Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 20:58, 12 November 2024

Pulgasari
Japanese VHS flyer
Directed by	Shin Sang-ok (uncredited) Chong Gon-jo
Written by	Kim Seryun
Produced by	Shin Sang-ok Takeshi Miyanishi [ja] (both uncredited)
Starring	Chang Sŏnhŭi Ham Kisŏp Ri Chongguk Ri Ingwŏn Yu Kyŏngae Kenpachiro Satsuma
Cinematography	Cho Myŏnghyŏn Pak Sŭngho
Edited by	Kim Ryŏnsun
Music by	Sŏ Chŏnggŏn
Production companies	Korean Art Film Studio Shin Films Toho Eizo Beijing Film Studio [zh]
Distributed by	Twin (1995) Raging Thunder (1998)
Release dates	January 21, 1995 (1995-01-21) (VHS) July 4, 1998 (1998-07-04) (Tokyo)
Running time	95 minutes
Countries	North Korea Japan China
Language	Korean
Budget	$2–3 million

Pulgasari is an epic monster film Shin Sang-ok directed and produced in 1985 during his abduction in North Korea. A co-production between North Korea, Japan, and China, it is considered a remake of Bulgasari, a lost 1962 South Korean film that also depicts an eponymous creature from Korean folklore. The ensemble cast includes Chang Sŏnhŭi, Ham Kisŏp, Ri Chongguk, Ri Ingwŏn, and Yu Kyŏngae, with Kenpachiro Satsuma in the title role. Set during the Goryeo dynasty, the film follows a blacksmith's daughter who brings to life a metal-eating monster her late father envisioned to defeat the monarchy.

Shin and his wife were in captivity in North Korea since their kidnapping by Kim Jong Il in 1978. The pitch for Pulgasari was submitted in February 1985, and became Shin's last film made under Kim's orders. Principal photography took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985, with the Korean People's Army contributing roughly 13,000 extras. A team of 15 Toho employees handled special effects photography from September to December. With an estimated ¥200–300 million ($2–3 million) budget, Pulgasari was one of the most expensive films ever produced in North Korea.

Pulgasari was previewed at Toho Studios in January 1986 and readied for release in Japan and North Korea later that year. However, the film was banned in March after Shin and Choi escaped North Korean supervision and fled to the United States, where Shin later worked on a remake. Pulgasari eventually debuted on VHS in Japan on January 21, 1995, and had its official premiere in Tokyo on July 4, 1998, to commercial success. According to Cine21, it became the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time. Critical reception in Japan was positive, with many favorable comparisons to Godzilla (1998). Pulgasari has since become the most-widely-seen North Korean film internationally and has gained a cult following.

Plot

In feudal Korea, toward the end of the Goryeo dynasty, a king strictly controls the land, subjecting the peasantry to misery and starvation. Takse, the finest blacksmith in the land, is imprisoned and forced to starve for defending his people. Shortly before his death, Takse makes a tiny rice figurine of a monster and asks the gods to make his creation into a living creature that protects the rebels and the oppressed. The blacksmith's daughter Ami soon receives the figurine, which springs to life upon contact with her blood after she accidentally wounds herself while sewing. The figurine becomes a metal-eating monster Ami dubs Pulgasari, which is the name of the mythical beast her father used to mention as an eater of iron and steel. Pulgasari shares a special bond with Ami; after eating a farmer's tools, it turns into a powerful figure.

The peasants become fed up with being penurious and suffering, forming an army intent on overthrowing the monarchy with the aid of Pulgasari, who has now become gigantic. Imperial generals kidnap Ami and threaten to kill her if Pulgasari does not enter a large cage they have created. The monster lets itself become trapped and is set ablaze to save Ami, but is unharmed. The rebels later storm the palace of the region's Governor and kill him. Soon after, the king becomes aware that a rebellion is being planned in the country and intends to crush it. The king runs into Pulgasari, who wins many battles against his army because of its unending hunger for all kinds of metal, which its enemies readily provide for hostilities.

Eventually, the royal army seemingly kills the creature by burying it under the ground, captures and executes InDe (the rebellion's leader to whom Ami is betrothed), and threatens to kill Ami if she and the rebels do not surrender. After escaping, Ami revives Pulgasari by pouring some of her blood on the burial site. The creature again grows strong and attacks the king's palace, destroying it and killing the king.

After defeating the king, Pulgasari becomes problematic; it starts eating the rebels' weapons and farmers' tools, given to the creature without objection because the peasants still believe it is a benign savior. Ami realizes Pulgasari's hunger will never be sated and that the monster is inadvertently oppressing the people it fought for. She sacrifices herself by hiding inside a large bell that Pulgasari finds and quickly eats. The monster yells in anguish as Ami's presence in its body causes it to turn to stone and crumble into pieces, killing both of them but saving the people.

Cast

• Chang Sŏnhŭi (장선희) as Ami, the blacksmith's daughter
• Ham Kisŏp (함기섭) as InDe, Ami's boyfriend
• Ri Chongguk (리종국) as Ana, Ami's brother
• Ri Ingwŏn (리인권) as Takse, the blacksmith
• Pak Yŏnghak (박영학) as the King
• Ri Ryongun (리룡운) as General Hwang, the King's disciplinary
• Pak Pongik (박봉익) as the Governor
• Yu Kyŏngae (유경애) as InDe's mother
• Ro Hyech'ŏl (로혜철) as InDe's brother
• Tae Sanghun (태상훈) as a member of the Rebel Forces
• Kim Kich'ŏn (김기천) as a member of the Rebel Forces
• Ri Ŏnchŏl (리언철) as a member of the Rebel Forces
• Kenpachiro Satsuma as Pulgasari (uncredited)
  • Masao Fukazawa [ja] as the baby Pulgasari (uncredited)

