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| name = Faxian | name = Faxian
| image = Faxian statue in Maritime Experiential Museum & Aquarium Singapore.jpg | image = Faxian statue in Maritime Experiential Museum & Aquarium Singapore.jpg
| caption = An honorary Faxian statue in a Singapore museum. | caption = Faxian sculpture at the Singapore Maritime Museum
| religion = ] | religion = ]
| alias = Fa-hsien, Sehi | alias = Gong Sehi
| monastic name = Fǎxiǎn | monastic name = Fǎxiǎn
| parents = Tsang Hi (father) | parents = Tsang Hi (father)
| birth_date = 337 CE | birth_date = 337 CE
| birth_place = Pingyang Wuyang (平陽武陽), in modern ], ] | birth_place = Pingyang Wuyang ({{lang|zh|平陽武陽}}), in modern ], ]
| death_date = {{Circa|422 CE}} (aged 85) | death_date = {{Circa|422 CE}} (aged 85)
| works = ''Foguoji'' (''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms'') | works = ''Foguoji'' (''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms'')
}} }}
{{Chinese {{Chinese
| t = 法顯 | t = {{linktext|法|顯}}
| s = 法显 | s = {{linktext|法|显}}
| p = Fǎxiǎn | p = Fǎxiǎn
| w = Fa<sup>3</sup>-hsien<sup>3</sup> | w = Fa-hsien
| l = Splendor of the ]
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|f|a|3|.|x|ian|3}} | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|f|a|3|.|x|ian|3}}
| y = Fat<sup>3</sup>-hin<sup>2</sup> | y = Fat<sup>3</sup>-hin<sup>2</sup>
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| romaji = Hokken | romaji = Hokken
| san = फा हियान | san = फा हियान
|altname=Gong Sehi
|t2={{linktext|龔}}
|s2={{linktext|龚}}
|p2=Gōng
|w2=Kung
}} }}


'''Faxian''' (法顯 {{IPAc-cmn|f|a|3|.|x|ian|3}}; 337 <small>CE</small> – {{Circa|422 CE}}), also referred to as '''Fa-Hien''', '''Fa-hsien''' and '''Sehi''', was a ] ] and translator who traveled by foot from ] to ] to acquire ]. Starting his arduous journey about age 60, he visited sacred Buddhist sites in ], ], and ] between 399 and 412 CE, of which 10 years were spent in India.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Deeg" /><ref name="Sen" /> '''Faxian'''<!--Chinese in infobox; see ]--> (337–{{c.|422 CE}}), formerly ] as '''Fa-hien''' and '''Fa-hsien''', was a ] ] ] and translator who traveled on foot from ] to ] to acquire ]s. His birth name was '''Gong Sehi'''. Starting his journey about age 60, he traveled west along the overland ], visiting Buddhist sites in ], ], and ]. The journey and return took from 399 to 412, with 10 years spent in India.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}}{{sfnp|Deeg|2019}}{{sfnp|Sen|2006}}


He described his journey in his travelogue, ''A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms'' (''Foguo Ji'' 佛國記). His memoirs are a notable independent record of early Buddhism in India. He took with him a large number of Sanskrit texts, whose translations influenced East Asian Buddhism and which provide a '']'' for many historical names, events, texts, and ideas therein.<ref name="Britannica">, ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 2019.</ref><ref name="Deeg" /> Faxian's account of his ], the ''Foguoji'' or '']'', are a notable independent record of early Buddhism in India. He returned to China with a large number of Sanskrit texts, whose translations greatly influenced East Asian Buddhism and provide a {{lang|la|]}} for many historical names, events, texts, and ideas therein.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}}{{sfnp|Deeg|2019}}


==Biography== ==Biography==
{{Moresources|section|date=August 2022}} {{Moresources|section|date=August 2022}}
, he agreed with Huijing, Daozheng, Huiying and Huiwéi to go seek out more of the Vinaya in India.]] ], Faxian was distressed that the ''Vinaya'' collections were incomplete. Therefore, in the 2nd year of ] or the Ji-Hai year (36) of the ] ] covering late 399 and early 400], he agreed with Huijing, Daozheng, Huiying, and Huiwei to go seek out more of the ''Vinaya'' in India."]]
⚫ ]
Faxian was born in Shanxi in the 4th-century during the reign of the ]. His original family name was Gong ({{lang|zh|龔}}), and his birth name was Sehi. He later adopted the name Faxian, which literally means "Splendor of Dharma".<ref name="Britannica" /> Three of his elder brothers died young. His father, fearing that the same fate would befall him, had him ordained as a ] at the age of three.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shi |first=Huijiao |last2=Yang |first2=Tianshu |date=2022 |editor-last=Ross |editor-first=Edward A. S. |title=The Biographies of Eminent Monks 高僧傳 |url=https://www.academia.edu/90233933/Shi_HuiJiao_The_Biographies_of_Eminent_Monks_%E9%AB%98%E5%83%A7%E5%82%B3 |journal=Hong Kong: Centre of Buddhist Studies, University of Hong Kong}}</ref> Faxian was born in Shanxi in the 4th-century during the reign of the ]. His birth name was Gong Sehi.{{fact}}{{dubious|1=Sehi isn't pinyin or a set of noises from Middle Chinese; not in any biography; seems to have been made up/garbled by Britannica}} He later adopted the name Faxian, which literally means "Splendor of Dharma".{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}} Three of his elder brothers died young. His father, fearing that the same fate would befall him, had him ordained as a ] at the age of three.{{sfnp|Shi & al.|2022}}


