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| |+<big><big>'''Antarctica'''</big></big> | |||
| | align=center colspan=2 style="background:#f9f9f9;" | | |||
| ] | |||
| |- | |||
| | ''']''' || 14,000,000 km² (5,405,430 mi²) (280,000 km² (108,108 mi²) ice-free, 13,720,000 km² (5,297,321 mi²) ice-covered) | |||
| |- | |||
| | ''']''' || ~1000 (none permanent) | |||
| |- | |||
| | ''']''' <br><br>– ] | |||
| || governed by the ]<br><br>] | |||
| |- | |||
| | ''']''' (subject to the ]) || {{ARG}} <br> {{AUS}} <br> {{CHL}} <br> {{FRA}} <br> {{NZL}} <br> {{NOR}} <br> {{GBR}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | '''Reserved the right to make claims''' || {{RUS}} <br> {{USA}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | '''Internet ]''' || ] | |||
| |- | |||
| | '''Calling Code''' || +672 | |||
| |} | |||
| ] | |||
| '''Antarctica''' is ]'s southernmost ], overlying the ]. Situated in the ] and largely south of the ], Antarctica is surrounded by the ]. At 14.4 million km², it is the fifth-largest continent in area after ], ], ], and ]; in turn, ] and ] are smaller. Some 98% of Antarctica is covered by ], which averages at least 1.6 km in thickness. | |||
| On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the highest average ] of all the continents.<ref>{{cite web | title=National Geophysical Data Center | publisher=National Satellite, Data, and Information Service| url=http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html | accessmonthday=9 June |accessyear=2006}}</ref> Since there is little ], except at the coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest ] in the world. There are no permanent human residents and Antarctica has never had an indigenous population. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including ]s, ], ]es, ]s, and many types of ]. | |||
| The name ''Antarctica'' comes from the ] ''antarktikos'' (''ανταρκτικός''), meaning "opposite to the ]."<ref>{{cite web|author=] and ]|work=] | publisher=Clarendon Press | title={{polytonic|ἀνταρκτικός}} | year=1940 | url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 | accessdate=12 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref> Although myths and speculation about a '']'' ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in ] by the ]n expedition of ] and ]. However, the continent remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolated location. | |||
| The ] was signed in 1959 by twelve countries. To date, forty-five countries have signed the treaty, including the United States. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's ]. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research interests.<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html#People|title=Antarctica - The World Factbook|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|date=2007-03-08|accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{main|History of Antarctica}} | |||
| Belief in the existence of a ''Terra Australis''—a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa—had existed since the times of ] (first century CE), who suggested the idea in order to preserve the ] of all known ]es in the world. Depictions of a large southern landmass were common in maps such as the early 16th century Turkish ]. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that ] and ] were not part of the fabled "Antarctica," geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size. | |||
| ] | |||
| European maps continued to show this hypothetical land until Captain ]'s ships, ] and '']'', crossed the ] on ], ], and once again in 1774.<ref>{{cite web | author=The Mariners' Museum | title=Age of Exploration: John Cook | url=http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php | accessmonthday=12 February | accessyear=2006}}</ref> The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. According to various organizations (the ]<ref>{{cite web | author=U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel of the ] | title=Antarctica—Past and Present|url=http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf|accessmonthday=6 February |accessyear=2006}}</ref>, ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html|title=NATHANIEL BROWN PALMER, 1799-1877|publisher=NASA, U.S. Government|author=Guy G. Guthridge|accessdate=2006-02-06}}</ref>, the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html|title=Palmer Station|accessdate=2006-02-05}}</ref>, and other sources<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.south-pole.com/p0000052.htm|title=An Antarctic Time Line : 1519-1959|publisher=south-pole.com|accessdate=2006-02-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ku-prism.org/polarscientist/timeline/antarcticexplorers1800.html|title=Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s|accessdate=2006-02-12}}</ref>), ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820: ] (a captain in the ]), ] (a captain in the ]), and ] (an American ] out of ]). Von Bellingshausen supposedly saw Antarctica on ], ], three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the two-ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and ] reached a point within 32 km (20 miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there. The first documented landing on mainland Antarctica was by the American ] ] in ] on February 7, ], although some historians dispute this claim. | |||
| In December ], as part of the ] of 1838 – 1842 (conducted by the ]) (sometimes called the "Ex. Ex.", or "the Wilkes Expedition"), the expedition sailed from ], ] into the ], as it was then known, and reported the discovery "of an ] west of the ]." That part of Antarctica was later named "]," a name it maintains to this day. | |||