Production

Crew

• Shin Sang-ok – director and producer (uncredited)
• Chong Gon-jo (정건조) – director
• Takeshi Miyanishi [ja] – producer and compositor (uncredited)
• Ro Tongch'ŏn (로동천) – lighting
• Ri Inpŏm (리인범) – lighting
• Ri Toik (리도익) – art director
• Teruyoshi Nakano – special effects director (uncredited)
• Pak Ch'ŏnggil (박청길) – special effects art director
• Yoshio Suzuki [ja] – special effects art director (uncredited)
• Kim Tŭkho (김득호) – special effects cinematographer
• Kenichi Eguchi [ja] – special effects cinematographer (uncredited)
• Kohei Mikami – special effects lighting (uncredited)
• Nobuyuki Yasumaru [ja] – Pulgasari suit modeler (uncredited)

Development

Kim Jong Il, the heir apparent of North Korea, was an admirer of cinema and of South Korean filmmaker Shin Sang-ok, who rose to fame during the 1960s. Kim was reported to have a collection of around 15,000 to 20,000 film titles in his possession. Major new releases from around the globe were typically added to his collection shortly after opening in theaters. In 1978, Kim arranged the kidnapping of Shin and his wife, famed actress Choi Eun-hee, intending for them to make propaganda films to gain North Korean cinema external recognition. Following incarceration for repeated attempts to flee North Korea, Shin was released from jail in 1983 but forced to work in the country's film industry until he and Choi escaped in 1986. Pulgasari became Shin's seventh directorial effort supported by Kim, his fifth of 1985 (following Love, Love, My Love, Salt, The Tale of Shim Chong, and Breakwater), and his last North Korean production.

The script of Pulgasari was written by Kim Seryun (김세륜) in collaboration with Ri Chun-gu (이춘구); the duo were regarded as the greatest screenwriters in North Korea at the time. Shin and Miyanishi stated that the film's story is based around Pulgasari or Bulgasari, a legendary creature from Korean folklore. Furthermore, according to retrospective sources, Pulgasari is a remake of Kim Myeong-je's 1962 South Korean film Bulgasari. The 1962 film—which is now considered lost—was the first-ever Korean film in the kaiju (giant monster) genre, predating Space Monster Wangmagwi and Yongary, Monster from the Deep by five years.

Pulgasari would become a collaboration between Korean Art Film Studio and Shin Films of North Korea, Toho Eizo of Japan, and Beijing Film Studio [zh] of China. Special-effects art director Yoshio Suzuki flew to North Korea on April 20, 1985, to attend the first meeting between the film's Japanese and North Korean crews, with the help of an interpreter. The meeting was held at a studio near the Taedong River that produced films about Kim Il Sung and his family. The studio had been set up as a temporary office for Shin's production team while a larger studio was constructed for the film. The Japanese crew developed the Pulgasari suit at Toho from April 28 to late May, with Nobuyuki Yasumaru in charge of modeling it.

Conception and pre-production

The suit actor Kenpachiro Satsuma stated Pulgasari was pitched in mid-February 1985, and location scouting started in Pyongyang and Beijing that April. The planning of Pulgasari was accredited to Shin, but according to author Paul Fischer, Shin showed no apparent interest in the Japanese kaiju genre and never said who originally conceived the project. Kim Jong Il is said to have been a fan of Toho's Godzilla franchise and saw its 1984 reboot The Return of Godzilla because it was the first in the series to receive a Korean-dubbed release. He reportedly loved the reboot so much that he sought employees from Toho's Tokusatsu (Japanese special effects) department to work on North Korea's own monster movie. Shin recalled Kim’s suggestion to design the monster resembling a cow.

Shin told Suzuki of his plans to set the film in China during the Three Kingdoms period if the historical research and costumes made it match. He also said he would start filming on August 15, 1985, and, if this concept was successful, he would "ask the Chinese side to adjust it accordingly". Pulgasari was ultimately set in Goryeo but the king's palace was based on the Forbidden City complex in Beijing. The special effects crew referred to it as the Hall of Supreme Harmony during production.

Twenty-one-year-old Chang Sŏnhŭi, who previously starred in Love, Love, My Love, played the lead in Pulgasari. Chang was a trainee flight attendant who met Shin at Pyongyang International Airport, and was immediately asked to become a full-time employee at Shin Films. Through his Japanese office, Shin invited 15 of Toho's special-effects-sector staff, including Satsuma and Nakano, to work on the film. Kim had reportedly praised Satsuma's portrayal of Godzilla in The Return of Godzilla and demanded he play Pulgasari. Satsuma accepted an invitation to work on the film in April 1985, having been deceived into believing it would be a Hollywood production. Satsuma allegedly became the first foreigner to appear in a North Korean film.

Filming

Principal photography took place in Pyongyang from June to August 1985 while special-effects photography was done from September to December. Cho Myŏnghyŏn (조명현) and Pak Sŭngho (박승호) served as the film's main cinematographers. Satsuma later said the film had a budget of ¥200–300 million (equivalent to $2–3 million), making it one of the largest and most-expensive North Korean productions to date. Some sources described its production budget as "unlimited", that it was supported by the Korean People's Army, and featured 13,000 extras. In regards to the extras and military, Satsuma commented:

I think, you can get any North Korean people to appear in a film for free. Shin Sang-ok told me that you can have as many people as you want for the extra scenes. The military would go and fetch the people and they would come. So, it wasn't a matter of money at all in that sense.

According to Shin, Kim Jong Il was "very supportive" of Pulgasari's production despite never being present during filming. For Shin to create the film, Kim ordered the construction of Munsu Studio, an immense complex described by Satsuma as a "state of the art film studio", which covered approximately 20,000 pyeong. The facility had four studios—the largest two each covered 400 pyeong while the other two were 200 pyeong—six screening rooms, six recording studios, around 300 waiting rooms, and other spaces to store art equipment. Munsu Studio was still in development when it was used for special effects photography.

