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| commander1 = '''Negrín's Government:'''<br />{{flagicon|Spain|1931}} ]{{executed}}<br />{{flagicon|Spain|1931}} ]{{Surrendered}}<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]{{executed}}{{hr}}'''Council of National Defense:'''<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]{{Surrendered}}<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ] | commander1 = '''Negrín's Government:'''<br />{{flagicon|Spain|1931}} ]{{executed}}<br />{{flagicon|Spain|1931}} ]{{Surrendered}}<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]{{executed}}{{hr}}'''Council of National Defense:'''<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]{{Surrendered}}<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Spain|1931}} ]
| commander2 = {{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Fascist Italy (1922–1943)}} ] | commander2 = {{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Nationalist Spain|1938}} ]<br />{{flagdeco|Fascist Italy (1922–1943)}} ]
| strength1 = 250,000<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 475</ref>−500,000 men<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 861</ref><br />40 aircraft | strength1 = 250,000<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 475</ref>−500,000 men{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=861}}<br />40 aircraft
| strength2 = 1,000,000 men<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 838</ref><br />600 aircraft | strength2 = 1,000,000 men{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=838}}<br />600 aircraft
| casualties1 = Casado's coup: 230<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 884</ref>–2,000 killed{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=394}}<br />Final offensive: 150,000 captured{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=404}} | casualties1 = Casado's coup: 230{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=884}}–2,000 killed{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=394}}<br />Final offensive: 150,000 captured{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=404}}
| casualties2 = 1,476 killed (sinking of the ''Castillo de Olite''){{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=391}} | casualties2 = 1,476 killed (sinking of the ''Castillo de Olite''){{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=391}}
}} }}
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==Background== ==Background==
===Fall of Catalonia=== ===Fall of Catalonia===
After the ] in February 1939, the military situation of the Republic was hopeless. Despite still having the capital city and approximately 30% of Spanish territory, it had lost 220,000 soldiers, the second most populated city in the country and the industrial resources of Catalonia.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p.&nbsp;854</ref> Furthermore, on 27 February, President ] resigned. The ] and ] then recognised the Nationalist government.<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 165</ref> After the ] in February 1939, the military situation of the Republic was hopeless. Despite still having the capital city and approximately 30% of Spanish territory, it had lost 220,000 soldiers, the second most populated city in the country and the industrial resources of Catalonia.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=854}} Furthermore, on 27 February, President ] resigned. The ] and ] then recognised the Nationalist government.<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 165</ref>


===Military situation=== ===Military situation===
The Republican army still had between 250,000<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 475</ref> and 500,000 men<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 861</ref> but only 40 aircraft (three ] and two ] bomber squadrons, and 25 ] and ] fighters),<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 868</ref> little artillery and few automatic weapons.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 861</ref> Many soldiers were unarmed (in December 1938, the Republican army had only 225,000 rifles),<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 488</ref> and lacked shoes and overcoats.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 866</ref> In Madrid, there was food for only two months and no water, heating, medicine or surgical dressings.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 869</ref> On the other hand, the Nationalist army had more than a million men at the end of 1938, with 35,000 Moroccans, 32,000 Italians and 5,000 Germans,<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 838</ref> as well as 600 aircraft.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 866</ref> The Republican army still had between 250,000<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 475</ref> and 500,000 men{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=861}} but only 40 aircraft (three ] and two ] bomber squadrons, and 25 ] and ] fighters),{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=868}} little artillery and few automatic weapons.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=861}} Many soldiers were unarmed (in December 1938, the Republican army had only 225,000 rifles),{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=488}} and lacked shoes and overcoats.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=866}} In Madrid, there was food for only two months and no water, heating, medicine or surgical dressings.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=869}} On the other hand, the Nationalist army had more than a million men at the end of 1938, with 35,000 Moroccans, 32,000 Italians and 5,000 Germans,{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=838}} as well as 600 aircraft.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=866}}


===Opposition to continued resistance=== ===Opposition to continued resistance===
On 16 February, the high command of the Republican Army told Prime Minister ] that further military resistance was impossible.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 867–868</ref> Most of the members of the Republican Army, the ], the ] and the ] believed that it was necessary to initiate peace negotiations.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296</ref> Nevertheless, Negrín, backed by the communist ], wanted to continue fighting because Franco rejected giving any guarantee against reprisals and ] was believed to be imminent.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296</ref> Furthermore, Negrín wanted to organise the evacuation of those who were most at risk.<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 111</ref> On 16 February, the high command of the Republican Army told Prime Minister ] that further military resistance was impossible.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=867-868}} Most of the members of the Republican Army, the ], the ] and the ] believed that it was necessary to initiate peace negotiations.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296</ref> Nevertheless, Negrín, backed by the communist ], wanted to continue fighting because Franco rejected giving any guarantee against reprisals and ] was believed to be imminent.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296</ref> Furthermore, Negrín wanted to organise the evacuation of those who were most at risk.<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 111</ref>


==Casado's coup== ==Casado's coup==
Line 40: Line 40:


