-911206-15-9 | |||
| * ] (trans.), ''"Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna"'', 1992. ISBN 0-911206-01-9 | |||
| * Oberlies, T, ''"Die Religion des Rgveda"'', Vienna 1998. | |||
| * Osborne, E, ''"Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream."'', Folens Limited, 2005. | |||
| * ] (trans.), ''"Bhagvada Gita"'', ], 1995. ISBN 1-855384-57-4 | |||
| * Renou, Louis, ''"The Nature of Hinduism"'', Walker, 1964. | |||
| * Rinehart, Robin (Ed.), ''"Contemporary Hinduism"'', 2004. ISBN 1-57607-905-8 | |||
| * Sargeant, Winthrop, ''"Introduction to 'The Bhagavad Gita' "'', New York, 1984. ISBN 0-87395-831-4 | |||
| * Sinha, H.P., ''"Bharatiya darshan ki ruparekha"'' (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ., 1993. ISBN 81-208-2144-0 | |||
| * Sivananda, Swami, ''Jnana Yoga''. Divine Life Society, 1982. | |||
| * Sivananda, Swami, ''Karma Yoga (Life and works of Swami Sivananda)''. Integral Yoga, 1987. ISBN 978-0949027047 | |||
| * ], ''''. | |||
| * ], ''"Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda"''. ISBN 81-85301-75-1 | |||
| * ], ''"Vedanta, Voice of Freedom:'', Ed. Swami Chetanananda, 1990. ISBN 0-916356-63-9 | |||
| * ], ''"Jnana Yoga"'', Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-425482-88-0 | |||
| * Werner, Karel, ''"A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism"'', Curzon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2 | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| ==Further reading == | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * ], "''Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines''", 2001 (first french edition 1921), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-74-8 | |||
| * ], "''Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta''", Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900-588-62-4 | |||
| * ], "''Studies in Hinduism''", Sophia Perennis | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Hinduism portal}} | |||
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