During an interview with author Johannes Schönherr, Satsuma said Shin was present on set a few times and was "extremely busy and ... often absent". Furthermore, Fischer claimed that Satsuma only spoke to Shin once during production and asked him whether he would ever return to South Korea, to which Shin replied: "It would be too complicated, politically, to go back". According to Satsuma and some South Korean reports, Chong Gon-jo substituted for Shin towards the end of filming.

Special effects

In mid-September 1985, before departing Japan, the Japanese crew filmed the Pulgasari suit wandering around a miniature village in Studio 9 at Toho Studios, but this footage was omitted from the film's final cut. Satsuma and an assistant director flew from Tokyo to Beijing via Shanghai on China Airlines Flight 930 on September 11, 1985. On September 14, they began working at Beijing Film Studio to prepare the miniature palace and set for the film's climax, which the Chinese crew had already been creating. Conflict between the two crews soon arose; the Chinese believed the Japanese team "just walked in and started damaging the set that we put our heart and soul into building for three months". Satsuma mentioned he was "impressed that the Chinese government could allow such an ambitious filming, even if it was just a movie" when talking about the destruction of the palace in the Pulgasari suit for the film.

After spending two weeks shooting in Beijing, the Toho team traveled to Pyongyang to complete the two months of special effects photography. According to Satsuma, upon arrival in North Korea, their passports were confiscated "for our own safety". He and the other Japanese were kept for one-and-a-half months as guests at Kim's villa, where each of them had a large, well-ventilated room with a bed, a television, a bookshelf, and a radio. One of the Japanese employees said their rooms were bugged; this was allegedly evident when one of them, while alone in his room, was talking to himself about how he missed drinking Japanese beer, only to discover the next day it had been added to his refrigerator. Kim often visited the villa but refused to meet the Japanese guests and avoided them.

The effects crew was working at Shin's studio around October 1985; Satsuma and Eiichi Asada [ja] noted that the building's windows had no glass, with the former adding that this environment "felt like mid-winter". They also filmed some scenes on a hill behind the Korean Art Film Studio rather than inside that facility. Satsuma named a scene in which Pulgasari rises over a hill while the rebels and king's army fight below the "Marusan", which he said is the name of the mound at which they filmed it.

Post-production

Post-production partly took place in Japan and concluded in December 1985. Miyanishi continued working on the film in North Korea for over a month after the rest of the Toho crew returned to Japan. Kim Ryŏnsun (김련순) edited the film and Sŏ Chŏnggŏn (서정건) composed the score. Kim Jong Il was purportedly reluctant to publicize Shin was the director. Accordingly, Chong received sole directorial credit.

Release

Distribution

Pulgasari was intended to receive an international release. Satsuma noted that Pulgasari was lauded upon its first screening at Toho Studios in January 1986. On February 16, Shin, under the supervision of North Korean bodyguards, flew to Berlin to offer the film to several Western film distributors at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival. The film's 1995 Japanese flyer stated an unidentified major enterprise had acquired Pulgasari for Japanese distribution. The Japanese website Tocana said it was prepared for release in celebration of Kim Il Sung's birthday. According to many retrospective sources, the film was, however, banned both in North Korea and overseas when Shin and Choi escaped their North Korean supervisors in Vienna on March 12 and subsequently fled to the United States. Some have also suggested that Pulgasari has consequently never been theatrically shown in North Korea. Contrarily, Fischer contended that it was released in North Korea a few weeks after Shin's escape and achieved financial success. Satsuma said of his knowledge of the initial cancellation of its release:

It was soon decided that the film would be released in Japan. However, in a sudden turn of events, the joyous mood took a turn, and our Pulgasari was caught up in a political vortex and disappeared from the public eye. And as we all know, 13 years later, the movie, which was thought to have been shelved, miraculously saw the light of day.

Japan

On January 21, 1995, the Japanese home video distributor Twin released Pulgasari on VHS in Japan; according to its flyer, this release was the film's first public distribution in any format. According to Associated Press, Twin's president Yoshimitsu Yoshitsuru claimed to have acquired permission from Shin for the release. Kinema Junpo and Tocana later said this release was piracy. In 1996, critic Takashi Monma [ja] reported several Japanese film festivals had attempted to screen Pulgasari but were all turned down. The film's official debut took place in Tokyo at the Kineca Ōmori theater on July 4, 1998; it remained playing there until September due to high demand, and was released in several other Japanese cinemas and on home video later that year.

South Korea

In November 1998, Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation (MBC) announced it would broadcast Pulgasari on its television channel in 1999. Shin later accused MBC of copyright infringement, filed a lawsuit against it, and petitioned for a ban on broadcasting Pulgasari and Love, Love, My Love in South Korea. The following year, Judge Shin Jeong-chi [ko] of Seoul High Court dismissed Shin's request to ban the film in two trails, and concluded that although Shin held the moral rights to the films, the North Korean production company owned the broadcasting rights.

Park Jie-won of the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism said in May 2000 that Pulgasari had been approved for release in South Korea due to a cultural exchange agreement as part of the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration. On July 22 that same year, Pulgasari became the first North Korean film to be distributed in South Korean theaters. The same month, Sisa Journal reported its release was attracting controversy on whether films from North Korea should be handled as foreign or domestic distributions, and was under consideration to acquire screen quotas.

Pulgasari was screened at the 22nd Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival in July 2018. On June 5 of the following year, it opened the seventh Muju Film Festival.

Other territories

In 2001, A.D. Vision distributed Pulgasari on VHS in the United States through its subsidiary Rubbersuit Productions. It later received several screenings in the US, the United Kingdom, and Canada. In 2006, the film had its New York premiere as part of Columbia University's year-long "Godzilla festival". In April 2015, it was shown in Paris at Jeu de Paume museum, and became available for viewing on YouTube.