===Plot=== ===Plot===
From the end of February 1939, Colonel ] had been preparing a ] against the Negrín government to start peace negotiations with the Nationalists, believing that the government was too subordinate to the communists. Colonel José Cendaño, a ] agent in the Republican army, promised him that Franco would guarantee the lives of the Republican officers who had committed no crimes.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 870–871</ref> Most noncommunist elements of the ] in Madrid supported the plot, including one of the leaders of the PSOE, ], because they believed that continuing the war was useless.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 861</ref> Furthermore, after the ], many Republican officers in the central zone believed that they could negotiate a deal with the Nationalists.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2006. p. 861.</ref> From the end of February 1939, Colonel ] had been preparing a ] against the Negrín government to start peace negotiations with the Nationalists, believing that the government was too subordinate to the communists. Colonel José Cendaño, a ] agent in the Republican army, promised him that Franco would guarantee the lives of the Republican officers who had committed no crimes.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=870-871}} Most noncommunist elements of the ] in Madrid supported the plot, including one of the leaders of the PSOE, ], because they believed that continuing the war was useless.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=861}} Furthermore, after the ], many Republican officers in the central zone believed that they could negotiate a deal with the Nationalists.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=861}}


On 2 March, Negrín announced a number of new appointments in the Central Zone.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 468</ref> Colonel Casado and the communists ] and ] became generals, General ] was appointed as head of the central ]<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 874</ref> and communist officers were appointed to command the ports of Murcia (]), Alicante (]) and Cartagena (]).<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 875–876</ref>(according to Beevor, Francisco Galán was appointed military governor of Cartagena, Etelvino Vega governor of Alicante, ] commander of Murcia and ] commander of Albacete).{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=390}} The noncommunist elements believed that the communists wanted to control the evacuation harbours<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 468</ref> and joined the plot against Negrín.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. pp. 468–469</ref> On 2 March, Negrín announced a number of new appointments in the Central Zone.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 468</ref> Colonel Casado and the communists ] and ] became generals, General ] was appointed as head of the central ]{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=874}} and communist officers were appointed to command the ports of Murcia (]), Alicante (]) and Cartagena (]).{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=875-876}} (according to Beevor, Francisco Galán was appointed military governor of Cartagena, Etelvino Vega governor of Alicante, ] commander of Murcia and ] commander of Albacete).{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=390}} The noncommunist elements believed that the communists wanted to control the evacuation harbours<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 468</ref> and joined the plot against Negrín.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. pp. 468–469</ref>


===Coup=== ===Coup===
On 5 March 1939, Colonel Segismundo Casado, supported by General Matallana, the CNT<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 873</ref> (]), the secret service of the Republic (the Military Investigation Service, ''Servicio de Investigación Militar'', or '']''),<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 875</ref> a section of the PSOE (]) and a section of the UGT (]), deposed Negrín and formed a ], the ] (''Consejo Nacional de Defensa'') in order to negotiate a peace deal with Franco.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 876–878</ref> On 6 March, Miaja joined the rebellion and was appointed president of the junta.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 878</ref> The other members of the junta were Casado, Julian Besteiro, Wenceslao Carrillo, Gonzalez Marín and Eduardo Val (CNT), Antonio Perez (UGT), and the Republicans Miguel San Andrés and Jose del Río.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=392}} On 5 March 1939, Colonel Segismundo Casado, supported by General Matallana, the CNT{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=873}} (]), the secret service of the Republic (the Military Investigation Service, ''Servicio de Investigación Militar'', or '']''),{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=875}} a section of the PSOE (]) and a section of the UGT (]), deposed Negrín and formed a ], the ] (''Consejo Nacional de Defensa'') in order to negotiate a peace deal with Franco.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=876-878}} On 6 March, Miaja joined the rebellion and was appointed president of the junta.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=878}} The other members of the junta were Casado, Julian Besteiro, Wenceslao Carrillo, Gonzalez Marín and Eduardo Val (CNT), Antonio Perez (UGT), and the Republicans Miguel San Andrés and Jose del Río.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=392}}
] ]
Colonel ] was appointed commander of the ] of the Centre, the communist commanders of the I, II and III Army ] of the Army of the Centre were relieved, the PCE's newspaper '']'' was closed and Casado ordered massive arrests of communist ] and militants.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=393-394}} Ironically, Casado's justification for the coup was that Negrín and the PCE wanted to carry out a communist takeover, an identical justification to that of the Nationalist uprising, which began the Civil War, but in fact, he rose against the government because he wanted to negotiate peace and believed that removing Negrín and the communists was a precondition to negotiations with Franco. In addition to other assurances, the British government said that Franco would guarantee the lives of the Republicans.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296</ref> Casado had said to the commander of the ], ]: "I give you my word&nbsp;... that I can obtain better terms from Franco than Negrín ever can. I can even assure you that they will respect our ranks".<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 875</ref> Colonel ] was appointed commander of the ] of the Centre, the communist commanders of the I, II and III Army ] of the Army of the Centre were relieved, the PCE's newspaper '']'' was closed and Casado ordered massive arrests of communist ] and militants.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=393-394}} Ironically, Casado's justification for the coup was that Negrín and the PCE wanted to carry out a communist takeover, an identical justification to that of the Nationalist uprising, which began the Civil War, but in fact, he rose against the government because he wanted to negotiate peace and believed that removing Negrín and the communists was a precondition to negotiations with Franco. In addition to other assurances, the British government said that Franco would guarantee the lives of the Republicans.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296</ref> Casado had said to the commander of the ], ]: "I give you my word&nbsp;... that I can obtain better terms from Franco than Negrín ever can. I can even assure you that they will respect our ranks".{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=875}}


