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Ancient Jewish art, is art created by Jews in both the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora prior to the Middle Ages. It features symbolic or figurative motifs often influenced by biblical themes, religious symbols, and the dominant cultures of the time, including Egyptian, Hellenistic, and Roman art.

During the Second Temple Period, Jewish decorative art followed the biblical prohibition against images, avoiding figurative or symbolic depictions. Motifs from Eastern Mediterranean art were used, but without human or animal figures, reflecting Torah injunctions and a resistance to Roman influence.

In Late Antiquity, the biblical commandment avoidance of figurative or symbolic painting was gradually ignored in part due to the influence of Christianity. Symbols such as the Menorah served as both artistic as well as national symbols of Jewish identity, growing more acute after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Outline

In the Second Temple period, Jewish art, both in the Land of Israel and the diaspora, was characterized by a marked avoidance of figurative or symbolic motifs. Adhering to the Biblical commandment against creating graven images (Exodus 20:4; Deuteronomy 5:8), the predominant artistic themes were geometric, floral, and architectural. Symbols such as the menorah and the shewbread table were used, primarily as representations of priestly duties with figurative representations of symbols of the Temple initially resisted by religious authorities. This approach was partly in response to Hellenistic rulers' efforts to impose idolatry, which threatened Jewish religion and culture. On the other hand, Jewish Hellenistic factions adopted Greek influences to some extent and integrated figurative depictions into their architecture and statuary, as can be seen in such sites as the Tobiad estate in Iraq al-Amir.

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A significant shift occurred in Jewish artistic expression during Late Antiquity, when Jews began incorporating symbolic motifs in their synagogal and funerary art. This change was not only evident in the variety of contexts and localities but also in the diverse range of objects that featured these symbols. The repertoire of symbols, initially limited, expanded over time.

This change in artistic expression was influenced by the rise of Christianity and its establishment as the official religion of the Roman Empire. The new religious landscape presented a challenge to Judaism, necessitating a shift in cultural representation. The Jews began to use specific symbols in their art as a means of expressing and affirming their Jewish identity. These symbols included the menorah, the shewbread table, the ark, ritual objects, and the conch. Originally part of the Temple rites, these symbols held significant meaning and became a prominent feature in Jewish art of the period. They served not only as religious symbols but also as emblems of national and communal identity.

The menorah's evolution is understood as a key example of this transition. Initially a sign of priestly roles during the Second Temple period, the menorah transformed into a widely recognized symbol of Jewish identity after the Temple's destruction.

Motifs

Menorah

See main article: Temple menorah

The menorah, originally described in the Bible as being a solid gold candelabrum with a central shaft and six branches extending from it, is mentioned first in the context of the Tabernacle (Exodus 25:31-40; 37:17-24), and was later used in the Temple of Jerusalem as part of the daily ritual. Even as the Second Temple stood, the image of the menorah was used in an ornamental context.

As a concrete figurative symbol, the menorah first appeared during the second half of the first century BCE, and depictions increased gradually over time, gaining particular prominence in the ornamentation of synagogues, places of residence, catacombs and ritual objects during the third and fourth centuries CE, both in Israel and in the diaspora.

The first visual representations of the menorah appear on the coins of the last Hasmonean king Mattathias Antigonus (40-37 BCE). Additional depictions from the Second Temple Period include those on several plaster fragments from the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem and a sundial found near the Tempe Mount, five incised menorahs on the eastern wall of Jason’s tomb in Jerusalem, two painted menorahs on the wall of a cistern in a refuge cave of Nahal Mikhmas, two ossuaries from Jerusalem and one ossuary from the Goliath family tomb at Jericho, and the famous depiction on the arch of Titus. The “Darom” clay oil lamps from Judea have depictions of the menorah as well, though they are dated to the period between the destruction of the Temple (70 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (135 CE).