Box office

The film achieved several Japanese box-office records, attracting around 18,000 attendees during its theatrical run at Kineca Ōmori. In 2018, Ju Seong-cheol of Cine21 stated Pulgasari outperformed TriStar's Godzilla (1998) in Japan and held the record for the highest-grossing North Korean film of all time.

In South Korea, Pulgasari opened in 50 theaters, and was a box-office bomb, drawing under 1,000 theatergoers. Due to its low number of initial attendees, many theaters decided to remove the film within the first week of its release. Johannes Schönherr cited reasonings by contemporaneous publications on its failure in South Korea, including the unpopularity of Japanese kaiju films released there and the lack of interest from adolescents in low-budget special effects.

Reception

Critical response

Japanese critics widely praised Pulgasari. Jun Edoki [ja], one of the film's main advocates, referred to it as "one of the greatest monster movie masterpieces in history, something that neither Hollywood nor Japan can ever replicate". According to the Choson Sinbo, Japanese reviewers positively compared Pulgasari to Godzilla (1998) at the time, saying Pulgasari is not "sophisticated" like Godzilla and "reminds the viewers of Japanese monster movies of their good old days". Kinema Junpo noted that the film is more reminiscent of the Daimajin trilogy than the Godzilla series. Lee Dong-jin of the South Korean newspaper The Chosun Ilbo compared Pulgasari's technical prowess to Godzilla (1998); he wrote Pulgasari "feels a bit old, but is a fun work that cutely mixes drama and spectacle". South Korean reviewers also criticized the acting, especially Chang's.

Reviewing the film's initial American video release, Film Threat noted its political background and said it should have been parodied in an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000.

Participants' response

Satsuma later said he adored Pulgasari and that he fondly remembered performing in it, deeming it to be the "most memorable work in long acting career". In October 1988, Bungeishunjū published a book written by Satsuma titled Godzilla's View of North Korea, which details his experiences of working on the film. He told Choson Sinbo in 1998 his favorite scene in the film was the one in which the titular monster is caged and set ablaze, and that he wanted to return to North Korea to work on a sequel. The Daily Telegraph also said Satsuma considered the film to be better than Godzilla (1998).

In 2005, Shin told The New Yorker he believed the film's special effects were outdated. According to Fischer, Kim Jong Il considered Pulgasari to be a masterpiece. Likewise, Takeshi Miyanishi called it a "good movie" and considered it among the best films he had worked on.

Interpretations

According to The Guardian in 2003, there has been some speculation Shin included a hidden message in Pulgasari. The film's titular monster is often interpreted as a metaphor for Kim Il Sung betraying a revolution for his own purposes and as a plea to the North Korean people to rise against the Kim regime. Some believe this is represented by Pulgasari demanding his subjects feed him more iron, even after the monarchy has been defeated, leading to the workers rebelling against and defeating their savior. Shin rejected interpretations about the film's messages on North Korea's contemporaneous class conflict. In 2005, he said Pulgasari is rather a plea for pacifism because "there are limits to what weapons can do". A 2019 article quoted Shin saying: "It was a pure monster film, I didn't put any ideology in it".

Remake

In 1995, under the alias Simon Sheen, Shin worked on an American remake of Pulgasari. Galgameth (1996), which was directed by Sean McNamara and written by Michael Angeli, tells the story of a young prince who is aided by a benevolent monster, reclaiming his deceased father's medieval kingdom. Shin said Galgameth, along with The Gardener (1998), "caused a big financial loss".

Legacy

Pulgasari is now considered a cult classic. Modern sources have stated it has become the most-widely-seen North Korean movie worldwide and Shin's best-known work, partly due to its involvement in his abduction by North Korea. According to Fischer, the film "defined career and changed his life".

In the years following its US premiere in 2001, Western critics and kaiju fans have frequently mocked the film, according to Schönherr. In a 2015 retrospective, Fischer described it as Shin's worst film. A 2016 review on Screen Anarchy called it propaganda, and solely praised Shin's efforts and the monster's depiction. Simon Fowler of The Guardian ranked it the third-best North Korean film ever made but noted: "it's to get lost in the ridiculousness of it all". Jonathan Ross said Pulgasari was among the few North Korean films he had seen, and described it as an "enjoyably campy kaiju flick". In March 2024, Collider ranked the film tenth on its "10 Best So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies" list, and Vulture called it "quite bad as a film"; both websites said its behind-the-scenes story is more fascinating than the film itself.

References

Footnotes

1. Genres attributed to the following sources:
2. Attributed to multiple references:
3. Attributed to multiple references:
4. Attributed to multiple references:
5. Attributed to multiple references:
6. Attributed to multiple references:
7. Attributed to multiple references:
8. Attributed to multiple references:
9. Attributed to multiple references:
10. Attributed to multiple references:

Notes

1. Korean: 불가사리; RR: Bulgasari; MR: Pulgasari. The film was released in Japan as Giant Monster Pulgasari (Japanese: 大怪獣プルガサリ, Hepburn: Daikaijū Purugasari) and Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster (Japanese: プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣, Hepburn: Purugasari: Densetsu no Daikaijū) in 1995 and 1998, respectively.
2. ^ Many publications have claimed that Chong Gon-jo was the assistant director and finished the film on behalf of Shin. However, some contended that Chong's name was merely used to replace Shin's in the credits. Shin maintained to have directed the film himself. Satsuma reinforced this by articulating that Shin was the de facto director and Chong was his assistant. Nonetheless, he counted: "I think in the latter half of the shooting, he gave Chong Gon-jo some rein to finish the film."
3. Pulgasari was not, however, their final collaboration overall. In the time leading up to his escape, Shin was preparing a film inspired by The Conqueror (1956) for Kim. Takeshi Miyanishi said he started working with Shin to prepare another film immediately after Pulgasari, but decided to back out.
4. In a 1994 interview, Satsuma asserted that Kim also produced the film. Some modern sources cite Kim as an executive producer.

