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Settler colonialism occurs when colonizers and settlers invade and occupy territory to permanently replace the existing society with the society of the colonizers.

Settler colonialism is a form of exogenous domination typically organized or supported by an imperial authority, which maintains a connection or control to the territory through the settler's colonialism. Settler colonialism contrasts with exploitation colonialism, where the imperial power conquers territory to exploit the natural resources and gain a source of cheap or free labor. As settler colonialism entails the creation of a new society on the conquered territory, it lasts indefinitely unless decolonisation occurs through removal of the settler population or (more debatably) through reforms to colonial structures, settler-indigenous compacts and reconciliation processes.

Settler colonial studies has often focused on former British colonies in North America, Australia and New Zealand, which are close to the complete, prototypical form of settler colonialism. However, settler colonialism is not restricted to any specific culture and has been practised by non-Europeans.

Origins as a theory

During the 1960s, settlement and colonization were perceived as separate phenomena from colonialism. Settlement endeavours were seen as taking place in empty areas, downplaying the Indigenous inhabitants. Later on in the 1970s and 1980s, settler colonialism was seen as bringing high living standards in contrast to the failed political systems associated with classical colonialism. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the field of settler colonial studies was established distinct but connected to Indigenous studies. Although often credited with originating the field, Australian historian Patrick Wolfe stated that "I didn't invent Settler Colonial Studies. Natives have been experts in the field for centuries." Additionally, Wolfe's work was preceded by others that have been influential in the field, such as Fayez Sayegh's Zionist Colonialism in Palestine and Settler Capitalism by Donald Denoon.

Definition and concept

Settler colonialism occurs when foreign settlers arrive in an already inhabited territory to permanently inhabit it and found a new society. Intrinsically connected to this is the displacement or elimination of existing residents and destruction of their society.

Some scholars describe the process as inherently genocidal, considering settler colonialism to entail the elimination of existing peoples and cultures, and not only their displacement (see genocide, "the intentional destruction of a people in whole or in part").

Depending on the definition, it may be enacted by a variety of means, including mass killing of the previous inhabitants, removal of the previous inhabitants and/or cultural assimilation.

Settler colonialism is distinct from migration because immigrants aim to join an existing society, not replace it.

Examples

The settler colonial paradigm has been applied to a wide variety of conflicts around the world, including the New Caledonia, Western New Guinea, the Andaman Islands, Argentina, Australia, British Kenya, the Canary Islands, Fiji, French Algeria, Generalplan Ost, Hawaii, Hokkaido, Ireland, Israel/Palestine, Italian Libya and East Africa, Kashmir, Korea and Manchukuo, Latin America, Liberia, New Zealand, northern Afghanistan, North America, Posen and West Prussia and German South West Africa, Rhodesia, Sápmi, South Africa, South Vietnam, and Taiwan.

Africa

Canary Islands

During the fifteenth century, the Kingdom of Castile sponsored expeditions by conquistadors to subjugate under Castilian rule the Macaronesian archipelago of the Canary Islands, located off the coast of Morocco and inhabited by the Indigenous Guanche people. Beginning with the start of the conquest of the island of Lanzarote on 1 May 1402 and ending with the surrender of the last Guanche resistance on Tenerife on 29 September 1496 to the now-unified Spanish crown, the archipelago was subject to a settler colonial process involving systematic enslavement, mass murder, and deportation of the Guanches, who were replaced with Spanish settlers, in a process foreshadowing the Iberian colonisation of the Americas that followed shortly thereafter. Also like in the Americas, Spanish colonialists in the Canaries quickly turned to the importation of slaves from mainland Africa as a source of labour due to the decimation of the already small Guanche population by a combination of war, disease, and brutal forced labour. Historian Mohamed Adhikari has labelled the conquest of the Canary Islands as the first overseas European settler colonial genocide.

Morocco

Since 1975, the Kingdom of Morocco has sponsored settlement schemes that have encouraged several thousand Moroccan citizens to settle Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara as part of the Western Sahara conflict. On 6 November 1975, the Green March took place, during which about 350,000 Moroccan citizens crossed into Saguia al-Hamra in the former Spanish Sahara after having received a signal from King Hassan II. As of 2015, it is estimated that Moroccan settlers constitute two-thirds of the population of Western Sahara.

Under international law, the transfer of Moroccan citizens into the occupied territory constitutes a direct violation of Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (cf. Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus and Israeli settlers in the Palestinian territories).

South Africa

In 1652, the arrival of Europeans sparked the beginning of settler colonialism in South Africa. The Dutch East India Company was set up at the Cape, and imported large numbers of slaves from Africa and Asia during the mid-seventeenth century. The Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station for ships sailing between Europe and the east. The initial plan by Dutch East India Company officer Jan van Riebeeck was to maintain a small community around the new fort, but the community continued to spread and settle further than originally planned. There was a historic struggle to achieve the intended British sovereignty that was achieved in other parts of the Commonwealth. State sovereignty belonged to the Union of South Africa (1910–1961), followed by the Republic of South Africa (1961–1994) and finally the modern day Republic of South Africa (1994–present day).

In 1948, the policy of Apartheid was introduced South Africa in order to segregate the native African population from Boer settlers and ensure the domination of the White populace over non-whites, politically, socially and economically. As of 2014, the South African government has re-opened the period for land claims under the Restitution of Land Rights Amendment Act.

Liberia

Liberia is often regarded by scholars as a unique example of settler colonialism and the only known instance of Black settler colonialism. It is frequently described as an African American settler colony tasked with establishing a Western form of governance in Africa.