Remains of several free-standing Menorahs have been unearthed in the excavations of several ancient synagogues in Hammat Tiberias, Horvat Qoshet, Susiya, Ma’on, Eshtemoa, Meroth, Ein Gedi and the diasporan synagogue of Sardis. Save the Menorah from Ein Gedi which was made of bronze, the rest were largely made of stone, though it is possible that others originally made of metal were plundered and those made of wood did not survive due to decay.

The most famous of menorah representations from late antiquity appear on synagogue mosaics, such as have been found in Hammat Tiberius, Bet Alpha, Sussiya, Na’aran, Huseifa, Bet Shean, Sepphoris, Ma’on, Hulda, Jericho, Gerasa and Ein Gedi, though their numbers on both public and domestic architectural elements such as lintels, chancel screens, capitals, columns, and others, ranging from the 2nd century and onwards, are much greater. These have been unearthed in locations such as Ashdod, Ashkelon, Capernaum, Ein Nashut, Eshtemoa, Fiq, Gaza, Hebron, Jericho, Jerusalem, Naveh, Qasrin, Susiya, Tiberias, and many others.

Various theories for the meaning of the menorah depictions have been proposed, some of which suggest that it was a symbol of the heavenly spheres and God as the source of their light, others present it a sign of yearning for the Temple and hopes for its renewal or a counter-substitute for the Christian cross, though most probably the seven branches signified the seven days of the week, while the Menorah served as a daily ritual calendar with an additional candle being lit every day. Levine suggests that it is possible that the menorah's very ability to take on varied interpretations contributed to its popularity.

In Late Antiquity, the menorah was a prominent symbol in diaspora synagogues, often found in various artistic forms. Inscriptions from Side in Pamphylia and Sardis mention donations of menorahs to these synagogues.

Menoroth were painted in the wall paintings at the Dura Europos synaoguge. Mosaics with menorahs were also discovered in diaspora locations such as Apaemea, Bova Marina, Hamam-Lif, and Philippopolis. Reliefs, engravings and incisions featuring menorahs were found at Ostia, Priene, Sardis and Stobi. Menoroth were also found on architectural and stone fragmenets at Acmonia, Aphordisias, Athens, Bithynion-Caludiopolis, Corinth, Nicaea, Pergamon, Porto (Italy) and Tarragona.

Showbread Table

See main article: Showbread

Like the Menorah, the Showbread table was also a central vessel in the biblical tabernacle and the Temple of Jerusalem. The Massoretic version of the biblical text describes of a table made of acacia wood and coated with gold, while the Septuagint has τράπεζαν χρυσίου καθαροῦ, a table made of pure gold. The biblical description implies a table of rectangular form, though Josephus (Antiquities 3.139–141) describes it as similar to the Mensae Delphicae, a three-legged round table which was popular during the second Temple Period. Visual depictions of the second temple period, such as the aforementioned coins of Mattathias Antigonus, the plaster fragments and the arch of Titus, align with the biblical rectangular description, while the few depictions on the mosaics of late antique synagogues largely correspond to that of Josephus, such as have been found in the synagogues of Dura Europos, Sepphoris and the Samaritan synagogue of El-Hirbeh, though the simple portrayal on the lintel of the synagogue in Qasrin is of the rectangular style. According to Hachlili the recurring style of the round table in the synagogues of Dura Europus, Sepphoris and El-Hirbeh points to a common source, possibly a Jewish pattern book.

Ritual Objects

Alongside the Menorah, in many Jewish artistic compositions of late antiquity there appear several articles of ritual significance. In Israel the most common of these are the lulav, ethrog, shofar and an incense shovel, while in the diaspora the incense shovel was replaced by a vase or flask and a depiction of a Torah scroll was added.