Citations

1. Kinema Junpo 2003, p. 145.
2. ^ Satsuma 2007, Part 2: "The Night Before Departure".
3. Eiga Chirashi 2023a.
4. Eiga Chirashi 2023b.
5. Becker 2005, p. 138.
6. ^ Fowler 2014.
7. ^ 1995 Japanese flyer for Pulgasari, p. 2.
8. ^ Kinema Junpo 2024.
9. ^ Przywara 2002.
10. ^ Cho.
11. ^ Romano 2015.
12. ^ Power 2019.
13. ^ KMDb.
14. ^ Associated Press 1994, p. 3.
15. ^ Choson Sinbo 1998b.
16. ^ Jin 1999.
17. ^ Mo 2018.
18. ^ Shapiro 2005.
19. ^ Izumi 2013.
20. Edwards 2007, pp. 210, 213.
21. ^ Schönherr 2012, p. 84.
22. ^ Shim 2018.
23. ^ Edwards 2007, p. 213.
24. ^ Lee 2019.
25. ^ Shin 2019.
26. ^ Yamada 1995, p. 152.
27. ^ NK chosun 2000a.
28. Satsuma 2007, Part 6: "Arrival in China".
29. ^ Homenick 2024.
30. Monma 1996, p. 207.
31. ^ Jackson-Han 2006.
32. ^ Wiggins 2022.
33. ^ TOCANA 2017, p. 1. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTOCANA2017 (help)
34. ^ Peralta 2011.
35. ^ Kim 2020.
36. ^ Gorenfeld 2003.
37. Choe 2006.
38. Taylor 2012, p. 162.
39. ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 285.
40. ^ Grebey 2024.
41. Choe 2002.
42. ^ Kim 2000.
43. Mun 2003.
44. Lind 2014.
45. ^ Ozaki 2018.
46. ^ Satsuma 2007, Part 1: "Pulgasari is Hollywood...!?".
47. Asahigraph 1988, p. 20.
48. ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 283.
49. Satsuma 2007, Part 10: "Director Shin Sang-ok talks about North Korea's special effects situation".
50. ^ Satsuma 2007, Part 8: "The Great Collapse".
51. ^ NK chosun 2000b.
52. ^ Korean Film Archive.
53. Edwards 2007, p. 211.
54. Satsuma 2007, Part 9: "There's still more to come".
55. ^ Edwards 2007, p. 215.
56. ^ Atsumi 2016.
57. ^ TOCANA 2017, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTOCANA2017 (help)
58. ^ Lee 2000.
59. WBUR 2012.
60. ^ Urquhart 2024.
61. ^ Satsuma 2007, Part 11: "Finally heading to North Korea".
62. Fischer 2015a, p. 286.
63. Satsuma 2007, Part 2: "Part 2: The Night Before Departure".
64. Satsuma 2007, Part 3: "Flying over the continent".
65. Satsuma 2007, Part 7: "Beijing Film Studio".
66. ^ Homenick 2022.
67. ^ Daily Shincho 2023, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDaily_Shincho2023 (help)
68. Edwards 2007, p. 212.
69. Edwards 2007, p. 214.
70. Cheung 2014.
71. Kinema Junpo 1999, p. 192.
72. Fischer 2015a, p. 294.
73. ^ Natalie 2024. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNatalie2024 (help)
74. Fischer 2015a, pp. 303–304.
75. 1995 Japanese flyer for Pulgasari, p. 1.
76. Monma 1996, p. 203.
77. ^ Choson Sinbo 1998a.
78. Choe 1998.
79. ^ Choe 2000.
80. ^ Yonhap News 1999.
81. ^ No 2000.
82. ^ Ju 2018.
83. ^ Schönherr 2012, p. 148.
84. BBC 2018.
85. Edwards 2007, p. 197.
86. Jeu de Paume 2015.
87. ^ Nikkan Gendai 2014, p. 3.
88. ^ The Korea Herald 2003, p. 44.
89. Edwards 2007, p. 220.
90. Kinema Junpo 1998, p. 179.
91. Asahigraph 1988, p. 19.
92. Daily Shincho 2023, p. 3. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDaily_Shincho2023 (help)
93. ^ Fischer 2015b.
94. Variety 1995. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVariety1995 (help)
95. ^ Edwards 2007, pp. 169–170.
96. Schönherr 2012, pp. 82, 84.
97. Fischer 2015a, p. 282.
98. Gourevitch 2003.
99. Edwards 2007, p. 168.
100. ^ Fischer 2015a, p. 287.
101. Regehr 2016.
102. Ross 2021.