In 399 CE, about age 60, Faxian was among the earliest attested pilgrims to India. He set out with nine others to locate sacred ] texts.<ref name="Prusek Slupski p35">] and Zbigniew Słupski, eds., ''Dictionary of Oriental Literatures: East Asia'' (Charles Tuttle, 1978): 35.</ref><ref name="Sen">Tansen Sen (2006), "The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian, Xuanzang and Yijing", ''Education About Asia'', Volume 11, Number 3, pp. 24–31</ref> He visited India in the early fifth century. He is said to have walked all the way from China across the icy desert and rugged mountain passes. He entered India from the northwest and reached ]. He took back with him a large number of Sanskrit Buddhist texts and images sacred to Buddhism. Upon his return to China, he is also credited with translating these Sanskrit texts into Chinese.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Deeg" /> In 399 CE, about age 60, Faxian was among the earliest attested pilgrims to India. He set out with nine others to locate sacred ] texts.{{sfnp|Průšek & al.|1978|p=35}}{{sfnp|Sen|2006}} He visited India in the early fifth century. He is said to have walked all the way from China across the icy desert and rugged mountain passes. He entered India from the northwest and reached ]. He took back with him a large number of Sanskrit Buddhist texts and images sacred to Buddhism. Upon his return to China, he is also credited with translating these Sanskrit texts into Chinese.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}}{{sfnp|Deeg|2019}}


Faxian's visit to India occurred during the reign of ]. He entered the Indian subcontinent through the northwest. His memoirs describe his 10 year stay in India. He visited the major sites associated with the Buddha, as well the renowned centers of education and Buddhist monasteries. He visited Kapilvastu (]), ], Benares (]), ], and ], all linked to events in Buddha's life. Faxian learned Sanskrit, and collected Indian literature from Pataliputra (Patna), ], and ] in ]. His memoirs mention the Hinayana and emerging Mahayana traditions, as well as the splintering and dissenting Theravada sub-traditions in 5th-century Indian Buddhism. Before he had begun his journey back to China, he had amassed a large number of Sanskrit texts of his times.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Deeg" /> Faxian's visit to India occurred during the reign of ]. He entered the Indian subcontinent through the northwest. His memoirs describe his 10 year stay in India. He visited the major sites associated with the Buddha, as well the renowned centers of education and Buddhist monasteries. He visited Kapilvastu (]), ], Benares (]), ], and ], all linked to events in Buddha's life. Faxian learned Sanskrit, and collected Indian literature from Pataliputra (Patna), ], and ] in ]. His memoirs mention the Hinayana and emerging Mahayana traditions, as well as the splintering and dissenting Theravada sub-traditions in 5th-century Indian Buddhism. Before he had begun his journey back to China, he had amassed a large number of Sanskrit texts of his times.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}}{{sfnp|Deeg|2019}}


On Faxian's way back to China, after a two-year stay in ], a violent storm drove his ship onto an island, probably ].<ref>Buswell, Robert E. & Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2014). '''', Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 297</ref> After five months there, Faxian took another ship for southern China, but again it was ] and he ended up landing at ] in what is now ] in northern China, {{convert|30|km}} east of the city of ]. He spent the rest of his life translating and editing the scriptures he had collected. These were influential to the history of Chinese Buddhism that followed.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Deeg">{{cite book |last=Deeg |first=Max |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History |chapter=Chinese Buddhist Travelers: Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2019 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.217 |isbn=978-0-19-027772-7 }}</ref> On Faxian's way back to China, after a two-year stay in ], a violent storm drove his ship onto an island, probably ].<ref>Buswell, Robert E. & Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2014). '''', Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 297</ref> After five months there, Faxian took another ship for southern China, but again it was ] and he ended up landing at ] in what is now ] in northern China, {{convert|30|km}} east of the city of ]. He spent the rest of his life translating and editing the scriptures he had collected. These were influential to the history of Chinese Buddhism that followed.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}}{{sfnp|Deeg|2019}}


Faxian wrote a book on his travels, filled with accounts of early Buddhism and the geography and history of numerous countries along the ], as they were, at the turn of the 5th century CE. He wrote about cities like ], Pataliputra, ], and ] in ]. He also wrote that inhabitants of Madhyadesha eat and dress like Chinese people. He declared Patliputra to be a prosperous city.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2124/2124-h/2124-h.htm |title=''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms'' (Chapter XXVII: Pataliputra or Patna, In Magadha)|website=gutenberg.org |author=Fa-Hien|publication-date=415 |year=1875 |version=Translated}}</ref> He returned in 412 and settled in what is now ]. In 414, he wrote (or dictated) ''Foguoji'' (''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms''; also known as ''Faxian's Account''). He spent the next decade, until his death, translating the Buddhist ]s he had brought with him from ].<ref name="Prusek Slupski p35" /> Faxian wrote a book on his travels, filled with accounts of early Buddhism and the geography and history of numerous countries along the ], as they were, at the turn of the 5th century CE. He wrote about cities like ], Pataliputra, ], and ] in ]. He also wrote that inhabitants of Madhyadesha eat and dress like Chinese people. He declared Patliputra to be a prosperous city.{{sfnp|Legge|1886|loc=Ch. 27}} He returned in 412 and settled in what is now ]. In 414, he wrote (or dictated) ''Foguoji'' (''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms''; also known as ''Faxian's Account''). He spent the next decade, until his death, translating the Buddhist ]s he had brought with him from ].{{sfnp|Průšek & al.|1978|p=35}}