After a failed attempt to negotiate with Casado, Negrín fled to France from the ]'s airfield, near ], with Hidalgo de Cisneros, the leaders of the PCE (] and ]), and the foreign minister ] on 6 March to avoid capture by the supporters of Casado{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=392-393}} (Casado wanted to arrest the government and the PCE's leaders and to hand them over to the Nationalists).<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 881</ref> After a failed attempt to negotiate with Casado, Negrín fled to France from the ]'s airfield, near ], with Hidalgo de Cisneros, the leaders of the PCE (] and ]), and the foreign minister ] on 6 March to avoid capture by the supporters of Casado{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=392-393}} (Casado wanted to arrest the government and the PCE's leaders and to hand them over to the Nationalists).{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=881}}


===Fighting in Madrid=== ===Fighting in Madrid===
Casado's coup was supported by the commanders of the other three ] of the Republican Army (], commander of the ]; ], commander of the ]; and ], commander of the ]).<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 883</ref><br> Casado's coup was supported by the commanders of the other three ] of the Republican Army (], commander of the ]; ], commander of the ]; and ], commander of the ]).{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=883}}<br>
Nevertheless, the army units settled around Madrid and controlled by the PCE (the I corps of the Army of the Centre led by ] and the Emilio Bueno's II and ]'s III Corps), rose against the junta on 7 March, starting a brief civil war inside the Republic. Barceló appointed himself as commander of the ], and his troops closed all the entrances to Madrid, occupied most of the city centre and detained and shot three of Casado's colonels. Casado's supporters held only some government buildings and the south-east of the city.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 882</ref> Nevertheless, the army units settled around Madrid and controlled by the PCE (the I corps of the Army of the Centre led by ] and the Emilio Bueno's II and ]'s III Corps), rose against the junta on 7 March, starting a brief civil war inside the Republic. Barceló appointed himself as commander of the ], and his troops closed all the entrances to Madrid, occupied most of the city centre and detained and shot three of Casado's colonels. Casado's supporters held only some government buildings and the south-east of the city.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=882}}


Nevertheless, ]'s IV corps counterattacked and occupied ] and ] as the Nationalists started an offensive towards the ].<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 884</ref> By 10 March, Barceló's troops had been surrounded, and a ceasefire was arranged. On 11 March, after days of bloody combat, Casado, backed by the IV corps of Cipriano Mera, defeated Barceló's troops. Barceló and his commissar, José Conesa, were arrested and executed.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 884</ref> There were hundreds of dead (Thomas: 230,<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 884</ref> Jackson: 1,000,<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 433</ref> and Beevor: 2,000 dead.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=394}} Nevertheless, ]'s IV corps counterattacked and occupied ] and ] as the Nationalists started an offensive towards the ].{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=884}} By 10 March, Barceló's troops had been surrounded, and a ceasefire was arranged. On 11 March, after days of bloody combat, Casado, backed by the IV corps of Cipriano Mera, defeated Barceló's troops. Barceló and his commissar, José Conesa, were arrested and executed.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=884}} There were hundreds of dead (Thomas: 230,{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=884}} Jackson: 1,000,<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 433</ref> and Beevor: 2,000 dead.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=394}}


===Cartagena=== ===Cartagena===
{{main|Cartagena Uprising}} {{main|Cartagena Uprising}}
There was also combat in ] and Cartagena. In Ciudad Real, Escobar's Extremadura Army crushed the communist resistance led by the deputy Martínez Cárton.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 884</ref> There was also combat in ] and Cartagena. In Ciudad Real, Escobar's Extremadura Army crushed the communist resistance led by the deputy Martínez Cárton.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=884}}
Nevertheless, in ] (the main base of the ]), where the supporters of Casado, backed by elements of a fifth column, had started the uprising against Negrín's government on 4 March, they were defeated by the PCE's 206th Brigade, of the IV Division, led by colonel Joaquín Rodríguez, after a brief battle on 7 March. Nevertheless, on 5 March, the Republican Navy (three cruisers and eight destroyers), led by Admiral Buiza, had fled to Bizerte after a Nationalist aerial bombardment.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 876–877</ref> One Nationalist transport ship, the '']'', sent by the Nationalists in order to support the uprising, was sunk by the coastal batteries of Cartagena, killing 1,476 Nationalist soldiers.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=391}} Nevertheless, in ] (the main base of the ]), where the supporters of Casado, backed by elements of a fifth column, had started the uprising against Negrín's government on 4 March, they were defeated by the PCE's 206th Brigade, of the IV Division, led by colonel Joaquín Rodríguez, after a brief battle on 7 March. Nevertheless, on 5 March, the Republican Navy (three cruisers and eight destroyers), led by Admiral Buiza, had fled to Bizerte after a Nationalist aerial bombardment.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=876-877}} One Nationalist transport ship, the '']'', sent by the Nationalists in order to support the uprising, was sunk by the coastal batteries of Cartagena, killing 1,476 Nationalist soldiers.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=391}}