| In 1841, explorer ] passed through what is now known as the ] and discovered ] (both of which were named for him). He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the ] (also named for him). ] and ] are named after two ships from his expedition: ] and '']''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm|title=South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica|accessdate=2006-02-12|publisher=south-pole.com}}</ref> ] landed in ] on January 26, 1853.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antarctic-circle.org/firsts.htm|title=Antarctic Circle - Antarctic First|date=2005-02-09|accessdate=2006-02-12}}</ref> | |||
| ]'s ] in 1914.]] | |||
| During an ] led by ] in ], parties led by ] became the first to climb ] and to reach the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6660|title=''Tannatt William Edgeworth David''|publisher=Australian Government Antarctic Division|accessdate=2006-02-07}}</ref> In addition, Shackleton himself and three other members of his expedition made several firsts in December 1908 – February 1909: they were the first humans to traverse the ], the first to traverse the Transantarctic Mountain Range (via the ]), and the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. On ], ], a party led by Norwegian polar explorer ] from the ship '']'' became the first to reach the geographic ], using a route from the ] and up the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm|title=''Roald Amundsen''|publisher=south-pole.com|accessdate=2006-02-09}}</ref> One month later, the ill-fated ] reached the pole. | |||
| ] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.70south.com/resources/antarctic-history/explorers/richardbyrd|title=Richard Byrd|publisher=70South.com|accessdate=2006-02-12}}</ref> However, it was not until ], ] that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral ] successfully landed an aircraft there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm|title=Dates in American Naval History: October|publisher=U.S. Navy|accessdate=2006-02-12}}</ref> | |||
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| <br style="clear:both;"> | |||
| ==Geography== | |||
| {{Main|Geography of Antarctica}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Centered asymmetrically around the ] and largely south of the ], Antarctica is the ]ernmost continent and is surrounded by the southern waters of the ]. Alternatively (depending on source), it is washed by the ] or the southern ], ], and ]s. It covers more than 14 million km², making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times larger than ]. The coastline measures 17,968 km (11,160 miles) and is mostly characterized by ] formations, as the following table shows: | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |+ '''Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983)''' | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Type !! Frequency | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] (floating ice front) | |||
| |align=right| 44% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Ice walls (resting on ground) | |||
| |align=right| 38% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall) | |||
| |align=right| 13% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Rock | |||
| |align=right| 4% | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Total | |||
| |align=right| 100% | |||
| |} | |||
| Antarctica is divided in two by the ] close to the neck between the ] and the ]. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called ] and the remainder ], because they roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the ]. | |||
| About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the ], a ] of ice averaging at least 1.6 km (1.0 mi) thick. The continent has approximately 90% of the world's ice (and thereby approximately 70% of the world's ]). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise about 61 m (200 feet).<ref name="howstuffworks">{{cite web|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/question473.htm|title=How Stuff Works: polar ice caps|publisher=howstuffworks.com|accessdate=2006-02-12}}</ref> In most of the interior of the continent ] is very low, down to 20 mm/year; in a few "]" areas precipitation is lower than mass loss by ] and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape. | |||
| Western Antarctica is covered by the ]. The sheet has been of recent concern because of the real, if small, possibility of its collapse. If the sheet were to break down, ] would rise by several meters in a relatively ] period of time, perhaps a matter of centuries. Several Antarctic ]s, which account for about 10% of the ice sheet, flow to one of the many ]. | |||
| ], an active volcano on ].]] | |||
| ], the highest peak in Antarctica at 4892 meters (16,050 feet), is located in the ]. Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only ] is known to be active. Located on ], Erebus is the southernmost active volcano. There is another famous volcano called ], which is famous for its giant eruption in ]. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/About_Antarctica/Rock/Volcanoes.html|title=Volcanoes|publisher=British Antarctic Survey|accessdate=2006-02-13}}</ref> In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the ] by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100385|title=Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica|publisher=United States National Science Foundation|accessdate=2006-02-13}}</ref> | |||