⚫ The following is the introduction to ]'s 19th-century translation of Faxian's work. Legge's speculations, such as Faxian visiting India at the age of 25, have been discredited by later scholarship but his introduction provides some useful biographical information about Faxian:
===Legge's biographical notes on Faxian===
]
⚫ The following is the introduction to a 19th-century translation of Faxian's work by ]. The speculations of Legge below, such as Faxian visiting India at the age of 25, have been discredited by later scholarship. His introduction provides some useful biographical information about Faxian:
] ]
⚫ {{quote|Nothing of great importance is known about Fa-Hien in addition to what may be gathered from his own record of his travels. I have read the accounts of him in the '']'', compiled in 519 CE, and a later work, the ''Memoirs of Marvellous Monks'', by the third emperor of the ] (1403–1424 CE), which, however, are nearly all borrowed from the other; and all in them that has an appearance of verisimilitude can be brought within brief compass.
]{{quote|
⚫ Nothing of great importance is known about Fa-Hien in addition to what may be gathered from his own record of his travels. I have read the accounts of him in the '']'', compiled in 519 CE, and a later work, the ''Memoirs of Marvellous Monks'', by the third emperor of the ] (1403–1424 CE), which, however, are nearly all borrowed from the other; and all in them that has an appearance of verisimilitude can be brought within brief compass.
His ], they tell us, was Kung, and he was a native of Wu-yang in P’ing-Yang, which is still the name of a large department in ]. He had three brothers older than himself, but when they all died before shedding their first teeth, his father devoted him to the service of the Buddhist society and had him entered as a ], still keeping him at home in the family. The little fellow fell dangerously ill, and the father sent him to the ] where he soon got well and refused to return to his parents. His ], they tell us, was Kung, and he was a native of Wu-yang in P’ing-Yang, which is still the name of a large department in ]. He had three brothers older than himself, but when they all died before shedding their first teeth, his father devoted him to the service of the Buddhist society and had him entered as a ], still keeping him at home in the family. The little fellow fell dangerously ill, and the father sent him to the ] where he soon got well and refused to return to his parents.


Line 63: Line 69:
It is said in the end that after his return to China, he went to the capital (evidently ]), and there, along with the Indian Sramana ], executed translations of some of the works which he had obtained in India; and that before he had done all that he wished to do in this way, he removed to ] (in the present ]), and died in the monastery of Sin, at the age of eighty-eight, to the great sorrow of all who knew him. It is added that there is another larger work giving an account of his travels in various countries. It is said in the end that after his return to China, he went to the capital (evidently ]), and there, along with the Indian Sramana ], executed translations of some of the works which he had obtained in India; and that before he had done all that he wished to do in this way, he removed to ] (in the present ]), and died in the monastery of Sin, at the age of eighty-eight, to the great sorrow of all who knew him. It is added that there is another larger work giving an account of his travels in various countries.


Such is all the information given about our author, beyond what he himself has told us. Fa-Hien was his clerical name, and means "Illustrious in the Law," or "Illustrious master of the Law." The Shih which often precedes it is an abbreviation of the name of ] as Sakyamuni, "the ], mighty in Love, dwelling in Seclusion and Silence," and may be taken as equivalent to Buddhist. It is sometimes said to have belonged to "the eastern ]" (317–419 CE), and sometimes to "the Sung," that is, the ] (420–478 CE). If he became a full monk at the age.... of twenty, and went to India when he was twenty-five, his long life may have been divided pretty equally between the two dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|last=Legge|first=James|author-link=James Legge|title=Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms by Chinese Monk , Fa-Hien|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/rbddh10.pdf|publisher=Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc.|access-date=August 9, 2019}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>}} Such is all the information given about our author, beyond what he himself has told us. Fa-Hien was his clerical name, and means "Illustrious in the Law," or "Illustrious master of the Law." The Shih which often precedes it is an abbreviation of the name of ] as Sakyamuni, "the ], mighty in Love, dwelling in Seclusion and Silence," and may be taken as equivalent to Buddhist. It is sometimes said to have belonged to "the eastern ]" (317–419 CE), and sometimes to "the Sung," that is, the ] (420–478 CE). If he became a full monk at the age.... of twenty, and went to India when he was twenty-five, his long life may have been divided pretty equally between the two dynasties.{{sfnp|Legge|1886}}}}


== Faxian memoir== == Works ==
Faxian's major work is his account of his travels, known in English both by its Chinese name ''Foguoji'' or ''Foguo Ji'' {{nowrap|(<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|佛|國|記}}》}},}} {{nowrap|<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|佛|国|记}}》}},}} {{translit|zh|Fóguójì}}) and by various translations, including ''A Record of the Buddhist Kingdoms'', ''Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms'',{{sfnp|Giles|1877}}{{sfnp|Legge|1886}} ''Buddhist Country Records'',{{sfnp|Beal|1884}} etc. The book is also known as ''Faxian's Travels'' {{nowrap|(<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|法顯|行|傳}}》}},}} {{nowrap|<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|法显|行|传}}》}},}} {{translit|zh|Fǎxiǎn Xíngzhuàn}}), ''Faxian's Biography'' {{nowrap|(<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|法顯|傳}}》}},}} {{nowrap|<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|法显|传}}》}},}} {{translit|zh|Fǎxiǎnzhuàn}}), ''] Faxian'' {{nowrap|(<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|高|僧|法顯|傳}}》}},}} {{nowrap|<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|高|僧|法显|传}}》}},}} {{translit|zh|Gāosēng Fǎxiǎn Zhuàn}}), ''A Buddhist Pilgrimage to India'' {{nowrap|(<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|佛|游|天竺|記}}》}},}} {{nowrap|<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|佛|游|天竺|记}}》}},}} {{translit|zh|Fóyóu Tiānzhú Jì}}), Faxian's ''Report on Travel to India'' {{nowrap|(<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|歷游|天竺|記傳}}》}},}} {{nowrap|<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|历游|天竺|记传}}》}},}} {{translit|zh|Lìyóu Tiānzhú Jìzhuàn}}), and Faxian's work ''On India'' {{nowrap|(<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|天竺國記}}》}},}} {{nowrap|<small>]</small> {{lang|zh|《{{linktext|天竺|国|记}}》}},}} {{translit|zh|Tiānzhúguó Jì}}). Faxian's memoirs are an independent record of the society and culture of places he visited, particularly India. His translations of Sanskrit texts he took with him to China are an important means to date texts, named individuals, and Buddhist traditions. They provide a {{lang|la|terminus ante quem}} for many historical names, manuscripts, events, and ideas mentioned.{{sfnp|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}}{{sfnp|Deeg|2019}}
⚫ ]
Faxian's memoirs are an independent record of the society and culture of places he visited, particularly ancient India around 400 CE. His translations of Sanskrit texts he took with him to China are an important means to date texts, named individuals and Buddhist traditions. They provide a ''terminus ante quem'' for many historical names, manuscripts, events, and ideas therein.<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="Deeg" />