Works cited

Books and journals

• "アサヒグラフ, Issues 3459-3467". Asahigraph (in Japanese). 1988 – via Google Books.
• Associated Press (September 12, 1994). "Communist chief made movies". Battle Creek Enquirer. Retrieved July 31, 2024 – via Newspapers.com.
• Becker, Jasper (2005). Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195308914.
• Choe, Sang-Hun (April 12, 2006). "Obituary: Shin Sang Ok, 80, Korean film director". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 1, 2016. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
• Choe, Yeong-chang (November 11, 1998). "신상옥감독 제작 北영화'불가사리' MBC내년방영" [North Korean film Pulgasari produced by director Shin Sang-ok to air on MBC next year]. Munhwa Ilbo (in Korean). Archived from the original on July 31, 2024. Retrieved July 31, 2024.
• "大ヒット、「プルガサリ」" [The big hit, Pulgasari]. Choson Sinbo (in Japanese). 1998. Archived from the original on July 5, 2024. Retrieved June 24, 2024.
• "First NK Monster Faces Hollywood-Born Godzilla in Japan". Choson Sinbo. 1998. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2024.
• Edwards, Matthew, ed. (2007). "Godzilla Goes to North Korea: An Interview with Kenpachiro Satsuma". Film Out of Bounds: Essays and Interviews on Non-Mainstream Cinema Worldwide. Interviewed by Schönherr, Johannes. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-1-4766-0780-1. Retrieved August 1, 2024 – via Google Books.
• "大怪獣プルガサリ" [Giant Monster Pulgasari]. Eiga Chirashi (in Japanese). 2023. Archived from the original on October 31, 2023. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• "大怪獣プルガサリ" [Giant Monster Pulgasari] (PDF). Eiga Chirashi (in Japanese). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 31, 2023. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• Fischer, Paul (February 3, 2015). A Kim Jong-Il Production: The Extraordinary True Story of a Kidnapped Filmmaker, His Star Actress, and a Young Dictator's Rise to Power. Flatiron Books. ISBN 9781250054272.
• Fischer, Paul (February 21, 2015). "Kim Jong-il and the great movie-star kidnap". The Guardian. Archived from the original on July 20, 2015. Retrieved July 3, 2024.
• Fowler, Simon (August 15, 2014). "The five best North Korean films". The Guardian. Archived from the original on August 15, 2014. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• Gorenfeld, John (April 3, 2003). "Kidnapped by Kim Jong-il: the man who directed the socialist Godzilla". The Guardian. Archived from the original on August 27, 2013. Retrieved July 3, 2024.
• Gourevitch, Philip (August 31, 2003). "Alone in the Dark". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on June 21, 2024. Retrieved July 31, 2024.
• Jin, Seong-ho (January 21, 1999). "[미디어 다시보기] 북영화 '불가사리'TV방영 진통" [Media Replay: North Korean movie Pulgasari TV broadcast pains]. The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). Archived from the original on August 1, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024.
• Ju, Seong-cheol (June 22, 2018). "북한영화를 아십니까" [Do you know North Korean movies?] (in Korean). Archived from the original on July 29, 2024. Retrieved July 29, 2024.
• Kim, Jung-gi (May 25, 2000). "신상옥감독 영화 '불가사리' 내달 국내 개봉" [Director Shin Sang-ok's film Pulgasari to be released in Korea next month]. Maeil Shinmun [ko] (in Korean). Archived from the original on September 25, 2024. Retrieved September 25, 2024.
• Film & Video Yearbook 1999. Kinema Junpo (in Japanese). May 14, 1999. Archived from the original on July 4, 2024 – via Google Books.
• Issues 1265-1268. Kinema Junpo (in Japanese). 1998. Retrieved August 5, 2024 – via Google Books. プルガサリが、ゴジラというより大魔神なのは、気がつく人はとうに気づいているだろう。 [Pulgasari is more like the Daimajin than Godzilla, as those who pay attention have probably already realized.]
• "Issues 1392-1395". Kinema Junpo (in Japanese). 2003 – via Google Books. 1985 年、日本、中国、北朝鮮の合作で制作され、 98 年に日本公開された「プルガサリ/伝説の大怪獣」。 [Pulgasari/The Legendary Giant Monster was produced in 1985 as a collaboration between Japan, China, and North Korea, and was released in Japan in 1998.]
• "Korea Now". The Korea Herald. Vol. 32. 2003 – via Google Books.
• Lee, Dong-jin (July 18, 2000). "민중 위해 싸우는 괴수 '불가사리'" [Pulgasari, a monster fighting for the people]. The Chosun Ilbo. Archived from the original on July 28, 2024. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
• Lee, Do-yeon (April 29, 2019). "무주산골영화제 개막작은 북한 영화 '불가사리'" [The North Korean film Pulgasari is the opening film of the Muju Mountain Film Festival]. Yonhap News Agency (in Korean). Archived from the original on October 30, 2022. Retrieved October 30, 2022.
• Lind, Maria (February 18, 2014). "Magnus Bärtås". ArtReview. Archived from the original on July 2, 2024. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• Monma, Takashi (1996). アジア映画にみる日本 II [Japan As Seen in Asian Films II] (in Japanese). Shakaihyoronsha. ISBN 9784784509423 – via Google Books.
• Mun, Seok (February 6, 2003). "스크린 진기록 대행진 [11]" [Screen Record Parade (11)]. Cine21 (in Korean). Archived from the original on October 8, 2024. Retrieved July 28, 2024.
• No, Sun-dong (July 2000). "북한 영화 개봉1호 <불가사리>" [North Korea's first film release, Pulgasari]. Sisa Journal (in Korean). Archived from the original on July 8, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024.
• Power, Ed (May 30, 2019). "Pulgasari: the lunatic story behind North Korea's monstrous Godzilla rip-off". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022.
• Romano, Nick (April 6, 2015). "How Kim Jong Il Kidnapped a Director, Made a Godzilla Knockoff, and Created a Cult Hit". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on July 5, 2015. Retrieved September 25, 2017.
• Shim, Sun-ah (July 13, 2018). "Bucheon Fantastic Film Festival opens 22nd edition". Yonhap News Agency. Archived from the original on July 30, 2024. Retrieved July 30, 2024.
• Schönherr, Johannes (2012). North Korean Cinema: A History. McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-6526-2 – via Google Books.
• Shapiro, Michael (April 2005). "A Kim Jong Il Productio". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on August 4, 2016. Retrieved May 8, 2013.
• Taylor, Ben (February 2, 2012). Apocalypse on the Set: Nine Disastrous Film Productions. Duckworth Books. ISBN 978-1468300130.
• "Romanian counts prod'n bounty". Variety. August 14, 1995. Archived from the original on July 26, 2024. Retrieved July 21, 2024.
• Yamada, Masami (December 1995). 大ゴジラ図鑑2 [Pictorial Book of Godzilla 2] (in Japanese). Hobby Japan. ISBN 4-89425-117-5.
• Yonhap News (October 19, 1999). ""신상옥씨 영화 北에 저작권 있어" 서울고법, 신감독 항고기각" ["North Korea owns the copyright to Mr. Shin Sang-ok's movies" Seoul High Court dismisses director Shin's appeal]. Incheon Ilbo [ko] (in Korean). Archived from the original on July 31, 2024. Retrieved July 31, 2024.