===Peace negotiations with Franco=== ===Peace negotiations with Franco===
After the defeat of Barceló's troops, the council tried to start peace negotiations with Franco, hoping to achieve a guarantee against political reprisals. On 12 March, the council proposed a peace deal with a guarantee against reprisals and a period of 25 days to allow anyone who wanted to leave Spain to do so. On 16 March, Franco answered that he would only accept an unconditional surrender.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=394-395}} On 23 March, the council sent two negotiators to Burgos (Colonel Antonio Garijo and Major Leopoldo Ortega), and the Nationalists told them that on 25 March, the ] had to be surrendered and by 27 March, the Republican troops had to raise the white flag.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=395}} Nevertheless, on 25 March, the Republicans did not surrender their Air Force because of bad weather and Franco then broke off negotiations with the junta.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 885–888</ref>{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=395}} After the defeat of Barceló's troops, the council tried to start peace negotiations with Franco, hoping to achieve a guarantee against political reprisals. On 12 March, the council proposed a peace deal with a guarantee against reprisals and a period of 25 days to allow anyone who wanted to leave Spain to do so. On 16 March, Franco answered that he would only accept an unconditional surrender.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=394-395}} On 23 March, the council sent two negotiators to Burgos (Colonel Antonio Garijo and Major Leopoldo Ortega), and the Nationalists told them that on 25 March, the ] had to be surrendered and by 27 March, the Republican troops had to raise the white flag.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=395}} Nevertheless, on 25 March, the Republicans did not surrender their Air Force because of bad weather and Franco then broke off negotiations with the junta.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=885-888}}{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=395}}


==Final offensive== ==Final offensive==
On 26 March, Yagüe's troops advanced in ]. There was no resistance, and in one day they captured 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> of land and 30,000 prisoners.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 867</ref> The junta ordered its soldiers not to resist the Nationalist advance, and the Republican soldiers threw away their weapons and abandoned the front.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 887</ref> By 27 March, the Nationalists were advancing on all fronts without resistance. Solchaga's Navarra Corps, Gambara's CTV and Garcia Valiño's Army of Maestrazgo advanced from Toledo. On 28 March, Colonel Prada, commander of the Army of the Centre, surrendered to the Nationalist troops, who occupied Madrid.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 509</ref><ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 888–889</ref> Casado and the other members of the junta, except Besteiro, fled to Valencia.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 888</ref> On 29 March, the Nationalists occupied ], Ciudad Real, ], ] and ].<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 890</ref> 50,000 Republican refugees gathered at the harbours of ], ], ] and ]<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 889</ref> but without the Republican Navy, an evacuation was impossible since the French and the British governments refused to organise an evacuation.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}} Only a minority, those who had money to pay for passage,<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 113</ref> were evacuated by British ships (between 650<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 890</ref> and more than 3,500,{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}} Casado among them.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,760981-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107160758/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,760981-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 November 2012 |magazine=] |title=Aftermath |date=10 April 1939 }}</ref> On 30 March, the Nationalists occupied Valencia and Gambara's troops entered Alicante, rounding up 15,000 Republican refugees.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}} Italian General Gambara was prepared to permit the evacuation of political refugees, but on 31 March, the Nationalist troops arrived and took over jurisdiction from Gambara.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 477</ref> As a result, many refugees committed suicide to avoid capture by the Nationalists.<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 113</ref>{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}}<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 890</ref> On 31 March, the Nationalists occupied ], ] and ], controlling all Spanish territory except for an area of the port of Alicante, where thousands of Republicans expecting evacuation had assembled. They began giving themselves up on 31 March, but the operation was suspended for the night. The last 2000 surrendered the next morning, and approximately 25 committed suicide. By 1 April 1939, the war was effectively over.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. pp. 886–890</ref> On 26 March, Yagüe's troops advanced in ]. There was no resistance, and in one day they captured 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> of land and 30,000 prisoners.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=867}} The junta ordered its soldiers not to resist the Nationalist advance, and the Republican soldiers threw away their weapons and abandoned the front.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=887}} By 27 March, the Nationalists were advancing on all fronts without resistance. Solchaga's Navarra Corps, Gambara's CTV and Garcia Valiño's Army of Maestrazgo advanced from Toledo. On 28 March, Colonel Prada, commander of the Army of the Centre, surrendered to the Nationalist troops, who occupied Madrid.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 509</ref>{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=888-889}} Casado and the other members of the junta, except Besteiro, fled to Valencia.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=888}} On 29 March, the Nationalists occupied ], Ciudad Real, ], ] and ].{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=890}} 50,000 Republican refugees gathered at the harbours of ], ], ] and ]{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=889}} but without the Republican Navy, an evacuation was impossible since the French and the British governments refused to organise an evacuation.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}} Only a minority, those who had money to pay for passage,<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 113</ref> were evacuated by British ships (between 650{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=890}} and more than 3,500,{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}} Casado among them.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,760981-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107160758/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,760981-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 November 2012 |magazine=] |title=Aftermath |date=10 April 1939 }}</ref> On 30 March, the Nationalists occupied Valencia and Gambara's troops entered Alicante, rounding up 15,000 Republican refugees.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}} Italian General Gambara was prepared to permit the evacuation of political refugees, but on 31 March, the Nationalist troops arrived and took over jurisdiction from Gambara.<ref>Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 477</ref> As a result, many refugees committed suicide to avoid capture by the Nationalists.<ref>Graham, Helen 2005. p. 113</ref>{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=396}}{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=890}} On 31 March, the Nationalists occupied ], ] and ], controlling all Spanish territory except for an area of the port of Alicante, where thousands of Republicans expecting evacuation had assembled. They began giving themselves up on 31 March, but the operation was suspended for the night. The last 2000 surrendered the next morning, and approximately 25 committed suicide. By 1 April 1939, the war was effectively over.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=886-890}}