He noted that central Asian cities such as Khotan were Buddhist, with the clergy reading Indian manuscripts in Indian languages. The local community revered the monks. In Taxila (now in Pakistan), states Faxian, he mentions a flourishing Buddhist community midst non-Buddhists. He describes elaborate rituals and public worship ceremonies, with support of the king, in the honor of the Buddha in India and ]. He left India about 409 from Tamralipti – a port he states to be on its eastern coast. However, some of his Chinese companion pilgrims who came with him on the journey decided to stay in India.<ref name="Sen" /> Faxian noted that central Asian cities such as Khotan were Buddhist, with the clergy reading Indian manuscripts in Indian languages. The local community revered the monks. He mentions a flourishing Buddhist community in Taxila (now in Pakistan) amid a generally non-Buddhist community. He describes elaborate rituals and public worship ceremonies, with support of the king, in the honor of the Buddha in India and ]. He left India about 409 from Tamralipti, a port he states to be on its eastern coast. However, some of his Chinese companion pilgrims who came with him on the journey decided to stay in India.{{sfnp|Sen|2006}}


;Impressions of India ;Impressions of India
{{Quote|The cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the Middle Kingdom . The inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness. Every year on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of images. They make a four-wheeled car, and on it erect a structure of four storeys by means of bamboos tied together. This is supported by a king-post, with poles and lances slanting from it, and is rather more than twenty cubits high, having the shape of a tope. White and silk-like cloth of hair is wrapped all round it, which is then painted in various colours. They make figures of devas, with gold, silver, and lapis lazuli grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over them. On the four sides are niches, with a Buddha seated in each, and a Bodhisattva standing in attendance on him. There may be twenty cars, all grand and imposing, but each one different from the others. On the day mentioned, the monks and laity within the borders all come together; they have singers and skillful musicians; they pay their devotion with flowers and incense. The Brahmans come and invite the Buddhas to enter the city. These do so in order, and remain two nights in it. All through the night they keep lamps burning, have skillful music, and present offerings. This is the practice in all the other kingdoms as well. The Heads of the Vaisya families in them establish in the cities houses for dispensing charity and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the country, orphans, widowers, and childless men, maimed people and cripples, and all who are diseased, go to those houses, and are provided with every kind of help, and doctors examine their diseases. They get the food and medicines which their cases require, and are made to feel at ease; and when they are better, they go away of themselves.|Faxian, c. 415 CE<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2124/2124-h/2124-h.htm |title=''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms'' (Chapter XXVII: Pataliputra or Patna, In Magadha)|website=gutenberg.org |author=Fa-Hien|publication-date=415 |year=1875 |version=Translated}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>}} {{Quote|The cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the Middle Kingdom . The inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness. Every year on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of images. They make a four-wheeled car, and on it erect a structure of four storeys by means of bamboos tied together. This is supported by a king-post, with poles and lances slanting from it, and is rather more than twenty cubits high, having the shape of a tope. White and silk-like cloth of hair is wrapped all round it, which is then painted in various colours. They make figures of devas, with gold, silver, and lapis lazuli grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over them. On the four sides are niches, with a Buddha seated in each, and a Bodhisattva standing in attendance on him. There may be twenty cars, all grand and imposing, but each one different from the others. On the day mentioned, the monks and laity within the borders all come together; they have singers and skillful musicians; they pay their devotion with flowers and incense. The Brahmans come and invite the Buddhas to enter the city. These do so in order, and remain two nights in it. All through the night they keep lamps burning, have skillful music, and present offerings. This is the practice in all the other kingdoms as well. The Heads of the Vaisya families in them establish in the cities houses for dispensing charity and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the country, orphans, widowers, and childless men, maimed people and cripples, and all who are diseased, go to those houses, and are provided with every kind of help, and doctors examine their diseases. They get the food and medicines which their cases require, and are made to feel at ease; and when they are better, they go away of themselves.|Faxian, c. 415 CE{{sfnp|Legge|1886|loc=Ch. 27}}}}