The meaning of these representations is debated. One approach maintains that they symbolise memory and yearning for the Temple of Jerusalem, in which these articles had ritual significance, another suggests that they consist of objects which were used in the synagogue setting, a third interpretation posits that they represent the three high holidays which occur during the Jewish month of Tishri, relating the Shofar to Rosh Hashana, the incense shovel to Yom Kippur, and the Lulav and Etrog to Sukkoth. If the vase or flask represents the water libation, it too can be attributed to the festival of Sukkoth. The final approach sees these symbols as a combination of representative objects of the Temple and the synagogue, pointing to the continuity of worship from one to the other.

The Temple and the Ark of the Scrolls

In diaspora Jewish art, images of structures are depicted on wall paintings, tombstones, gold glasses, and clay lamps. These images represent the Temple in Jerusalem, the Ark of the Scrolls, aediculae, and the Ark of the Covenant, each differing in form and design to signify their unique identifications and functions.

In the Jewish artistic representations of late antiquity, only two representations of the Temple have been discovered. One depiction on the shrine of the Dura Europus synagogue and one probable illustration on a gold glass from the Jewish catacombs of Rome.

The depiction from Dura Europus bears similarities to the Temple facade on the Bar Kokhba coins, consisting of a tetrastyle sanctuary with two pairs of fluted columns and Egyptian style capitals, a portal flanked by two decorated pillars, surmounted by a conch, and a double door with an ornamented center and two knobs.

The depiction on the gold glass is not as distinct. It consists of a gabled shrine within a columned courtyard, steps lead up to a double doored entrance to the shrine on top of which is a Menorah within a tympanum and on either side of which are two columns. Below the shrine is a second Menorah flanked by ritual objects. Hachlili concludes that the representation on the gold glass, despite its Graeco-Roman style and its difference from the other representations, most probably depicts the Temple as well. Her conclusion is drawn from its composition within a columned courtyard and a depiction of a Menorah together with its similarity in certain respects to the other representations of sanctuaries in the Dura Europus synagogue, among them the Temple representation mentioned above. It has been suggested that the Temple imagery represents Jewish hope for the restoration of the Temple and the coming of the Messiah.

The Ark of the Scrolls was a chest which stood in the architectural structure of the Torah shrine in the synagogue and in which Torah scrolls and scripture were stored (Israel 275). Generally made of wood, only traces of the original arks have survived, although they are depicted quite often in artistic renditions (273). In the majority of these representations the ark stands on two to four legs, is surmounted by a gable or a round top, has a double door with geometric ornamentation (273) and is often flanked by two Menorahs (278). All the representations of the ark of the scrolls in Israel are depicted with their doors shut, except for the drawing in Bet She’arim which, like all the depictions from the diaspora, shows open doors behind which are shelves with scrolls (273). It is most probable that the torah shrine with its gable roof and columns, as well as the ark of the scrolls, resembled the facade of the Jerusalem Temple, though a direct associated is difficult to prove (280).

At Dura Europos, a synagogue in modern day Syria, several murals from Late Antiquity portraying biblical themes have been uncovered. the Temple is portrayed on the Torah shrine's facade, featuring a tetrastyle sanctuary with fluted columns and a double door, symbolizing the Temple in Jerusalem. This design is compared to similar ones on Bar Kokhba coins. A gold glass depicts a tetrastyle gabled shrine within a peristyle court, resembling the Dura Europos design but also showing features of the Jerusalem Temple.

The Torah Shrine, found in diaspora art such as a fourth-century funerary plaque from Malaga, usually consists of double columns supporting a conch-decorated arch. Few examples exist, but those that do often include a menorah or other Jewish symbols.

The Ark of the Scrolls housed Torah scrolls within the Torah shrine. Its depiction varies but generally includes an open-door ark with scrolls on shelves. Diaspora examples often show an open ark, contrasting with closed-door types common in the Land of Israel. The ark is sometimes flanked by menorahs, ritual objects, and animals in various art forms.

At Dura-Europos, the Ark of the Covenant appears as a tall, arched-top chest in several panels. Its depictions differ from the Ark of the Scrolls, representing a separate entity historically used to contain the Tablets of the Law and not present in the Second Temple.

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• Jewish culture
• Ancient art