Websites

• Atsumi, Shiho (September 23, 2016). "拉致された韓国の人気映画監督は、金正日のために北朝鮮版『ゴジラ』を作った（渥美志保）" [The abducted popular South Korean film director who made a North Korean version of "Godzilla" for Kim Jong Il]. Yahoo! Japan (in Japanese). Archived from the original on July 4, 2024. Retrieved July 3, 2024.
• BBC (July 11, 2018). "북한 영화: 한국서 북한 영화 9편 상영이 주목되는 이유" [North Korean Cinema: Why 9 North Korean Films Are Getting a Spotlight in South Korea] (in Korean). Archived from the original on November 20, 2020. Retrieved August 31, 2021.
• Cheung, Helier (January 2, 2014). "Ten things: North Korea's film industry". BBC. Archived from the original on January 2, 2014. Retrieved September 25, 2024.
• Cho, Jun-Hyoung. "A Life More Movie-like than a Movie: Film Director Shin Sang-ok". Google Arts & Culture. Korean Film Archive. Archived from the original on May 11, 2023. Retrieved July 16, 2024.
• Choe, Cheok-ho (September 2, 2002). "北 희극문학의 최고봉 김세륜" [Kim Seryun, the pinnacle of North Korean comedy literature]. Tongil News (in Korean). Archived from the original on September 25, 2024. Retrieved September 25, 2024.
• Choe, Yun-jeong (May 22, 2000). "남한에서 상영될 북한영화 불가사리" [North Korean film Bulgasari to be screened in South Korea]. Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on July 8, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024.
• "ゴジラ俳優「薩摩剣八郎さん」死去 金正日肝いり「怪獣映画」に出演 かつて明かした北朝鮮"極寒の撮影秘話"" [Godzilla actor Kenpachiro Satsuma passes away; he appeared in Kim Jong Il's "kaiju movie" and once revealed the "secret story of filming in the extreme cold of North Korea"]. Daily Shincho (in Japanese). Shinchosha. December 27, 2023. Archived from the original on December 28, 2023. Retrieved June 23, 2024.
• "プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣" [Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster]. Eiga Chirashi (in Japanese). 2023. Archived from the original on October 31, 2023. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• Grebey, James (March 28, 2024). "15 Kaiju You Should Know (That Aren't Godzilla or King Kong)". Vulture. Archived from the original on March 28, 2024. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• Homenick, Brett (August 21, 2024). "A Firsthand Account of Compositing Kaiju! Takeshi Miyanishi Goes Behind the Scenes on Toho's Special Optical-Photography Techniques!". Vantage Point Interviews. Archived from the original on August 21, 2024. Retrieved November 10, 2024.
• Homenick, Brett (November 15, 2022). "Rising Through the Tokusatsu Ranks! Eiichi Asada Reflects on His Career as an Assistant SFX Director in the 1970s and '80s!". Vantage Point Interviews. Archived from the original on November 30, 2022. Retrieved November 10, 2024.
• Izumi, Maki (August 30, 2013). "【エンタがビタミン♪】「金正日氏の別荘で過ごした」。北朝鮮・怪獣映画に出演のスーツアクター、現地での待遇明かす。" [Entertainment is a Vitamin♪: 'I spent time at Kim Jong Il's villa'; a suit actor appearing in a North Korean kaiju movie reveals how he was treated there.]. Techinsight (in Japanese). Archived from the original on August 1, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024.
• Jackson-Han, Sarah (October 30, 2006). "North Korean Feature Film Gets International Exposure". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on April 13, 2023.
• Jeu de Paume (April 11, 2015). "Pulgasari a film by Shin Sang-Ok". Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. Retrieved August 1, 2024.
• Kim, Ju-won (2020). "북한 신필림영화와 신상옥 부부의 북한탈출" [North Korea's Shin Films and Shin Sang-ok and his wife's escape from North Korea]. Radio Free Asia (in Korean). Archived from the original on July 17, 2024. Retrieved July 17, 2024.
• "プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣" [Pulgasari: The Legendary Giant Monster]. Kinema Junpo (in Japanese). Archived from the original on August 1, 2024. Retrieved July 31, 2024.
• KMDb. "불가사리" [Pulgasari]. Korean Movie Database (in Korean). Korean Film Archive. Archived from the original on March 4, 2019. Retrieved July 8, 2024.
  • "크레디트" [Credits] (in Korean). Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 2, 2024.
• Korean Film Archive. "불가사리" [Pulgasari] (in Korean). Archived from the original on August 1, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024.
• Mo, Eun-yeong (2018). "불가사리" [Pulgasari]. Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival (in Korean). Archived from the original on July 30, 2024. Retrieved July 30, 2024.
• "プルガサリ 伝説の大怪獣 [画像ギャラリー 2/2]" [Pulgasari: The Legendary Monster (image gallery 2/2)]. Natalie (in Japanese). Archived from the original on June 24, 2024. Retrieved June 24, 2024.
• "映画「ゴジラ」７本で"中の人"を…俳優・薩摩剣八郎さんは今｜あの人は今こうしている" [Actor Kenpachi Satsuma, who played the role of "the man behind the scenes" in seven "Godzilla" movies... What's he up to now?]. Nikkan Gendai Digital (in Japanese). September 22, 2014. p. 3. Archived from the original on September 29, 2015. Retrieved June 24, 2024.
• NK chosun (October 8, 2000). "[신상옥의 북한영화이야기] 춘향역 장선희" [Shin Sang-ok's North Korean Film Story: Chang Sŏnhŭi as Chunhyang]. The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). Archived from the original on July 17, 2024. Retrieved July 17, 2024.
• NK chosun (October 15, 2000). "[신상옥의 북한영화 이야기] 불가사리" [Shin Sang-ok's North Korean Film Story: Pulgasari]. The Chosun Ilbo (in Korean). Archived from the original on June 23, 2024. Retrieved June 23, 2024.
• Ozaki, Kazuo (December 3, 2018). "監督との対話から見える『グエムル -漢江の怪物-』の輪郭" [The outline of The Host revealed through conversation with the director]. thecinema.jp (in Japanese). Archived from the original on May 17, 2021. Retrieved May 20, 2021.
• Peralta, Eyder (December 19, 2011). "Pulgasari: Kim Jong Il's Giant Monster Film". The Two-Way. NPR. Archived from the original on September 25, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017.
• Przywara, Dennis (October 31, 2002). "Pulgasari". Film Threat. Archived from the original on July 2, 2024. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• Regehr, Jonathan (November 8, 2016). "Classic Movie Review: Pulgasari, a North Korean monster propaganda movie from 1985!". Screen Anarchy. Archived from the original on November 9, 2016. Retrieved July 31, 2024.
• Ross, Jonathan (November 2, 2021). "Off the shelf: Korean Cinema Fan Club". BFI. Archived from the original on July 26, 2024. Retrieved July 21, 2024.
• Satsuma, Kenpachiro (2007). "プルガサリ撮影秘話" [The Secret Story Behind the Filming of Pulgasari] (in Japanese). Tokyo Narasaki Research Institute. Archived from the original on August 28, 2016. Retrieved June 24, 2024.
• Shin, Hyo-ryeong (May 29, 2019). "무주산골영화제 개막작, 남 신상옥·북 정건조 '불가사리'" [Muju Mountain Film Festival Opening Film, Shin Sang-ok and North Korean Chong Gon-jo's Pulgasari]. Newsis (in Korean). Archived from the original on June 23, 2024. Retrieved June 23, 2024.
• "北朝鮮版の【怪獣映画】が想像以上に素晴らしい…！ 金正日が国家予算を注いだ傑作の内容とは？" [North Korea's version of a "kaiju movie" is better than you can imagine! What is the content of this masterpiece that Kim Jong-il poured his national budget into?]. TOCANA (in Japanese). April 21, 2017. Archived from the original on June 23, 2024. Retrieved June 23, 2024.
• Urquhart, Jeremy (March 17, 2024). "10 So-Bad-They're-Good Monster Movies, Ranked". Collider. Archived from the original on May 7, 2024. Retrieved July 2, 2024.
• WBUR (May 16, 2012). "The Films That Dictators Loved". Archived from the original on February 27, 2021. Retrieved September 26, 2024.
• Wiggins, Brent (October 13, 2022). "Pulgasari: A Look at the North Korean Kaiju Movie". MovieWeb. Archived from the original on October 13, 2022. Retrieved October 30, 2022.