; Struggles at sea during the return journey through Java ; Struggles at sea during the return journey through Java
{{Quote|At this time the sky continued very dark and gloomy, and the sailing-masters looked at one another and made mistakes. More than seventy days passed (from their leaving Java), and the provisions and water were nearly exhausted. They used the salt-water of the sea for cooking, and carefully divided the (fresh) water, each man getting two pints. Soon the whole was nearly gone, and the merchants took counsel and said, “At the ordinary rate of sailing we ought to have reached Kwang-chow, and now the time is passed by many days;—must we not have held a wrong course?” Immediately they directed the ship to the north-west, looking out for land; and after sailing day and night for twelve days, they reached the shore on the south of mount Lao, on the borders of the prefecture of Ch’ang-kwang, and immediately got good water and vegetables. They had passed through many perils and hardships, and had been in a state of anxious apprehension for many days together; and now suddenly arriving at this shore, and seeing those (well-known) vegetables, the lei and kwoh, they knew indeed that it was the land of Han.|Faxian, c. 415 CE.<ref>] (1886). '' (Chapter XL: After Two Years Takes Ship for China. Disastrous Passage to Java) {{Quote|At this time the sky continued very dark and gloomy, and the sailing-masters looked at one another and made mistakes. More than seventy days passed (from their leaving Java), and the provisions and water were nearly exhausted. They used the salt-water of the sea for cooking, and carefully divided the (fresh) water, each man getting two pints. Soon the whole was nearly gone, and the merchants took counsel and said, “At the ordinary rate of sailing we ought to have reached Kwang-chow, and now the time is passed by many days;—must we not have held a wrong course?” Immediately they directed the ship to the north-west, looking out for land; and after sailing day and night for twelve days, they reached the shore on the south of mount Lao, on the borders of the prefecture of Ch’ang-kwang, and immediately got good water and vegetables. They had passed through many perils and hardships, and had been in a state of anxious apprehension for many days together; and now suddenly arriving at this shore, and seeing those (well-known) vegetables, the lei and kwoh, they knew indeed that it was the land of Han.|Faxian, c. 415 CE.{{sfnp|Legge|1886|loc=Ch. 40}}}}
{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124223922/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/f/fa-hien/f15l/ |date=2009-01-24 }}''. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Reprint: New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp. 1965; {{ISBN|0-486-21344-7}}</ref>}}


] translation of the work{{sfnp|Abel-Rémusat & al.|1836}} caused a stir in European scholarship, although deeply perplexing many with its inability to handle the many Sanskrit words Faxian transcribed into ] ].{{sfnp|Walravens|2014|p=272}}
== Works ==


===Translations=== ===Translations===
;French ;French
* {{citation |author=Faxian |author-link=Faxian |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Abel-Rémusat |editor-first=Jean-Pierre |editor-link=Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat |editor2-last=Klaproth |editor2-first=Julius |editor2-link=Julius Klaproth |editor3-last=De Landresse |editor3-first=Ernest Augustin Xavier Clerc |ref={{harvp|Rémusat & al.|1836}} |date=1836 |publisher=] |location=Paris |lang=fr |url= |title=Foé Koué Ki, ou, Relations des Royaumes Bouddhiques: Voyage dans la Tartarie, dans l'Afghanistan, et dans l'Inde Exécuté à la Fin du IVe Siècle par Chy Fa Hian '''' }}. * {{citation |author=Faxian |author-link=Faxian |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Abel-Rémusat |editor-first=Jean-Pierre |editor-link=Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat |editor2-last=Klaproth |editor2-first=Julius |editor2-link=Julius Klaproth |editor3-last=De Landresse |editor3-first=Ernest Augustin Xavier Clerc |ref={{harvp|Rémusat & al.|1836}} |date=1836 |publisher=] |location=Paris |lang=fr |url= |title=Foé Koué Ki, ou, Relations des Royaumes Bouddhiques: Voyage dans la Tartarie, dans l'Afghanistan, et dans l'Inde Exécuté à la Fin du IVe Siècle par Chy Fa Hian |trans-title=The Foguoji, or, Relations of the Buddhist Kingdoms: The Voyage through Tartary, Afghanistan, and India Carried Out at the End of the 4th Century by Shi Faxian }}.


;English ;English
* {{citation |author=Faxian |author-link=Faxian |display-authors=0 |editor-first=Herbert A. |editor-last=Giles |date=1877 |title=Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms |publisher= |location= |url= |ref={{harvid|Giles|1877}} }}.
⚫ * James Legge (1886, trans.), ''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fâ-hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline'', Asian Educational Services, 1993; {{ISBN|9788120608269}}
* {{citation |author=Xuanzang |author-link=Xuanzang |author2=Faxian |author2-link=Faxian |display-authors=0 |date=1884 |ref={{harvid|Beal|1884}} |editor-last=Beal |editor-first=Samuel |editor-link=Samuel Beal |title=Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World by Hiuen Tsiang |location=London |publisher=Trübner & Co. |contribution=Travels of Fa-hian or ''Fo-kwŏ-ki'', Buddhist-Country-Records |contribution-url=https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistre01hsua/page/n47/mode/2up |pp=xxiii–lxxiii |volume=I |url=https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistre01hsua/page/n25/mode/2up |series=Trübner's Oriental Series }}.
* Herbert A. Giles (1877, trans.), ''Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms: Translated From the Chinese'', Cornell University Library (June 25, 2009); {{ISBN|978-1112050527}}
⚫ * {{citation |author=Faxian |author-link=Faxian |display-authors=0 |editor-first=James |editor-last=Legge |date=1886 |editor-link=James Legge |title=A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fâ-hien of His Travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399{{ndash}}414) in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2124/2124-h/2124-h.htm |ref={{harvid|Legge|1886}} }}.