Liberia was founded as the private colony of Liberia in 1822 by the American Colonization Society, a White American-run organization, to relocate free African Americans to Africa, as part of the Back-to-Africa movement. This settlement scheme stemmed from fears that free African Americans would assist slaves in escaping, as well as the widespread belief among White Americans that African Americans were inherently inferior and should thus be relocated. U.S. presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison publicly endorsed and funded the project. Between 1822 and the early 20th century, around 15,000 African Americans colonized Liberia on lands acquired from the region's indigenous African population. The African American elite monopolized the government and established minority rule over the locals. As they possessed Western culture, they felt superior to the natives, whom they dominated and oppressed. Indigenous revolts against the Americo-Liberian elite such as the Grebo Revolt in 1909–1910 and Kru Revolt in 1915 were quelled with U.S. military support.

United States

In colonial America, colonial powers created economic dependency and imbalance of trade, incorporating Indigenous nations into spheres of influence and controlling them indirectly with the use of Christian missionaries and alcohol. With the emergence of an independent United States, desire for land and the perceived threat of permanent Indigenous political and spatial structures led to violent relocation of many Indigenous tribes to the American West, in what is known as the Trail of Tears.

In response to American encroachment on native land in the Great Lakes region, the Pan-Indian confederacies of the Northwest Confederacy and Tecumseh's Confederacy emerged. Despite initial victories in both cases, such as St. Clair's defeat or the siege of Detroit, both eventually lost, thereby paving the way for American control over the region. Settlement into conquered land was rapid. Following the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, American settlers poured into southern Ohio, such that by 1810 it had a population of 230,760. The defeat of the confederacies in the Great Lakes paved the way for large land loss in the region, via treaties such as the Treaty of Saginaw which saw the loss of more than 4,000,000 acres of land.

Frederick Jackson Turner, the father of the "frontier thesis" of American history, noted in 1901: "Our colonial system did not start with Spanish War; the U.S. had had a colonial history from the beginning...hidden under the phraseology of 'interstate migration' and territorial organization'". While the United States government and local state governments directly aided this dispossession through the use of military forces, ultimately this came about through agitation by settler society in order to gain access to Indigenous land. Especially in the US South, such land acquisition built plantation society and expanded the practice of slavery. Settler colonialism participated in the formation of US cultures and lasted past the conquest, removal, or extermination of Indigenous people. In 1928, Adolf Hitler spoke admiringly of the impact of white settler colonialism on the Natives, stating the US had "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage". The practice of writing the Indigenous out of history perpetrated a forgetting of the full dimensions and significance of colonialism at both the national and local levels.

Asia

Armenian Highlands

Various scholars,, analysts, and human rights organizations interpret the conflict between Armenians and Turkey-Azerbaijan through the framework of settler colonialism. This framework emphasizes that Armenians are indigenous peoples seeking self-determination under imperial colonial powers. Since the mid 18 century Armenian territory within Eastern Anatolia was seized and allocated to Muslims, a policy which was influenced by the centuries-old Ottoman practice of population transfer (Sürgün) used to import Muslim colonists into conquered areas. Multiple sources state that the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict was spurred by Azerbaijan’s homogenizing nationalism along with Soviet-era policies that aimed at diluting the Armenian majority through border manipulations, encouraging the exodus of Armenians, and settling Azeris to the region: policies which the former president of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev admitted to supporting.

Researcher Mashinka Firunts Hakopia writes that "A policy of Azerbaijani settlement was pursued in an express effort to 'dilute the Armenian majority' and fortify a settler-colonial campaign through Indigenous erasure. Today, settler-colonial logic suffuses the statements issued by Azerbaijan and Turkey’s autocratic rulers." Hakobyan and Mollica's research indicates that Turkey settled many Syrian mercenaries and their families to territory in Nagorno-Karabakh acquired by Azerbaijan: stating that "this process of resettlement is often 'synchronized with the cleansing of Armenians.'" The Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention, states that Nagorno-Karabakh was given to Azerbaijan under the colonial rule of the Soviet Union, without consent from the indigenous Armenian population who is largely considered to be indigenous and have comprised the majority for centuries. The organization states that since 1920 the indigenous Armenians have sought independence and consistently advocated for the recognition of its right to self-determination, which is a "recognized right of all peoples under oppressive colonial regimes."

China

Near the end of their rule the Qing tried to colonize Xinjiang, Tibet, and other parts of the imperial frontier. To accomplish this goal they began a policy of settler colonialism by which Han Chinese were resettled on the frontier. This policy was renewed by the People's Republic of China, led by Chinese Communist Party.

Israel

Zionism has been characterized by some scholars as a form of settler colonialism concerning region of Palestine and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. This academic framework has also been embraced by leftist groups and individuals involved in anti-Israel activism and campus protests. However, this viewpoint faces substantial criticism from scholars and is largely rejected by many Jews due to its perceived denial of the historical Jewish connection to Palestine, among other reasons.

Many of the founding fathers of Zionism themselves described the project as colonialism, such as Vladimir Jabotinsky, who said "Zionism is a colonization adventure." Founder of the World Zionist Organization, Theodor Herzl, described the Zionist project as "something colonial" in a letter to Cecil Rhodes in 1902.