| Antarctica is home to more than 70 ]s that lie thousands of meters under the surface of the continental ice sheet. ], discovered beneath ]'s ] in 1996, is the largest of these ]s. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 25 million years. There is some evidence, in the form of ]s drilled to about 400 m above the water line, that Vostok's waters may contain ]. The sealed, frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with ]'s moon ]. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, this would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/02/fslakevostok.htm|title=Lake Vostok|publisher=United States National Science Foundation|accessdate=2006-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/stories/europa_vostok_0899.html|title=Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa|publisher=NASA|accessdate=2006-02-04}}</ref> | |||
| {{seealso|Extreme points of Antarctica|Antarctic territories|List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands}} | |||
| ==Geology== | |||
| {{Main|Geology of Antarctica}} | |||
| ===Geological history and paleontology=== | |||
| More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the ] ]. Over time, Gondwana gradually broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago. | |||
| ====Paleozoic era (540-250 Mya)==== | |||
| ] | |||
| During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the northern hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of ]s, ]s and ]s were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea-floor ]s and ]s flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 ]), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. ] and ]s were laid down in what is now the ], ] and ]. ] began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Mya), as Gondwana became centered around the ] and the climate cooled, though ] remained. During the Permian period, the plant life became dominated by ]-like plants such as '']'', which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the ]. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.<ref name="Stonehouse">{{cite book | editor = Stonehouse, B. (ed.) | title = Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans | year = 2002 | month = June | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | id = ISBN 0-471-98665-8}}</ref> | |||
| ====Mesozoic era (250-65 Mya)==== | |||
| ] | |||
| As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica, the ] became established, and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206-146 Mya), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. ] trees and ]s were plentiful during this period, as were reptiles such as '']''. In West Antarctica, ]ous ]s dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146-65 Mya), though ] began to take over at the end of this period. ]s were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only two Antarctic dinosaur species ('']'', from the ], and '']'') have been described to date. It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up. | |||
| ====Gondwana breakup (160-23 Mya)==== | |||
| ] separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya, followed by the ], in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then connected to ]) still had a tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a ] fauna. About 40 Mya ]-] separated from Antarctica and the first ice began to appear. Around 23 Mya, the ] opened between Antarctica and ], which resulted in the ]. The ice spread, replacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.<ref name="Trewby">{{cite book | editor = Trewby, Mary (ed.) | title = Antarctica: An Encyclopedia from Abbott Ice Shelf to Zooplankton | year = 2002 | month = September | publisher = Firefly Books | id = ISBN 1-55297-590-8}}</ref> | |||
| ===Geology of present-day Antarctica=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] Museum.]] | |||
| The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is permanently covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as ], ] and satellite imagery have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice. | |||
| Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the ] mountain range of ].<ref name="Stonehouse" /> The ] was formed by uplift and ] of sea-bed sediments during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by ] intrusions and ]. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are ] and ] volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in ] and ]. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the ] region, where the ] is more similar to the eastern part of the continent. | |||
| East Antarctica is geologically very varied, dating from the ] era, with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a ] and ] platform which is the basis of the ]. On top of this base are various modern rocks, such as ]s, ]s, coal and ]s laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the ]. In coastal areas such as ] and ] some ] has occurred. | |||
| The main ] resource known on the continent is ].<ref name="Trewby" /> It was first recorded near the ] by ] on the ], and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The ] contain significant deposits of ]. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the ] and ]s found in the ] in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources is banned until 2048 by the ]. | |||
| ==Climate== | |||
| {{Main|Climate of Antarctica}} | |||
| ] covering ], in the ], comes from ] meltwater from the ] and other smaller glaciers.]] | |||