==Aftermath== ==Aftermath==
On 1 April 1939, the day the war ended, the ] was the only major power that had not yet recognized Franco's government.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 894</ref> The new regime had signed a ] with ] and a treaty of friendship with ] on 31 March,<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 893</ref> and on 6 April, Franco made public Spain's adherence to the ].<ref>Graham Helen 2005. p. 166</ref> On 20 April, the ] was dissolved, and by June, both Italian and German troops had left Spain.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 894</ref> The Francoist dictatorship remained in power until ] on 20 November 1975.<ref>Preston, Paul. 1995. pp. 786–787</ref> On 1 April 1939, the day the war ended, the ] was the only major power that had not yet recognized Franco's government.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=894}} The new regime had signed a ] with ] and a treaty of friendship with ] on 31 March,{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=893}} and on 6 April, Franco made public Spain's adherence to the ].<ref>Graham Helen 2005. p. 166</ref> On 20 April, the ] was dissolved, and by June, both Italian and German troops had left Spain.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=894}} The Francoist dictatorship remained in power until ] on 20 November 1975.<ref>Preston, Paul. 1995. pp. 786–787</ref>


Casado remained in exile in Venezuela until he returned to Spain in 1961.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 923</ref> Cipriano Mera fled to Oran and Casablanca, but he was extradited to Spain in February 1942.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=410}} In 1943, he was condemned to death, a sentence that was changed for 30 years in prison; he was set free in 1946 and fled to France,{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=410}} where he died in 1975. Matallana was detained and imprisoned by the Nationalists and died in Madrid in 1956.<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 923</ref> Besteiro, still at his post in the basement of the Revenue Building at 7 Alcalá Street in Madrid, was arrested by the Nationalists when they entered the city and faced a court martial. Sentenced to 30 years in prison,<ref>Thomas, Hugh 2001. p. 888</ref> he died there of an infection that resulted from an injury to his hand in 1940.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 319</ref> Casado remained in exile in Venezuela until he returned to Spain in 1961.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=923}} Cipriano Mera fled to Oran and Casablanca, but he was extradited to Spain in February 1942.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=410}} In 1943, he was condemned to death, a sentence that was changed for 30 years in prison; he was set free in 1946 and fled to France,{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=410}} where he died in 1975. Matallana was detained and imprisoned by the Nationalists and died in Madrid in 1956.{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=923}} Besteiro, still at his post in the basement of the Revenue Building at 7 Alcalá Street in Madrid, was arrested by the Nationalists when they entered the city and faced a court martial. Sentenced to 30 years in prison,{{sfn|Thomas|2001|p=888}} he died there of an infection that resulted from an injury to his hand in 1940.<ref>Preston, Paul 2006. p. 319</ref>


The Nationalists arrested hundreds of thousands of Republican soldiers and civilians, with 150,000 soldiers captured in the final offensive, and herded them into makeshift concentration camps. There were between 367,000 and 500,000 prisoners in 1939.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=404}} In the first years after the war, 50,000 Republican prisoners were executed.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=405}} The Nationalists arrested hundreds of thousands of Republican soldiers and civilians, with 150,000 soldiers captured in the final offensive, and herded them into makeshift concentration camps. There were between 367,000 and 500,000 prisoners in 1939.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=404}} In the first years after the war, 50,000 Republican prisoners were executed.{{sfn|Beevor|2006|p=405}}

Revision as of 22:57, 11 August 2024

1939 campaign in the Iberian Peninsula

Final offensive
Part of the Spanish Civil War

Map of Spain in February 1939.
  Republican territory  Nationalist territory
DateCasado's coup: 5–13 March 1939
Final offensive: 26 March – 1 April 1939
LocationSoutheastern Spain (provinces of Madrid, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Albacete, Valencia, Alicante, Murcia, Jaen, Almeria, and parts of Toledo, Guadalajara, Granada and Castellon)
Result