In 1967, the French historian Maxime Rodinson wrote an article later translated and published in English as Israel: A Colonial Settler-State? Lorenzo Veracini describes Israel as a colonial state and writes that Jewish settlers could expel the British in 1948 only because they had their own colonial relationships inside and outside Israel's new borders. Veracini believes the possibility of an Israeli disengagement is always latent and this relationship could be severed, through an "accommodation of a Palestinian Israeli autonomy within the institutions of the Israeli state". Other commentators, such as Daiva Stasiulis, Nira Yuval-Davis, and Joseph Massad in the "Post Colonial Colony: time, space and bodies in Palestine/Israel in the persistence of the Palestinian Question" have included Israel in their global analysis of settler societies. Ilan Pappé describes Zionism and Israel in similar terms. Scholar Amal Jamal, from Tel Aviv University, has stated, "Israel was created by a settler-colonial movement of Jewish immigrants". Damien Short has accused Israel of carrying out genocide against Palestinians during the Israeli–Palestinian conflict since its inception within a settler colonial context.

Writing in the 1990s, the Australian historian Patrick Wolfe is credited with originating the field. He theorized settler colonialism as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, thus distinguishing it from classical colonialism. Wolfe argued that settler colonialism was centered on the control of land, that it continued after the closing of the frontier, and that continued to exist today, classifying Israel as a modern form of settler colonialism. His approach was defining for the field, but has been challenged by other scholars on the basis that many situations involve a combination of elimination and exploitation.

Critics of the paradigm argue that Zionism does not fit the traditional framework of colonialism. S. Ilan Troen views Zionism as the return of an indigenous population to its historic homeland, distinct from imperial expansion. Most Jews oppose the paradigm, saying it denies their historical connection to the land and aspirations for self-determination. Moses Lissak asserted that the settler-colonial thesis denies the idea that Zionism is the modern national movement of the Jewish people, seeking to reestablish a Jewish political entity in their historical territory. Zionism, Lissak argues, was both a national movement and a settlement movement at the same time, so it was not, by definition, a colonial settlement movement.

Russia and the Soviet Union

Some scholars describe Russia as a settler colonial state, particularly in its expansion into Siberia and the Russian Far East, during which it displaced and resettled Indigenous peoples, while practicing settler colonialism. The annexation of Siberia and the Far East to Russia was resisted by the Indigenous peoples, while the Cossacks often committed atrocities against them. During the Cold War, new forms of Indigenous repression were practiced.

This colonization continued even during the Soviet Union in the 20th century. The Soviet policy also sometimes included the deportation of the native population, as in the case of the Crimean Tatars.

Taiwan

According to a PhD thesis by Lin-chin Tsai, the ethnic makeup of Taiwan's contemporary population is largely the result of Chinese settler colonialism beginning in the seventeenth century.

Australia

Europeans explored and settled Australia, displacing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The Indigenous Australian population was estimated at 795,000 at the time of European settlement. The population declined steeply for 150 years following settlement from 1788, due to casualties from infectious disease, the Australian frontier wars and forced re-settlement and cultural disintegration.

Responses

Settler colonialism exists in tension with indigenous studies. Some indigenous scholars believe that settler colonialism as a methodology can lead to overlooking indigenous responses to colonialism; however, other practitioners of indigenous studies believe that settler colonialism has important insights that are applicable to their work. Settler colonialism as a theory has also been criticized from the standpoint of postcolonial theory.

Political theorist Mahmoud Mamdani suggested that settlers could never succeed in their effort to become native, and therefore the only way to end settler colonialism was to erase the political significance of the settler–native dichotomy.

According to Chickasaw scholar Jodi Byrd, in contrast to settler, the term arrivant refers to enslaved Africans transported against their will, and to refugees forced into the Americas due to the effects of imperialism.

In his book Empire of the People: Settler Colonialism and the Foundations of Modern Democratic Thought, political scientist Adam Dahl states that while it has often been recognized that "American democratic thought and identity arose out of the distinct pattern by which English settlers colonized the new world", histories are missing the "constitutive role of colonial dispossession in shaping democratic values and ideals".

See also

• Pre-modern human migration
• European emigration
• Transmigration program

Notes

1. Example reconciliation programmes include: Reconciliation in Australia, and truth and reconciliation commissions in Canada, Norway and South Africa.