| ] | |||
| Antarctica is the coldest place on ]. It is a frozen desert with little ]; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm (4 inches) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between -80 °C and -90 °C (-112 °F and -130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between +5 °C and +15 °C (41 °F and 59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.<ref name="BAS-weather">{{cite web|url=http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/jds/weather/weather.htm|title=''Weather in the Antarctic''|publisher=British Antarctic Survey.|accessdate=2006-02-09}}</ref> Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. ]s rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, ] there lasts for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 meters (48 inches) in 48 hours have been recorded. ] At the edge of the continent, strong ]s off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During summer, more ] reaches the surface during clear days at the South Pole than at the ] because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole.<ref name="cia" /> | |||
| Antarctica is colder than the ] for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more than 3 km above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation. Second, the ] covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica. | |||
| Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The ], commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the South Pole. Another unique spectacle is ], a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A ], a frequent atmospheric ], is a bright "spot" beside the true ].<ref name="BAS-weather" /> | |||
| ]s in Antarctica.]] | |||
| ==Population== | |||
| {{seealso|Demographics of Antarctica}} | |||
| Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent ]s throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4000 in summer to about 1000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed year-round. | |||
| ] through ]s.]] | |||
| The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the ]) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on ], from 1786 onward. During the ] era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1000 in the summer (over 2000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of ], Captain ], a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who adopted British citizenship in 1910, along with his family. | |||
| ]The first child born in the southern polar region was Norwegian girl ], born in Grytviken on ] ], and her birth was registered by the resident British Magistrate of South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and of Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 to become the manager of ], serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island.<ref>R.K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984.</ref> | |||
| ] was the first person born on the Antarctic mainland, at ] in 1978; his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the ] government to determine if family life was suitable on the continent. In 1986, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/oldissues2002-2003/answer.html|title=Questions and answers|publisher=''The Antarctic Sun''|accessdate=2006-02-09}}</ref> | |||
| ==Flora and fauna== | |||
| {{seealso|Antarctica ecozone}} | |||
| ===Flora=== | |||
| ]s are known in Antarctica.]] | |||
| {{main|Antarctic flora}} | |||
| The climate of Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor ] quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit the flourishing of plants. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly ]es and ]s. The ]ic community is made up of mostly ]s. The ] of the continent largely consists of ]s, ]s, ], and ]. Growth generally occurs in the summer, and only for a few weeks at most. | |||
| There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are ]. Multicolored ] and ] are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer. There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: '']'' (Antarctic hair grass) and '']'' (Antarctic pearlwort).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=5551|title=Antarctic Wildlife|publisher=Australian Government Antarctic Division|accessdate=2006-02-05}}</ref> | |||
| ===Fauna=== | |||
| Land ] is nearly completely ]. Invertebrate life includes ] ]s, ], ]s, ], ], ] and ]s. The flightless ] '']'', just 12 ] in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica. The ] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica. They have been seen at the ]. | |||
| ]s in ], Antarctica.]] | |||
| A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes ]s, ], ]s and ]s. The ] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica, while the ] breeds farther south than any other penguin. The ] has distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of elaborate eyelashes. ]s, ]s, and ]s also breed in the Antarctic. | |||
| The ] was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. The ], a "]", is named after ], commander of ] sealing expeditions in the ]. ], which congregates in large ], is the ] of the ] of the ], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, ]s, fur seals, ], ], penguins, ]es and many other birds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm|title=Creatures of Antarctica|accessdate=2006-02-06}}</ref> | |||