Nationalist victory, end of the war

  • Dissolution of the Second Spanish Republic and beginning of the Francoist regime
Belligerents
Spanish Republic  Nationalist Spain
Condor Legion
Fascist Italy CTV
Commanders and leaders
Negrín's Government:
Spain Luis Barceló Executed
Spain Francisco Galán Surrendered
Antonio Ortega Executed
Council of National Defense:
Segismundo Casado
Manuel Matallana Surrendered
José Miaja
Cipriano Mera		 Francisco Franco
Juan Yagüe
José Solchaga
Rafael García Valiño
Gastone Gambara
Strength
250,000−500,000 men
40 aircraft		 1,000,000 men
600 aircraft
Casualties and losses
Casado's coup: 230–2,000 killed
Final offensive: 150,000 captured		 1,476 killed (sinking of the Castillo de Olite)
Spanish Civil War
July 1936 uprising / Revolution
1936
1937
1938
1939
Events leading to World War II
 1910s
 1920s
 1930s

The final offensive of the Spanish Civil War took place between 26 March and 1 April 1939, towards the end of the Spanish Civil War. On 5 March 1939, the Republican Army, led by Colonel Segismundo Casado and the politician Julián Besteiro, rose against the socialist prime minister Juan Negrín, and formed a military junta, the National Defence Council (Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND) to negotiate a peace deal. Negrín fled to France but the communist troops around Madrid rose against the junta, starting a civil war within the civil war. Casado defeated them and started peace negotiations with the Nationalists. Francisco Franco, however, was willing to accept only an unconditional surrender. On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive and by 31 March, they controlled all of Spanish territory. Hundreds of thousands of Republicans were arrested and interned in concentration camps.

Background

Fall of Catalonia

After the fall of Catalonia in February 1939, the military situation of the Republic was hopeless. Despite still having the capital city and approximately 30% of Spanish territory, it had lost 220,000 soldiers, the second most populated city in the country and the industrial resources of Catalonia. Furthermore, on 27 February, President Manuel Azaña resigned. The United Kingdom and France then recognised the Nationalist government.

Military situation

The Republican army still had between 250,000 and 500,000 men but only 40 aircraft (three Natasha and two Katiuska bomber squadrons, and 25 Chatos and Moscas fighters), little artillery and few automatic weapons. Many soldiers were unarmed (in December 1938, the Republican army had only 225,000 rifles), and lacked shoes and overcoats. In Madrid, there was food for only two months and no water, heating, medicine or surgical dressings. On the other hand, the Nationalist army had more than a million men at the end of 1938, with 35,000 Moroccans, 32,000 Italians and 5,000 Germans, as well as 600 aircraft.

Opposition to continued resistance

On 16 February, the high command of the Republican Army told Prime Minister Juan Negrín that further military resistance was impossible. Most of the members of the Republican Army, the PSOE, the UGT and the CNT believed that it was necessary to initiate peace negotiations. Nevertheless, Negrín, backed by the communist PCE, wanted to continue fighting because Franco rejected giving any guarantee against reprisals and a continental war against fascism was believed to be imminent. Furthermore, Negrín wanted to organise the evacuation of those who were most at risk.

Casado's coup

See also: National Defence Council (Spain)

Plot

From the end of February 1939, Colonel Segismundo Casado had been preparing a coup against the Negrín government to start peace negotiations with the Nationalists, believing that the government was too subordinate to the communists. Colonel José Cendaño, a fifth column agent in the Republican army, promised him that Franco would guarantee the lives of the Republican officers who had committed no crimes. Most noncommunist elements of the Popular Front in Madrid supported the plot, including one of the leaders of the PSOE, Julián Besteiro, because they believed that continuing the war was useless. Furthermore, after the surrender of Menorca, many Republican officers in the central zone believed that they could negotiate a deal with the Nationalists.

On 2 March, Negrín announced a number of new appointments in the Central Zone. Colonel Casado and the communists Juan Modesto and Antonio Cordón García became generals, General Manuel Matallana was appointed as head of the central general staff and communist officers were appointed to command the ports of Murcia (Manuel Tagüeña), Alicante (Etelvino Vega) and Cartagena (Francisco Galán). (according to Beevor, Francisco Galán was appointed military governor of Cartagena, Etelvino Vega governor of Alicante, Leocadio Mendiola commander of Murcia and Inocencio Curto commander of Albacete). The noncommunist elements believed that the communists wanted to control the evacuation harbours and joined the plot against Negrín.

Coup

On 5 March 1939, Colonel Segismundo Casado, supported by General Matallana, the CNT (Cipriano Mera), the secret service of the Republic (the Military Investigation Service, Servicio de Investigación Militar, or SIM), a section of the PSOE (Julián Besteiro) and a section of the UGT (Wenceslao Carrillo), deposed Negrín and formed a military junta, the National Council of Defence (Consejo Nacional de Defensa) in order to negotiate a peace deal with Franco. On 6 March, Miaja joined the rebellion and was appointed president of the junta. The other members of the junta were Casado, Julian Besteiro, Wenceslao Carrillo, Gonzalez Marín and Eduardo Val (CNT), Antonio Perez (UGT), and the Republicans Miguel San Andrés and Jose del Río.