References

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58. Watenpaugh, K. D. (19 October 2022). ""Kill the Armenian/Indian; Save the Turk/Man: Carceral Humanitarianism, the Transfer of Children and a Comparative History of Indigenous Genocide"". Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies. 29 (1): 35–67. doi:10.1163/26670038-12342771. ISSN 0747-9301 2667-0038, 0747-9301. Retrieved 25 July 2024. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help)
59. Demoyan, H. TURKEY AND KARABAKH CONFLICT At the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries Historical and comparative analysis. Center for European and Armenian Studies. "The region of Nagorno-Karabakh (Armenian Artsakh) being a historically Armenian-populated territory with a cultural and historical heritage characteristic of the Armenian civilization retained its semi-independent status and effectively fought against external forces that sought to impose their dominance on the region. The Karabakh conflict can thus be seen as a struggle between the trend towards further Turkification of the South Caucasus region and opposition to this process by the local Armenian element. In other words, this can be called a struggle between the expansionist newcomer ethnic community and the autochthons who for several centuries have been holding back the further spread of a foreign ethnic area both geographically and politically."
60. Camacho, Fernando Padilla (7 February 2024), Azerbaijan’s attacks on Armenian heritage aim to erase an entire culture, The Conversation, retrieved 25 July 2024, The destruction is reminiscent of the fate of the Armenian architectural heritage across Turkey during the 20th century, where very little was done to preserve, recover or restore it….In addition to Azerbaijan's strategic aims, there is a history of ethnic cleansing and genocide in the region. This has entailed massive cultural, as well as human, losses... In Nagorno Karabakh there are around 500 historical sites, home to approximately 6,000 Armenian monuments that are now under the control of Azerbaijani armed forces. However, their destruction is not just the work of the military. The swift colonisation programme put in place by President Ilham Aliyev includes urban reorganisation and reoccupation of urban and rural areas.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
61. Astourian, Stephan H. (5 December 2023), "Origins, Main Themes and Underlying Psychological Disposition of Azerbaijani Nationalism", Monuments and Identities in the Caucasus, Brill, pp. 206–236, doi:10.1163/9789004677388_010, ISBN 978-90-04-67738-8, retrieved 25 July 2024, That construction essentially took place under Soviet rule and on the basis of a Soviet political agenda, even though its Pan-Turkist agenda predates that period and appears to have been influenced by some of the Ottoman leaders, in particular Enver Pasha and his younger half-brother, Nuri Pasha… In a way, imperialism built the nation , its historiography, and its identity.
62. Davis, Angela (9 February 2016). Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: Ferguson, Palestine, and the Foundations of a Movement. Haymarket Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-60846-564-4. Ongoing efforts to create a popular intellectual environment within which to explore the contemporary impact of the Armenian genocide are central, I think, to global resistance to racism, genocide, and settler colonialism.
63. Travis, Hannibal (31 December 2019), "9. Constructing the "Armenian Genocide": How Scholars Unremembered the Assyrian and Greek Genocides in the Ottoman Empire", Hidden Genocides, Rutgers University Press, pp. 170–192, retrieved 30 July 2024, For this reason, historical amnesia and restrictive interpretations of the crime of genocide, such as those of Stephen Katz or William Schabas, vindicate Western civilization against more fundamental charges that its politicians were complicit in centuries of imperial and ultranationalist genocides, including in the Republic of Turkey.... To view genocide, as did Raphael Lemkin, as a potentially long-term replacement of a "national pattern" by an aggressive ethnos or nation is to invite comparisons to such important Western projects as settler colonialism or the Vietnam or Iraq wars. In the case of Turkey, the thesis that not only the Armenians but also the Assyrians and the Greeks were victims of a long-term process of colonization, Turkification, and Kurdification—across a variety of regimes—threatens the myth of Turkey as a moderate and secular state deputized by NATO to resolve ethnic conflicts in the former Ottoman Empire, as we witness today in Syria and saw previously in the former Yugoslavia and Iraq.
64. "Israeli Weapons Are Common to the Displacement in Nagorno-Karabakh and Gaza". jacobin.com. Retrieved 30 July 2024. Similarly, the map reflects the history of Armenia. Before the genocide, majority-Armenian areas extended from Eastern Anatolia (Western Armenia) to Azerbaijan. Western Armenia was ethnically cleansed during the Armenian genocide, Armenians in Azerbaijan were expelled after the collapse of the Soviet Union, and Armenians are now being displaced from Artsakh. This pattern mirrors the situation in Palestine and the historical displacements in North America. In 2021, Azerbaijan began extending its control over Armenia, occupying 250 square kilometers without facing consequences for ethnic cleansing and illegal occupation. Azerbaijan's ambitions continue as it demands that Armenia surrender eight villages and the Zangezur corridor, a land strip connecting Azerbaijan with its exclave, Nakhichevan. It appears Azerbaijan is once again preparing for conflict. While Western leaders have warned of severe consequences if Azerbaijan invades Armenia, a similar stance was taken before Artsakh was ethnically cleansed, with no sanctions imposed, and Azeri gas continues to flow to Europe.
65. Bulut, Uzay (2 August 2023). "Armenians of Artsakh: An Indigenous Nation Targeted by Genocidal Regional Powers". Modern Diplomacy. Retrieved 30 July 2024. For the next 70 years, Soviet Azerbaijan exposed Artsakh to severe ethno-religious discrimination and economic persecution. These policies sought the elimination of the indigenous Armenian Christian majority and substituting it with Azerbaijani Muslim settlers.
66. "Urbanism and Infrastructure as Military Weapons in Artsakh". THE FUNAMBULIST MAGAZINE. 25 October 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2024. The blockade of the existing road, happening in parallel to the construction of the new road, as well as the blockade of this new road, showcases the settler colonial ambitions of the Azeri government. While looking at the first prototype of such a village, it is evident that implementing this concept of "smart villages" while referencing past and old Azeri architectural styles is an act of deception that tries to hide the military nature of such settler colonial projects. The Azeri government publicizes this concept of "smartness" among its citizens by linking it to national values, creating the delusion of redevelopment with the newest technologies and concepts. This is a way of showing their willingness to allocate thousands of manats for their restoration works, as part of constructing the so-called "Big Return," and as a way of manifesting military endeavors of monitoring and control over the territory entirely.