| The passing of the ] in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The ] of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on ]. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.<ref name="cia" /> Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of ], remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1492380.stm|title=Toothfish at risk from illegal catches|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2006-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=1539|title=Toothfish|publisher=Australian Government Antarctic Division|accessdate=2006-02-11}}</ref> | |||
| ==Politics== | |||
| ] | |||
| As the only uninhabited continent, Antarctica has no government and belongs to no country. Various countries claim areas of it, although as a rule, no other countries recognize such claims. The area between 90°W and 150°W is the only part of Antarctica, indeed the only solid land on Earth, not claimed by any country.<ref name="cia" /> | |||
| Since 1959, claims on Antarctica have been suspended and the continent is considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 ] and other related agreements, collectively called the ]. For the purposes of the Treaty System, Antarctica is defined as all land and ] south of 60°S. The treaty was signed by twelve countries, including the ] (and later ]), the ] and the ]. It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first ] agreement established during the ]. | |||
| The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any ], such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. Military personnel or equipment are permitted only for scientific research or for other peaceful purposes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scar.org/treaty/|title=''Antarctic Treaty''|publisher=Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research|accessdate=2006-02-09}}</ref> The only documented land military manoeuvre was ], undertaken by the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM|title=Argentina in Antarctica|publisher=Antarctica Institute of Argentina|accessdate=2006-02-09}}</ref> | |||
| The ] issues the ] to military members or civilians who perform research duty in Antarctica. The medal includes a "wintered over" bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/medals/antarc.htm|title=Antarctic Service Medal|publisher=U.S. Navy|accessdate=2006-02-09}}</ref> | |||
| ===Antarctic territories=== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{main|Antarctic territorial claims}} | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| !Country | |||
| !Territory | |||
| !Claim limits | |||
| !Date | |||
| |- | |||
| | {{flagcountry|Argentina}} | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor d Antarctic|25|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|74|W}} | |||
| | 1943 | |||
| |- | |||
| | {{flagcountry|Australia}} | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|W}} and {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|W}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}} | |||
| | 1933 | |||
| |- | |||
| | {{flagcountry|Chile}} | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor d Antarctic|53|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|90|W}} | |||
| | 1940 | |||
| |- | |||
| | {{flagcountry|France}} | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor dm Antarctic|142|2|E}} to {{coor dm Antarctic|136|11|E}} | |||
| | 1924 | |||
| |- | |||
| | {{flagcountry|New Zealand}} | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor d Antarctic|150|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|160|E}} | |||
| | 1923 | |||
| |- | |||
| | rowspan="2" | {{flagcountry|Norway}} | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor dm Antarctic|44|38|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}} | |||
| | 1939 | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor dm|68|50|S|90|35|W|}} | |||
| | 1929 | |||
| |- | |||
| | {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}} | |||
| | ] | |||
| | {{coor d Antarctic|20|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|80|W}} | |||
| | 1908 | |||
| |- | |||
| | None | |||
| | Unclaimed territory | |||
| | {{coor d Antarctic|90|W}} to {{coor d Antarctic|150|W}} | |||
| | | |||
| |} | |||
| The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap. ] has the greatest claim of Antarctic territory. | |||
| ] also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as ], between 1939 and 1945. It was situated from {{coor d Antarctic|20|E}} to {{coor d Antarctic|10|W}}, overlapping Norway's claim. The claim was abandoned after the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945. | |||
| ==Economy== | |||
| {{main|Economy of Antarctica}} | |||
| ] has led to several arrests. Pictured here is the ], a sister species.]] | |||
| Although ], ]s, ], ], ], ], ], ] and other minerals have been found, they have not been located in large enough quantities to exploit. The ] ] also restricts a struggle for resources. In ], a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year ], further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/AAimportance.htm|title=Importance of Antarctica|publisher=Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences|accessdate=2006-02-05}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Small-scale ] has existed since 1957 and is currently largely self-regulated by the ] (IAATO). However, not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO. Several ]s transport people to Antarctica to visit specific scenic locations. A total of 27,950 tourists visited in the 2004-05 Antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The number is predicted to increase to over 80,000 by ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iaato.org/tourism_stats.html|title=Tourism