== See also == == See also ==
Line 103: Line 108:
=== Bibliography === === Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}} {{refbegin}}
* {{citation |last= |first= |contribution=Faxian |contribution-url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Faxian |date=2019 |ref={{harvid|''Enc. Brit.''|2019}} |title=Britannica |publisher= |location= }}.
* ]. 1884. ''Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang''. 2 vols. Translated by Samuel Beal. London. 1884. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969. (Also contains a translation of Faxian's book on pp. xxiii–lxxxiii). Volume ] ; ].
* {{citation |last=Deeg |first=Max |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History |chapter=Chinese Buddhist Travelers: Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2019 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.217 |isbn=978-0-19-027772-7 }}.
*Hodge, Stephen (2009 & 2012), , lecture at the University of Hamburg * {{citation |last=Hodge |first=Stephen |date=2009 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928081601/http://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/fileadmin/pdf/publikationen/The_Textual_Transmisssion_of_the_MPNS.pdf |title=The Textual Transmission of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-Sutra |location=Hamburg |publisher=University of Hamburg }}.
* ] 1886. '' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124223922/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/f/fa-hien/f15l/ |date=2009-01-24 }}''. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Reprint: New York, Paragon Book Reprint Corp. 1965. {{ISBN|0-486-21344-7}}
* {{citation |last=Jain |first=Sandhya |author2=Meenakshi Jain |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Jain & al.|2011}} |date=2011 |title=The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts |location=New Delhi |publisher=Ocean Books }}.
* Rongxi, Li; Dalia, Albert A. (2002). '''', Berkeley, Calif.: Numata Center for Translation and Research * {{citation |last=Li |first=Rongxi |author-mask=Li Rongxi |author2=Albert A. Dalia |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Li & al.|2002}} |date=2002 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920131638/http://www.bdk.or.jp/pdf/bdk/digitaldl/dBET_LivesGreatMonksNuns_2002.pdf |title=The Lives of Great Monks and Nuns |location=] |publisher=Numata Center for Translation and Research }}.
⚫ * Sen, T. (2006). , '']'' 11 (3), 24–33
* {{citation |last=Průšek |first=Jaroslav |author-link=Jaroslav Průšek |author2=Zbigniew Słupski |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Průšek & al.|1978}} |title=Dictionary of Oriental Literatures: East Asia |location= |publisher=Charles Tuttle |date=1978 }}.
⚫ * Weerawardane, Prasani (2009). , ''Biblioasia'' 5 (2), 14–18
⚫ * {{citation |last=Sen |first=Tansen |date=2006 |contribution-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713172856/http://www.fom.sg/tours/ChinesePilgrims.pdf |contribution=The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing |title=] |volume=11 |issue=3 |pp=24–33 |publisher= |location= }}.
*Jain, Sandhya, & Jain, Meenakshi (2011). ''The India they saw: Foreign accounts''. New Delhi: Ocean Books.
* {{citation |last=Shi |first=Huijiao |author-mask=Shi Huijiao |author2=Yang Tianshu |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Shi & al.|2022}} |date=2022 |editor-last=Ross |editor-first=Edward A. S. |display-editors=0 |title=The Biographies of Eminent Monks 高僧傳 |url=https://www.academia.edu/90233933/Shi_HuiJiao_The_Biographies_of_Eminent_Monks_%E9%AB%98%E5%83%A7%E5%82%B3 |location=Hong Kong |publisher=Centre of Buddhist Studies at the University of Hong Kong }}.
* {{citation |last=Walravens |first=Harmut |language=de |contribution=Stanislas Aignan Julien{{mdash}}Leben und Werk |trans-contribution=Stanislas Aignan Julien{{mdash}}Life and Work |title=Monumenta Serica |issue=1 |volume=62 |date=2014 |pp=261-333 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |jstor=10.2307/26768561 |location=Milton Park }}.
⚫ * {{citation |last=Weerawardane |first=Prasani |date=2009 |contribution-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713174328/http://microsite.nl.sg/PDFs/BiblioAsia/BIBA_0502Jul09.pdf#page=14 |contribution=Journey to the West: Dusty Roads, Stormy Seas and Transcendence |title=Biblioasia |volume=5 |issue=2 |pp=14–18 |publisher= |location= }}.
{{refend}} {{refend}}


Revision as of 11:45, 31 May 2024

Bhikkhu, historian, travelogue author, and Buddhist pilgrim of the Silk Road
Faxian
Faxian sculpture at the Singapore Maritime Museum
Personal life
Born337 CE
Pingyang Wuyang (平陽武陽), in modern Linfen City, Shanxi
Diedc. 422 CE (aged 85)
ParentTsang Hi (father)
Notable work(s)Foguoji (A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms)
Other namesGong Sehi
Religious life
ReligionBuddhism
Faxian
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese法顯
Simplified Chinese法显
Literal meaningSplendor of the Dharma
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinFǎxiǎn
Wade–GilesFa-hsien
IPA
Hakka
RomanizationFap-hien
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationFat-hin
IPA
Southern Min
Hokkien POJHuat-hién
Middle Chinese
Middle ChinesePjop-xén
Gong Sehi
Traditional Chinese龔
Simplified Chinese龚
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinGōng
Wade–GilesKung
Japanese name
Kanji法顕
Kanaほっけん
Transcriptions
RomanizationHokken
Sanskrit name
Sanskritफा हियान

Faxian (337–c. 422 CE), formerly romanized as Fa-hien and Fa-hsien, was a Chinese Buddhist monk and translator who traveled on foot from Jin China to medieval India to acquire Buddhist scriptures. His birth name was Gong Sehi. Starting his journey about age 60, he traveled west along the overland Silk Road, visiting Buddhist sites in Central, South, and Southeast Asia. The journey and return took from 399 to 412, with 10 years spent in India.

Faxian's account of his pilgrimage, the Foguoji or Record of the Buddhist Kingdoms, are a notable independent record of early Buddhism in India. He returned to China with a large number of Sanskrit texts, whose translations greatly influenced East Asian Buddhism and provide a terminus ante quem for many historical names, events, texts, and ideas therein.

Biography

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12th-century woodblock print, 1st page of the Travels of Faxian (Record of the Buddhist Countries). The first sentences read: "In Chang'an, Faxian was distressed that the Vinaya collections were incomplete. Therefore, in the 2nd year of Hongshi or the Ji-Hai year (36) of the sexagenary cycle , he agreed with Huijing, Daozheng, Huiying, and Huiwei to go seek out more of the Vinaya in India."
Faxian at Daishō-in Temple, Miyajima, Japan

Faxian was born in Shanxi in the 4th-century during the reign of the Eastern Jin dynasty. His birth name was Gong Sehi. He later adopted the name Faxian, which literally means "Splendor of Dharma". Three of his elder brothers died young. His father, fearing that the same fate would befall him, had him ordained as a novice monk at the age of three.