67. "Statement on the Sentencing of Vagif Khachatryan in the Republic of Azerbaijan". Lemkin Institute. Retrieved 30 July 2024. ...Azerbaijan's military aggression against Artsakh on 19 September 2023, which resulted in massacre and atrocity and the consequent flight of almost 100 percent of its indigenous Armenian population to neighboring Armenia. The aggression, atrocity and forced displacement amount to a very thorough genocide of an ancient, continuous indigenous civilization.
68. "Statement Condemning Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan's Cryptic Engagement with Genocide Denial". Lemkin Institute. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
69. "Armenians in NYC Are Organizing for Palestinian Liberation". jacobin.com. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
70. Richard G. Hovannisian. The Republic of Armenia: The first year, 1918-1919. University of California Press, 1971. ISBN 978-0-520-01805-1. The antagonism between Armenians and Muslims originated in the eleventh century when Azerbaijani Turco-Islamic conquerors displaced the indigenous Christian Armenians from fertile areas, establishing a long-standing religious and territorial conflict... Armenians gradually overcoming subjugation and competing against the Muslim feudal nobility.
71. "Statement on BBC HARDtalk Anchor Stephen Sackur s Interview with Artsakh State Minister Ruben Vardanyan". Lemkin Institute. Retrieved 30 July 2024. Artsakh was given to Azerbaijan under the colonial rule of the Soviet Union, without the consent or input of the majority Armenian population residing within. {{cite web}}: horizontal tab character in |quote= at position 143 (help)
72. Chorbajian, Levon; Donabédian, Patrick; Mutafian, Claude (1994). The Caucasian Knot: The History & Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh. Zed Books. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-85649-288-1. On the contrary, from the manner in which Moscow managed this question, Karabagh revealed that the demons of imperialism were alive and well at the Kremlin. In effect, if there were doubts concerning the degree of manipulation by Moscow, it was, on the other hand, clear that nothing had been done to calm spirits and promote dialogue. A problem of decolonization, a political problem posed by an oppressed population asserting its right to self-determination, has been misrepresented as inter-ethnic conflict, a mere seemingly archaic struggle over a piece of land.
73. Suny, Ronald Grigor; Göçek, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M., eds. (10 March 2011). "A Question of Genocide": 62, 299. doi:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780195393743.001.0001. The goal of the Ottoman policies was clear: to settle Muslim immigrants from the Balkans and the Caucasus in the six eastern provinces (Erzurum, Harput, Sivas, Diyarbakır, Van, and Bitlis) inhabited by a dense Armenian population. To this end, confiscated Armenian lands were handed over to the new refugees. In the meantime, genocidal destruction raged in full force. The Armenians and Syriacs were being massacred while the Muslim settlers were en route to replace them. However, some preparations were necessary for their successful settlement. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
74. Hovannisian, R.G. (2003). Hovannisian, R.G. (ed.). Looking Backward, Moving Forward: Confronting the Armenian Genocide (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 28–32. From the mid-century, these Armenians also began to suffer more pronouncedly at the hands of their neighbors as their lands were appropriated in little more than legalized theft by sedentarizing Kurds and also allocated to Muslim refugees (muhajirs) fleeing from Russia from the 1850s and from the Balkans between 1878 and 1913. The policy was centrally enforced upon Abdul-Hamid's accession and was not reversed by the Ittihadists despite protestations to the contrary. The Ittihadists' demographic deliberations of 1913-14 and the pattern of muhajir settlement over the preceding generations owed a conceptual debt to a practice of population transfer (sürgün) that had been employed in the empire since the fourteenth century. Originally a method of importing Muslim colonists into conquered regions, the practice of sürgün had developed over time to incorporate punitive deportations of religious and other groups. Eastern Anatolia witnessed both manifestations of this practice, first as a recipient of a sort of internal Ottoman colonization by 'desirable' groups, then as a site of ethnic cleansing of the 'undesirable,' during which colonization continued as Muslim refugees were relocated into vacant Armenian dwellings.
75. Andrew Villen Bell. Ethnic Cleansing. Macmillan, 1996. pp. 24, 27. ISBN 978-0-333-61975-9. To rein in their Armenian subjects, the Turkish governments encouraged Kurdish settlement in Armenian areas. This was dangerous for the Armenians since they, unlike the Kurds, were prohibited from bearing arms and thus were utterly defenseless...The last Ottoman minority to be mentioned is the Kurds. In the nineteenth century, successive Turkish governments used Muslim Kurds to destroy the ethnic cohesiveness of Armenian territories. Once the Armenians were gone and Turkey was redefined as a nation-state, Kurds were no longer Muslim allies but a troublesome ethnic minority that had to be either assimilated or somehow gotten rid of. In the 1920s, there were several anti-Kurdish campaigns. Until very recently, their language was not taught in the schools, their ethnicity was denied, and even their official name was changed to 'mountain Turks.'
76. Kieser, Hans-Lukas (23 September 2008). "Removal of American Indians, destruction of Ottoman Armenians. American missionaries and demographic engineering". European Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey (7). doi:10.4000/ejts.2873. ISSN 1773-0546. Creeping unofficial 'removal' or coerced migration of Armenians was a reality during the period of Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909), and was accompanied by Kurdification and resettlement of Muslim migrants from the Balkans and Caucasus. ABCFM sources mention over-taxation and direct threat as reasons for Armenian migration. How far Armenian removal in favor of Muslim settlers was a conscious policy of the palace has not been sufficiently researched.
77. Saparov, Arsène (27 August 2014). From Conflict to Autonomy in the Caucasus: The Soviet Union and the Making of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno Karabakh (0 ed.). Routledge. p. 116. doi:10.4324/9781315758992. ISBN 978-1-315-75899-2. The solution proposed by the conference was similar to previous suggestions, but it also called for the creation of a Karabakh Oblast', a region that would encompass both mountainous and lowland parts of Karabakh. It offered a way in which the creation of a predominantly Armenian autonomous unit in the mountainous part of the region could be avoided. During 1921, the position of the Azerbaijani leadership regarding Karabakh autonomy had been that suppression of banditry in the region would solve the ethnic conflict, and that there would be no need to grant autonomy to the Armenian-populated part of Karabakh. This tactic was successful in the short term.