Julian Besteiro, one of the leaders of the PSOE, supported Casado's coup.

Colonel Adolfo Prada was appointed commander of the Army of the Centre, the communist commanders of the I, II and III Army Corps of the Army of the Centre were relieved, the PCE's newspaper Mundo Obrero was closed and Casado ordered massive arrests of communist commissars and militants. Ironically, Casado's justification for the coup was that Negrín and the PCE wanted to carry out a communist takeover, an identical justification to that of the Nationalist uprising, which began the Civil War, but in fact, he rose against the government because he wanted to negotiate peace and believed that removing Negrín and the communists was a precondition to negotiations with Franco. In addition to other assurances, the British government said that Franco would guarantee the lives of the Republicans. Casado had said to the commander of the Republican Air Force, Hidalgo de Cisneros: "I give you my word ... that I can obtain better terms from Franco than Negrín ever can. I can even assure you that they will respect our ranks".

After a failed attempt to negotiate with Casado, Negrín fled to France from the Monòver's airfield, near Elda, with Hidalgo de Cisneros, the leaders of the PCE (La Pasionaria and Vicente Uribe), and the foreign minister Julio Álvarez del Vayo on 6 March to avoid capture by the supporters of Casado (Casado wanted to arrest the government and the PCE's leaders and to hand them over to the Nationalists).

Fighting in Madrid

Casado's coup was supported by the commanders of the other three armies of the Republican Army (Leopoldo Menéndez López, commander of the Levantine Army; Antonio Escobar, commander of the Extremaduran Army; and Domingo Moriones, commander of the Andalusian Army).
Nevertheless, the army units settled around Madrid and controlled by the PCE (the I corps of the Army of the Centre led by Luis Barceló and the Emilio Bueno's II and Colonel Antonio Ortega's III Corps), rose against the junta on 7 March, starting a brief civil war inside the Republic. Barceló appointed himself as commander of the Army of the Centre, and his troops closed all the entrances to Madrid, occupied most of the city centre and detained and shot three of Casado's colonels. Casado's supporters held only some government buildings and the south-east of the city.

Nevertheless, Cipriano Mera's IV corps counterattacked and occupied Torrejón and Alcalá de Henares as the Nationalists started an offensive towards the Manzanares. By 10 March, Barceló's troops had been surrounded, and a ceasefire was arranged. On 11 March, after days of bloody combat, Casado, backed by the IV corps of Cipriano Mera, defeated Barceló's troops. Barceló and his commissar, José Conesa, were arrested and executed. There were hundreds of dead (Thomas: 230, Jackson: 1,000, and Beevor: 2,000 dead.

Cartagena

Main article: Cartagena Uprising

There was also combat in Ciudad Real and Cartagena. In Ciudad Real, Escobar's Extremadura Army crushed the communist resistance led by the deputy Martínez Cárton. Nevertheless, in Cartagena (the main base of the Spanish Republican Navy), where the supporters of Casado, backed by elements of a fifth column, had started the uprising against Negrín's government on 4 March, they were defeated by the PCE's 206th Brigade, of the IV Division, led by colonel Joaquín Rodríguez, after a brief battle on 7 March. Nevertheless, on 5 March, the Republican Navy (three cruisers and eight destroyers), led by Admiral Buiza, had fled to Bizerte after a Nationalist aerial bombardment. One Nationalist transport ship, the Castillo de Olite, sent by the Nationalists in order to support the uprising, was sunk by the coastal batteries of Cartagena, killing 1,476 Nationalist soldiers.

Peace negotiations with Franco

After the defeat of Barceló's troops, the council tried to start peace negotiations with Franco, hoping to achieve a guarantee against political reprisals. On 12 March, the council proposed a peace deal with a guarantee against reprisals and a period of 25 days to allow anyone who wanted to leave Spain to do so. On 16 March, Franco answered that he would only accept an unconditional surrender. On 23 March, the council sent two negotiators to Burgos (Colonel Antonio Garijo and Major Leopoldo Ortega), and the Nationalists told them that on 25 March, the Republican Air Force had to be surrendered and by 27 March, the Republican troops had to raise the white flag. Nevertheless, on 25 March, the Republicans did not surrender their Air Force because of bad weather and Franco then broke off negotiations with the junta.