In 399 CE, about age 60, Faxian was among the earliest attested pilgrims to India. He set out with nine others to locate sacred Buddhist texts. He visited India in the early fifth century. He is said to have walked all the way from China across the icy desert and rugged mountain passes. He entered India from the northwest and reached Pataliputra. He took back with him a large number of Sanskrit Buddhist texts and images sacred to Buddhism. Upon his return to China, he is also credited with translating these Sanskrit texts into Chinese.

Faxian's visit to India occurred during the reign of Chandragupta II. He entered the Indian subcontinent through the northwest. His memoirs describe his 10 year stay in India. He visited the major sites associated with the Buddha, as well the renowned centers of education and Buddhist monasteries. He visited Kapilvastu (Lumbini), Bodh Gaya, Benares (Varanasi), Shravasti, and Kushinagar, all linked to events in Buddha's life. Faxian learned Sanskrit, and collected Indian literature from Pataliputra (Patna), Oddiyana, and Taxila in Gandhara. His memoirs mention the Hinayana and emerging Mahayana traditions, as well as the splintering and dissenting Theravada sub-traditions in 5th-century Indian Buddhism. Before he had begun his journey back to China, he had amassed a large number of Sanskrit texts of his times.

On Faxian's way back to China, after a two-year stay in Sri Lanka, a violent storm drove his ship onto an island, probably Java. After five months there, Faxian took another ship for southern China, but again it was blown off course and he ended up landing at Mount Lao in what is now Shandong in northern China, 30 kilometres (19 mi) east of the city of Qingdao. He spent the rest of his life translating and editing the scriptures he had collected. These were influential to the history of Chinese Buddhism that followed.

Faxian wrote a book on his travels, filled with accounts of early Buddhism and the geography and history of numerous countries along the Silk Road, as they were, at the turn of the 5th century CE. He wrote about cities like Taxila, Pataliputra, Mathura, and Kannauj in Madhyadesha. He also wrote that inhabitants of Madhyadesha eat and dress like Chinese people. He declared Patliputra to be a prosperous city. He returned in 412 and settled in what is now Nanjing. In 414, he wrote (or dictated) Foguoji (A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms; also known as Faxian's Account). He spent the next decade, until his death, translating the Buddhist sutras he had brought with him from India.

The following is the introduction to James Legge's 19th-century translation of Faxian's work. Legge's speculations, such as Faxian visiting India at the age of 25, have been discredited by later scholarship but his introduction provides some useful biographical information about Faxian:

Faxian at the ruins of Ashoka palace
Faxian's route through India, from Beal's edition

Nothing of great importance is known about Fa-Hien in addition to what may be gathered from his own record of his travels. I have read the accounts of him in the Memoirs of Eminent Monks, compiled in 519 CE, and a later work, the Memoirs of Marvellous Monks, by the third emperor of the Ming dynasty (1403–1424 CE), which, however, are nearly all borrowed from the other; and all in them that has an appearance of verisimilitude can be brought within brief compass.

His surname, they tell us, was Kung, and he was a native of Wu-yang in P’ing-Yang, which is still the name of a large department in Shan-hsi. He had three brothers older than himself, but when they all died before shedding their first teeth, his father devoted him to the service of the Buddhist society and had him entered as a Sramanera, still keeping him at home in the family. The little fellow fell dangerously ill, and the father sent him to the monastery where he soon got well and refused to return to his parents.

When he was ten years old, his father died, and an uncle, considering the widowed solitariness and helplessness of the mother, urged him to renounce the monastic life and return to her, but the boy replied, "I did not quit the family in compliance with my father’s wishes, but because I wished to be far from the dust and vulgar ways of life. This is why I chose monkhood." The uncle approved of his words and gave over urging him. When his mother also died, it appeared how great had been the affection for her of his fine nature; but after her burial, he returned to the monastery.

On one occasion he was cutting rice with a score or two of his fellow-disciples when some hungry thieves came upon them to take away their grain by force. The other Sramaneras all fled, but our young hero stood his ground, and said to the thieves, "If you must have the grain, take what you please. But, Sirs, it was your former neglect of charity which brought you to your present state of destitution; and now, again, you wish to rob others. I am afraid that in the coming ages you will have still greater poverty and distress;—I am sorry for you beforehand." With these words he followed his companions into the monastery, while the thieves left the grain and went away, all the monks, of whom there were several hundred, doing homage to his conduct and courage.

When he had finished his novitiate and taken on him the obligations of the full Buddhist orders, his earnest courage, clear intelligence, and strict regulation of his demeanor were conspicuous; and soon after, he undertook his journey to India in search of complete copies of the Vinaya-pitaka. What follows this is merely an account of his travels in India and return to China by sea, condensed from his own narrative, with the addition of some marvelous incidents that happened to him, on his visit to the Vulture Peak near Rajagriha.

It is said in the end that after his return to China, he went to the capital (evidently Nanking), and there, along with the Indian Sramana Buddha-bhadra, executed translations of some of the works which he had obtained in India; and that before he had done all that he wished to do in this way, he removed to King-chow (in the present Hoo-pih), and died in the monastery of Sin, at the age of eighty-eight, to the great sorrow of all who knew him. It is added that there is another larger work giving an account of his travels in various countries.

Such is all the information given about our author, beyond what he himself has told us. Fa-Hien was his clerical name, and means "Illustrious in the Law," or "Illustrious master of the Law." The Shih which often precedes it is an abbreviation of the name of Buddha as Sakyamuni, "the Sakya, mighty in Love, dwelling in Seclusion and Silence," and may be taken as equivalent to Buddhist. It is sometimes said to have belonged to "the eastern Tsin dynasty" (317–419 CE), and sometimes to "the Sung," that is, the Sung dynasty of the House of Liu (420–478 CE). If he became a full monk at the age.... of twenty, and went to India when he was twenty-five, his long life may have been divided pretty equally between the two dynasties.