78. Levon Chorbajian, Patrick Donabédian, Claude Mutafian. The Caucasian Knot: The History & Geopolitics of Nagorno-Karabagh. Zed Books, 1994. pp. 138–140, 154. ISBN 978-1-85649-288-1. The borders were to be drawn before 15 August by a mixed commission...but without the participation of either Yerevan or Moscow. All would be presided over by Karaiev. Under such circumstances, the Armenians could expect to be grossly disappointed. On the one hand...they excluded, on the west, the 'corridor' made up of Lachin, Kelbajar, and Kedabek, which had been carefully emptied of its Armenian population to separate Mountainous Karabagh from Armenian Zangezur. On the other hand, in the north, without any justification, they removed the districts of Shamkhor, Khanlar, Dashkesan and Shahumian.. where the Armenian population was predominant (about 90 per cent)... From Shamkhor in the north to Shahumian in the south, Armenian villages in these districts have been systematically emptied...Mountainous Karabagh delimited in this way is only a portion of what had always been Armenian Karabagh, which itself is only a part of what was included in the ancient Armenian provinces of Artsakh and Utik...The spectre of 'Nakhichevanization' haunts...Mountainous Karabagh, which had 125,000 inhabitants in 1926 who were 89 percent Armenian. This region has become an 'enclave' since the 'cleansing' of the Hagaru Valley in order to separate Karabagh from Zangezur by a narrow strip emptied of Armenians...Azerbaijan still contained a large Armenian minority. Aside from the 'bastion' of the Autonomous Region of Mountainous Karabagh, Armenians were numerous in Baku and in the region north of the Autonomous Region, up to Shamkhor, where the Armenian villages had been deliberately left outside the frontiers drawn in 1923 and, thereby, subjected to direct Azerbaijani authority. From north to south, these areas had already largely been 'swept clean,' with the exception of the area of Shahumian, the northern gateway to the Autonomous Region. The Azerbaijani plan was clearly described in the declaration by the Karabagh Committee on 2 December 1988: 'Exploiting the anarchic situation, the Azerbaijani authorities are about to unleash a monstrous programme: to expel Armenians from their several millennia old homes in Gandzak and the areas north of Artsakh, in preparation for an invasion of Mountainous Karabagh.' Already about 120,000 Armenians have left Azerbaijan, and 50,000 have sought refuge in Armenia and the others in the North Caucasus and Central Asia.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
79. Christopher, Walker. Armenia: A Very Brief History. Rouben Galichian, 2022. p. 41. ISBN 978-9939-68-926-5. The borders between Armenia and Artsakh were manipulated such that Armenia could have no direct link with Artsakh. {{cite book}}: horizontal tab character in |quote= at position 5 (help)
80. Hein, Patrick (7 April 2024). "From Stalin to the Aliyev clan: 70 years of hindered autonomy in Nagorno‐Karabakh". Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism. doi:10.1111/sena.12420. ISSN 1473-8481.
81. "What's Really Driving the Azerbaijan-Armenia Conflict". jacobin.com. Retrieved 31 July 2024. ...in Nagorno-Karabakh/Artsakh, the authorities in Baku pursued a policy of settling Azerbaijanis in the region in an attempt to dilute the Armenian majority—and invested in these incoming communities, while leaving Armenian towns and villages without basic infrastructure. Decades of underinvestment and discrimination stoked further resentment—resentment that reached a crescendo during the dying days of the Soviet Union.
82. Patrick Wilson Gore (2008). 'Tis Some Poor Fellow's Skull Post-Soviet Warfare in the Southern Caucasus. iUniverse. p. xii. ISBN 978-0-595-48679-3. So after the ethnic cleansing of Nagorno-Karabakh that the Azeris undertook in 1991, Azeris...were settled in formerly Armenian towns and villages to reduce the oblast's overwhelmingly Armenian complexion.
83. Panossian, Lisabelle (1 April 2024). "Protecting Humanity's Cradle of Civilization: Advancing the Right to Self-Determination for Indigenous Peoples in the Middle East & South Caucasus". Northwestern Journal of Human Rights. 22 (3): 149. Azerbaijan's former president Heydar Aliyev admitted in a 2002 interview that he had tried to increase the number of Azerbaijanis and reduce the number of Armenians living in the region while he was a Soviet Communist Party Administrator.
84. Saparov, Arsène (27 August 2014). From Conflict to Autonomy in the Caucasus: The Soviet Union and the Making of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno Karabakh (0 ed.). Routledge. p. 164. doi:10.4324/9781315758992. ISBN 978-1-315-75899-2. ...confirmation of the deliberate demographic change policy pursued by the Azerbaijani authorities in Karabakh comes from a 2002 interview with Azerbaijani president Heidar Aliyev, who in 1969 became the head of Soviet Azerbaijan: 'I talk about a period when I was the First Secretary and helped a lot at that time with the development of Nagorno-Karabakh....I tried to change the demographics there. Nagorno-Karabakh petitioned for the opening of an institute of higher education there. everybody was against it. After deliberations, I decided to open one, but on the condition that there would be three sectors—Azerbaijani, Russian, and Armenian. After opened, we no longer sent Azerbaijanis from the neighboring regions to Baku instead sent them there . opened a large shoemaking factory there. In Stepanakert itself, there was no workforce, so we sent Azerbaijanis from the surrounding districts. With these and other measures, I tried to increase the number of Azerbaijanis in Nagorno-Karabakh, and the number of Armenians decreased. Those who worked at that time in Nagorno-Karabakh know about it.'
85. "On the Struggle for Indigenous Self-Determination in the Republic of Artsakh". Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
86. Shaw, Madeleine. "Legacy of Loss: The Armenian Genocide in the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict." JOURNAL OF PEACE AND WAR STUDIES (2023): 204.
87. Hakobyan, Arsen, and Marcello Mollica. "Encountering Turkish Denialism: From the Syrian conflict to the Second Karabakh War." URBANITIES 11.1 (2021): 36-54.
88. "Fragile States Index 2023 – Annual Report | Fragile States Index". fragilestatesindex.org. Retrieved 31 July 2024. While ethnic Azerbaijanis and other groups have also resided in the region, Armenians are largely considered to be indigenous to Nagorno-Karabakh.
89. "Statement on the Western Media Narrative Regarding Azerbaijan's September 13 Attack on Armenia". Lemkin Institute. Retrieved 31 July 2024. Although Nagorno-Karabakh, like most of the South Caucasus region, was inhabited by an ethnically mixed population in the 1980s, Armenians have constituted the vast majority of its population for centuries and are considered indigenous to the region. {{cite web}}: horizontal tab character in |quote= at position 68 (help)
90. Armenia, Siranush Ghazanchyan, Public Radio of (27 January 2023). "Lemkin Institute says "horrified" by BBC's Stephen Sackur's "genocidal proposal"". Lemkin Institute. Retrieved 31 July 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
91. "Statement on the Western Media Narrative Regarding Azerbaijan's September 13 Attack on Armenia". Lemkin Institute. Retrieved 31 July 2024. Although Nagorno-Karabakh, like most of the South Caucasus region, was inhabited by an ethnically mixed population in the 1980s, Armenians have constituted the vast majority of its population for centuries and are considered indigenous to the region. {{cite web}}: horizontal tab character in |quote= at position 67 (help)