Final offensive

On 26 March, Yagüe's troops advanced in Sierra Morena. There was no resistance, and in one day they captured 2,000 km of land and 30,000 prisoners. The junta ordered its soldiers not to resist the Nationalist advance, and the Republican soldiers threw away their weapons and abandoned the front. By 27 March, the Nationalists were advancing on all fronts without resistance. Solchaga's Navarra Corps, Gambara's CTV and Garcia Valiño's Army of Maestrazgo advanced from Toledo. On 28 March, Colonel Prada, commander of the Army of the Centre, surrendered to the Nationalist troops, who occupied Madrid. Casado and the other members of the junta, except Besteiro, fled to Valencia. On 29 March, the Nationalists occupied Jaén, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Albacete and Sagunto. 50,000 Republican refugees gathered at the harbours of Valencia, Alicante, Cartagena and Gandia but without the Republican Navy, an evacuation was impossible since the French and the British governments refused to organise an evacuation. Only a minority, those who had money to pay for passage, were evacuated by British ships (between 650 and more than 3,500, Casado among them. On 30 March, the Nationalists occupied Valencia and Gambara's troops entered Alicante, rounding up 15,000 Republican refugees. Italian General Gambara was prepared to permit the evacuation of political refugees, but on 31 March, the Nationalist troops arrived and took over jurisdiction from Gambara. As a result, many refugees committed suicide to avoid capture by the Nationalists. On 31 March, the Nationalists occupied Almeria, Murcia and Cartagena, controlling all Spanish territory except for an area of the port of Alicante, where thousands of Republicans expecting evacuation had assembled. They began giving themselves up on 31 March, but the operation was suspended for the night. The last 2000 surrendered the next morning, and approximately 25 committed suicide. By 1 April 1939, the war was effectively over.

Aftermath

On 1 April 1939, the day the war ended, the Soviet Union was the only major power that had not yet recognized Franco's government. The new regime had signed a non-aggression pact with Portugal and a treaty of friendship with Nazi Germany on 31 March, and on 6 April, Franco made public Spain's adherence to the Anti-Comintern Pact. On 20 April, the Non-Intervention Committee was dissolved, and by June, both Italian and German troops had left Spain. The Francoist dictatorship remained in power until Franco's death on 20 November 1975.

Casado remained in exile in Venezuela until he returned to Spain in 1961. Cipriano Mera fled to Oran and Casablanca, but he was extradited to Spain in February 1942. In 1943, he was condemned to death, a sentence that was changed for 30 years in prison; he was set free in 1946 and fled to France, where he died in 1975. Matallana was detained and imprisoned by the Nationalists and died in Madrid in 1956. Besteiro, still at his post in the basement of the Revenue Building at 7 Alcalá Street in Madrid, was arrested by the Nationalists when they entered the city and faced a court martial. Sentenced to 30 years in prison, he died there of an infection that resulted from an injury to his hand in 1940.

The Nationalists arrested hundreds of thousands of Republican soldiers and civilians, with 150,000 soldiers captured in the final offensive, and herded them into makeshift concentration camps. There were between 367,000 and 500,000 prisoners in 1939. In the first years after the war, 50,000 Republican prisoners were executed.

In literature

Casado's coup and the last days of the war are the background of Max Aub's novels, Campo del Moro and Campo de los Almendros.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 395.
  2. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 475
  3. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 861. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  4. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 838. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  5. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 884. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  6. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 394.
  7. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 404.
  8. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 391.
  9. Thomas 2001, p. 854. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  10. Graham, Helen 2005. p. 165
  11. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 475
  12. Thomas 2001, p. 868. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  13. Thomas 2001, p. 488. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  14. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 866. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  15. Thomas 2001, p. 869. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  16. Thomas 2001, p. 867-868. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  17. Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296
  18. Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296
  19. Graham, Helen 2005. p. 111
  20. Thomas 2001, p. 870-871. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  21. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 468
  22. Thomas 2001, p. 874. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  23. Thomas 2001, p. 875-876. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  24. Beevor 2006, p. 390.
  25. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 468
  26. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. pp. 468–469
  27. Thomas 2001, p. 873. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  28. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 875. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  29. Thomas 2001, p. 876-878. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  30. Thomas 2001, p. 878. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  31. Beevor 2006, p. 392.
  32. Beevor 2006, p. 393-394.
  33. Preston, Paul 2006. p. 296
  34. Beevor 2006, p. 392-393.
  35. Thomas 2001, p. 881. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  36. Thomas 2001, p. 883. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  37. Thomas 2001, p. 882. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  38. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 433
  39. Thomas 2001, p. 876-877. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  40. Beevor 2006, p. 394-395.
  41. Thomas 2001, p. 885-888. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  42. Thomas 2001, p. 867. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  43. Thomas 2001, p. 887. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  44. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 509
  45. Thomas 2001, p. 888-889. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  46. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 888. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  47. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 890. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  48. Thomas 2001, p. 889. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  49. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 396.
  50. Graham, Helen 2005. p. 113
  51. "Aftermath", Time, 10 April 1939, archived from the original on 7 November 2012
  52. Jackson, Gabriel 1967. p. 477
  53. Graham, Helen 2005. p. 113
  54. Thomas 2001, p. 886-890. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  55. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 894. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  56. Thomas 2001, p. 893. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  57. Graham Helen 2005. p. 166
  58. Preston, Paul. 1995. pp. 786–787
  59. ^ Thomas 2001, p. 923. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas2001 (help)
  60. ^ Beevor 2006, p. 410.
  61. Preston, Paul 2006. p. 319
  62. Beevor 2006, p. 405.
  63. Aub, Max. 1979.
  64. Aub, Max. 1981.

References

Further reading

External links

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