Works

Faxian's major work is his account of his travels, known in English both by its Chinese name Foguoji or Foguo Ji (t 《佛國記》, s 《佛国记》, Fóguójì) and by various translations, including A Record of the Buddhist Kingdoms, Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms, Buddhist Country Records, etc. The book is also known as Faxian's Travels (t 《法顯行傳》, s 《法显行传》, Fǎxiǎn Xíngzhuàn), Faxian's Biography (t 《法顯傳》, s 《法显传》, Fǎxiǎnzhuàn), Memoirs of the Eminent Monk Faxian (t 《高僧法顯傳》, s 《高僧法显传》, Gāosēng Fǎxiǎn Zhuàn), A Buddhist Pilgrimage to India (t 《佛游天竺記》, s 《佛游天竺记》, Fóyóu Tiānzhú Jì), Faxian's Report on Travel to India (t 《歷游天竺記傳》, s 《历游天竺记传》, Lìyóu Tiānzhú Jìzhuàn), and Faxian's work On India (t 《天竺國記》, s 《天竺国记》, Tiānzhúguó Jì). Faxian's memoirs are an independent record of the society and culture of places he visited, particularly India. His translations of Sanskrit texts he took with him to China are an important means to date texts, named individuals, and Buddhist traditions. They provide a terminus ante quem for many historical names, manuscripts, events, and ideas mentioned.

Faxian noted that central Asian cities such as Khotan were Buddhist, with the clergy reading Indian manuscripts in Indian languages. The local community revered the monks. He mentions a flourishing Buddhist community in Taxila (now in Pakistan) amid a generally non-Buddhist community. He describes elaborate rituals and public worship ceremonies, with support of the king, in the honor of the Buddha in India and Sri Lanka. He left India about 409 from Tamralipti, a port he states to be on its eastern coast. However, some of his Chinese companion pilgrims who came with him on the journey decided to stay in India.

Impressions of India

The cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the Middle Kingdom . The inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness. Every year on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of images. They make a four-wheeled car, and on it erect a structure of four storeys by means of bamboos tied together. This is supported by a king-post, with poles and lances slanting from it, and is rather more than twenty cubits high, having the shape of a tope. White and silk-like cloth of hair is wrapped all round it, which is then painted in various colours. They make figures of devas, with gold, silver, and lapis lazuli grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over them. On the four sides are niches, with a Buddha seated in each, and a Bodhisattva standing in attendance on him. There may be twenty cars, all grand and imposing, but each one different from the others. On the day mentioned, the monks and laity within the borders all come together; they have singers and skillful musicians; they pay their devotion with flowers and incense. The Brahmans come and invite the Buddhas to enter the city. These do so in order, and remain two nights in it. All through the night they keep lamps burning, have skillful music, and present offerings. This is the practice in all the other kingdoms as well. The Heads of the Vaisya families in them establish in the cities houses for dispensing charity and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the country, orphans, widowers, and childless men, maimed people and cripples, and all who are diseased, go to those houses, and are provided with every kind of help, and doctors examine their diseases. They get the food and medicines which their cases require, and are made to feel at ease; and when they are better, they go away of themselves.

— Faxian, c. 415 CE
Struggles at sea during the return journey through Java

At this time the sky continued very dark and gloomy, and the sailing-masters looked at one another and made mistakes. More than seventy days passed (from their leaving Java), and the provisions and water were nearly exhausted. They used the salt-water of the sea for cooking, and carefully divided the (fresh) water, each man getting two pints. Soon the whole was nearly gone, and the merchants took counsel and said, “At the ordinary rate of sailing we ought to have reached Kwang-chow, and now the time is passed by many days;—must we not have held a wrong course?” Immediately they directed the ship to the north-west, looking out for land; and after sailing day and night for twelve days, they reached the shore on the south of mount Lao, on the borders of the prefecture of Ch’ang-kwang, and immediately got good water and vegetables. They had passed through many perils and hardships, and had been in a state of anxious apprehension for many days together; and now suddenly arriving at this shore, and seeing those (well-known) vegetables, the lei and kwoh, they knew indeed that it was the land of Han.

— Faxian, c. 415 CE.

Rémusat's translation of the work caused a stir in European scholarship, although deeply perplexing many with its inability to handle the many Sanskrit words Faxian transcribed into Middle Chinese characters.

Translations

French
  • Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre; Klaproth, Julius; De Landresse, Ernest Augustin Xavier Clerc, eds. (1836), Foé Koué Ki, ou, Relations des Royaumes Bouddhiques: Voyage dans la Tartarie, dans l'Afghanistan, et dans l'Inde Exécuté à la Fin du IVe Siècle par Chy Fa Hian [The Foguoji, or, Relations of the Buddhist Kingdoms: The Voyage through Tartary, Afghanistan, and India Carried Out at the End of the 4th Century by Shi Faxian] (in French), Paris: Royal Printing Office.
English

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Enc. Brit. (2019).
  2. ^ Deeg (2019).
  3. ^ Sen (2006).
  4. Shi & al. (2022).
  5. ^ Průšek & al. (1978), p. 35.
  6. Buswell, Robert E. & Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 297
  7. ^ Legge (1886), Ch. 27.
  8. ^ Beal (1884).
  9. ^ Legge (1886).
  10. Giles (1877).
  11. Legge (1886), Ch. 40.
  12. Abel-Rémusat & al. (1836). sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAbel-Rémusat_&_al.1836 (help)
  13. Walravens (2014), p. 272.

Bibliography

External links

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