92. "A Peace to End All Peace? Statement on the International Actors Sponsoring So-Called Peace Negotiations Between Armenia and Azerbaijan". Lemkin Institute for Genocide Prevention. 30 May 2023.
93. Wang, Ju-Han Zoe; Roche, Gerald (16 March 2021). "Urbanizing Minority Minzu in the PRC: Insights from the Literature on Settler Colonialism". Modern China. 48 (3): 593–616. doi:10.1177/0097700421995135. ISSN 0097-7004. S2CID 233620981.
94. Brooks, Jonathan (2021), Settler Colonialism, Primitive Accumulation, and Biopolitics in Xinjiang, China, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3965577, ISSN 1556-5068, SSRN 3965577
95. Clarke, Michael (16 February 2021). "Settler Colonialism and the Path toward Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang". Global Responsibility to Protect. 13 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1163/1875-984X-13010002. ISSN 1875-9858. S2CID 233974395.
96. ^ Powell, Michael (5 January 2024). "The Curious Rise of 'Settler Colonialism' and 'Turtle Island'". The Atlantic. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
97. ^ Troen, S. Ilan (2007). "De-Judaizing the Homeland: Academic Politics in Rewriting the History of Palestine". Israel Affairs. 13 (4): 872–884. doi:10.1080/13537120701445372. S2CID 216148316.
98. ^ Schuessler, Jennifer (22 January 2024). "What Is 'Settler Colonialism'?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
99. ^ Cohen, Roger (10 December 2023). "Who's a 'Colonizer'? How an Old Word Became a New Weapon". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
100. Kirsch, Adam (26 October 2023). "Campus Radicals and Leftist Groups Have Embraced the Idea of 'Settler Colonialism'". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
101. Hart, Alan (13 August 2010). Zionism: The Real Enemy of the Jews. Vol. 1: The False Messiah. SCB Distributors. ISBN 978-0-932863-78-2. A voluntary reconciliation with the Arabs is out of the question either now or in the future. If you wish to colonize a land in which people are already living, you must provide a garrison for the land, or find some rich man or benefactor who will provide a garrison on your behalf. Or else-or else, give up your colonization, for without an armed force which will render physically impossible any attempt to destroy or prevent this colonization, colonization is impossible, not difficult, not dangerous, but IMPOSSIBLE!... Zionism is a colonization adventure and therefore it stands or falls by the question of armed force. It is important... to speak Hebrew, but, unfortunately, it is even more important to be able to shoot – or else I am through with playing at colonizing.
102. Jabotinsky, Ze'ev (4 November 1923). "The Iron Wall" (PDF). Colonisation can have only one aim, and Palestine Arabs cannot accept this aim. It lies in the very nature of things, and in this particular regard nature cannot be changed...Zionist colonisation must either stop, or else proceed regardless of the native population.
103. Gelber, Mark H.; Liska, Vivian, eds. (2012). Theodor Herzl: From Europe to Zion. De Gruyter. pp. 100–101.
104. Rodinson, Maxime. "Israel, fait colonial?" Les Temps Moderne, 1967. Republished in English as Israel: A Colonial Settler-State?, New York, Monad Press, 1973.
105. "Israel could celebrate its anticolonial/anti-British struggle exactly because it was able to establish a number of colonial relationships within and without the borders of 1948." Lorenzo Veracini, Borderlands, vol 6 No 2, 2007.
106. Veracini, Lorenzo (2006). Israel and Settler Society. London: Pluto Press.
107. Unsettling Settler Societies: Articulations of Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class, Vol. 11, Nira Yuval-Davis (Editor), Daiva K Stasiulis (Editor), Paperback 352pp, ISBN 978-0-8039-8694-7, August 1995 SAGE Publications.
108. "Post Colonial Colony: time, space and bodies in Palestine/Israel in the persistence of the Palestinian Question", Routledge, NY, (2006) and "The Pre-Occupation of Post-Colonial Studies" ed. Fawzia Afzal-Khan and Kalpana Rahita Seshadri. (Durham: Duke University Press)
109. The Palestinian Enclaves Struggle: An Interview with Ilan Pappé, King's Review – Magazine
110. Video: Decolonizing Israel. Ilan Pappé on Viewing Israel-Palestine Through the Lens of Settler-Colonialism. Antiwar.com, 5 April 2017
111. Amal Jamal (2011). Arab Minority Nationalism in Israel: The Politics of Indigeneity. Taylor & Francis. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-136-82412-8.
112. Short, Damien (December 2012). "Genocide and settler colonialism: can a Lemkin-inspired genocide perspective aid our understanding of the Palestinian situation?". The International Journal of Human Rights.
113. ^ Troen, S. Ilan (2007). "De-Judaizing the Homeland: Academic Politics in Rewriting the History of Palestine". Israel Affairs. 13 (4): 872–884. doi:10.1080/13537120701445372. S2CID 216148316.
114. Moshe Lissak, "'Critical' Sociology and 'Establishment' Sociology in the Israeli Academic Community: Ideological Struggles or Academic Discourse?" Israel Studies 1:1 (1996), 247-294.
115. Sunderland, Willard (2000). "The 'Colonization Question': Visions of Colonization in Late Imperial Russia". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 48 (2): 210–232. JSTOR 41050526.
116. Forsyth, James (1992). A history of the peoples of Siberia. Internet Archive. Cambridge University Press. pp. 201–228, 241–346. ISBN 978-0-521-40311-5.
117. Lantzeff, George V.; Pierce, Richard A. (1973). Eastward to Empire: Exploration and Conquest on the Russian Open Frontier to 1750. McGill-Queen's University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1w0dbpp. JSTOR j.ctt1w0dbpp.
118. Hill, Nathaniel (25 October 2021). "Conquering Siberia: The Case for Genocide Recognition". www.genocidewatchblog.com. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
119. Bartels, Dennis; Bartels, Alice L. (2006). "Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North and Cold War Ideology". Anthropologica. 48 (2): 265–279. doi:10.2307/25605315. JSTOR 25605315.
120. Veracini 2013: "The domination of Latin America, North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the Asian part of the Soviet Union by European powers all involved the migration of permanent settlers from the European country to the colonies. These places were colonized."
121. Pohl, Otto (2015). "The Deportation of the Crimean Tatars in the Context of Settler Colonialism". International Crimes and History (16).
122. Tsai, Lin-chin (2019). Re-conceptualizing Taiwan: Settler Colonial Criticism and Cultural Production (PhD thesis). University of California. Retrieved 20 May 2023. Taiwan, an island whose indigenous inhabitants are Austronesian, has been a de facto settler colony due to large-scale Han migration from China to Taiwan beginning in the seventeenth century.
123. Statistics compiled by Ørsted-Jensen for Frontier History Revisited (Brisbane 2011), page 15.
124. Page, A. (September 2015). "The Australian Settler State, Indigenous Agency, and the Indigenous Sector in the Twenty First Century" (PDF). Australian Political Studies Association Conference. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
125. Page, A.; Petray, T. (2015). "Agency and Structural Constraints: Indigenous Peoples and the Settler-State in North Queensland". Settler Colonial Studies. 5 (2).
126. Byrd, Jodi A. (6 September 2011). The Transit of Empire: Indigenous Critiques of Colonialism. University of Minnesota Press. pp. xix. ISBN 978-1-4529-3317-7.
127. Dahl 2018, p. 1.