External links

• Pulgasari at IMDb 
• Pulgasari at AllMovie
• Pulgasari at Box Office Mojo
• Pulgasari at Rotten Tomatoes

v t e Kim Jong Il
General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea Chairman of the National Defence Commission of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army
Politics	Inter-Korean summits 2000 2007 Nuclear tests 2006 2009 Missile tests 2006 2009 Songun
Elections	1982 1986 1990 1998 2003 2009
Books	On the Art of the Cinema (1973) On the Art of Opera (1974) On Further Improving Party Ideological Work (1981) On the Juche Idea (1982) Our Socialism Centred on the Masses Shall Not Perish (1991)
Family	Hong Il-chon (first wife) Kim Young-sook (wife) Song Hye-rim (partner) Ko Yong-hui (partner) Kim Ok (partner) Kim Sol-song (daughter) Kim Jong-nam (son) Kim Jong-chul (son) Kim Jong Un (son) Kim Yo-jong (daughter) Kim Ju-ae (granddaughter) Kim Man-il (brother) Kim Kyong-hui (sister) Kim Pyong-il (half-brother) Kim Il Sung (father) Kim Jong-suk (mother) Kim Yong-ju (uncle) Kim Hyong-jik (grandfather) Kang Pan-sok (grandmother)
Related	Death and state funeral reactions North Korean cult of personality On-the-spot guidance Residences of North Korean leaders International trips North Korean leaders' trains Changsan Revolutionary Site List of leaders of North Korea International Kim Jong Il Prize Order of Kim Jong Il Kimjongilia Awards and decorations "Song of General Kim Jong Il" Titles Eternal General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission Taewonsu Badges Portraits Day of the Shining Star North Korean famine Abduction of Shin Sang-ok and Choi Eun-hee Pulgasari
← Kim Il Sung Kim Jong Un → Category

• Film
• North Korea
• Japan
• China
• Speculative fiction

• 1995 films
• 1990s Japanese films
• 1990s Korean-language films
• 1990s monster movies
• ADV Films
• Beijing Film Studio films
• Censored films
• Chinese epic films
• Chinese historical films
• Chinese propaganda films
• Chinese remakes of South Korean films
• Films about capital punishment
• Films about corruption
• Films about rebels
• Films based on Korean myths and legends
• Films directed by Shin Sang-ok
• Films set in Korea
• Films set in Goryeo
• Films set on farms
• Films shot in Beijing
• Giant monster films
• Historical epic films
• Japanese epic films
• Japanese historical films
• Japanese propaganda films
• Japanese remakes of South Korean films
• Kaiju films
• Kim Jong Il
• North Korean drama films
• North Korean epic films
• Political controversies in film
• Propaganda in North Korea
• Remakes of South Korean films
• Self-censorship
• Toho films
• Toho tokusatsu films
• Tokusatsu films
• Works subject to a lawsuit