Statistics|publisher=International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators|accessdate=2006-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm|title=Politics of Antarctica|accessdate=2006-02-05}}</ref> There has been some recent concern over the adverse environmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx of visitors. A call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota have been made by some environmentalists and scientists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/main.jhtml?xml=/travel/2006/02/11/etnewsant.xml&sSheet=/travel/2006/02/11/ixtrvhome.html|title=''Tourism threatens Antarctic''|publisher=''Telegraph UK''|accessdate=2006-02-05}}</ref> Antarctic sight seeing flights (which did not land) operated out of Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of ] in ] on ], which killed all 257 aboard. ] resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s. | |||
| ==Transport== | |||
| {{main|Transport in Antarctica}} | |||
| Transport on the continent has transformed from heroic explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarctica on foot to a more open area due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport by land and predominantly air and water. | |||
| ==Research== | |||
| ] and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light for this photo to be taken at ] during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, the ] in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right. The green light in the background is the ].]] | |||
| {{seealso|List of research stations in Antarctica}} | |||
| Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct ]s not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4000 scientists operate ]s; this number decreases to nearly 1000 in the winter.<ref name="cia" /> ] is capable of housing more than 1000 scientists, visitors, and tourists. | |||
| Researchers include ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Geologists tend to study ], meteorites from ], and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent ]. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ], ], ]s, and ]s. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures. Astrophysicists at ] study the celestial dome and ]. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere, and low temperature, which minimizes the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest ] in the world, built 2 km below Amundsen-Scott station.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/science/index.shtml|title=Science in Antarctica|publisher=''Antarctic Connection''|accessdate=2006-02-04}}</ref> | |||
| Since the 1970s, an important focus of study has been the ] in the ] above Antarctica. In 1985, three British Scientists working on data they had gathered at ] on the ] discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. In 1998, ] satellite data showed that the Antarctic ] was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers. It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by ] emitted by human products. With the ban of CFCs in the ] of ], it is believed that the ozone hole will close up over the next fifty years. | |||
| ===Meteorites=== | |||
| ], from ].]] | |||
| ]s from Antarctica are an important area of study of material formed early in the ]; most are thought to come from ]s, but some may have originated on larger ]s. The first meteorites were found in 1912. In 1969, a Japanese expedition discovered nine meteorites. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ] in the last million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are well-preserved.<ref name="meteorite">{{cite web|url=http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm|title=Meteorites from Antarctica |publisher=NASA| accessdate=2006-02-09}}</ref> | |||
| This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly ] discovered by ], are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.<ref name="meteorite" /> | |||
| In 2006, a team of researchers from ] used gravity measurements by NASA's ] satellites to discover the 300-mile-wide ], which probably formed about 250 million years ago.<ref name="crater">{{cite web| url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/erthboom.htm| title=Big Bang in Antarctica -- Killer Crater Found Under Ice| publisher=Research News| first=Pam Frost| last=Gorder| year=June 1, 2006}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| '''Geographic regions''' | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| '''Geography''' | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] (Note: refers to permanent residents) | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| '''Geopolitics''' | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| '''Other''' | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * '']'', a ] natural history ] series on life on and around Antarctica | |||
| * The ], an ]n supply vessel. | |||
| ==References== | |||
| <!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/Cite/Cite.php --> | |||
| <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> | |||
| <references/> | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wikisource|CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Antarctica}} | |||
| {{sisterlinks|Antarctica}} | |||
| *, ''de facto'' government | |||
| *{{dmoz|Regional/Polar_Regions/Antarctic/|Antarctic region}} | |||
| * from the ] | |||
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Revision as of 10:02, 11 May 2007
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