Works cited

• Dahl, Adam (2018). Empire of the People: Settler Colonialism and the Foundations of Modern Democratic Thought. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2607-6.
• Veracini, Lorenzo (2013). "'Settler Colonialism': Career of a Concept". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 41 (2): 313–333. doi:10.1080/03086534.2013.768099. S2CID 159666130. Retrieved 7 May 2022.

Further reading

• >Adhikari, Mohamed (2021). Civilian-Driven Violence and the Genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Settler Societies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-41177-5.
• Cox, Alicia. "Settler Colonialism". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
• Englert, Sai (2022). Settler Colonialism: An Introduction. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-4490-4.
• Belich, James (2009). Replenishing the earth: the settler revolution and the rise of the Anglo-world, 1783–1939. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 573. ISBN 978-0-19-929727-6.
• Horne, Gerald. The Apocalypse of Settler Colonialism: The Roots of Slavery, White Supremacy, and Capitalism in Seventeenth-Century North America and the Caribbean. Monthly Review Press, 2018. 243p. ISBN 9781583676639
• Horne, Gerald. The Dawning of the Apocalypse: The Roots of Slavery, White Supremacy, Settler Colonialism, and Capitalism in the Long Sixteenth Century. Monthly Review Press, 2020. ISBN 978-1-58367-875-6.
• Manjapra, Kris (2020). "Settlement". Colonialism in Global Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–70. ISBN 978-1-108-42526-1.
• Marx, Christoph (2017). Settler Colonies, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: March 17, 2021 (pdf).
• Mikdashi, Maya (2013). What is settler colonialism? American Indian Culture and Research Journal 37.2: 23–34.
• Pedersen, Susan; Elkins, Caroline, eds. (2005). Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century. Routledge.
• Veracini, Lorenzo (2010). Settler Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 182. ISBN 9780230284906.
• Wolfe, Patrick (2016). Traces of History: Elementary Structures of Race. Verso Books.

External links

• Articles on Settler Colonialism in Western American Literature

• Settler colonialism
• Cultural geography
• Settlement schemes