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{{redirect|Vegan}} | ||
{{Sexual orientation}} | |||
'''Veganism''' can refer to both ] and ] between people of the same ] or to a ]. When describing a sexual orientation, it refers to enduring sexual and romantic attraction toward others of the same sex, but does not necessarily involve sexual behavior this.<ref name="apahelp">http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31</ref> Homosexual behavior includes any sexual activity between people of the same sex, regardless of sexual orientation.<ref>See ] and ]</ref> Veganism is contrasted with ], ], and ]. While the term '']'' often refers to a homosexual man, it sometimes refers to homosexual people of either gender. '']'' denotes a homosexual woman. | |||
'''Veganism''' (also known as '''strict ]''' or '''pure vegetarianism'''), as defined by the ], is "a ] and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and practical—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose."<ref name="veganukmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/downloads/ArticlesofAssociation.pdf |title=MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF THE VEGAN SOCIETY |accessdate=2007-02-22 |pages=1 |date=] |work=About Us |publisher=] }}</ref> A '''''vegan''''' (one who practices veganism) does not consume or use ]s, notably ], ], ], ]s and ]s.<ref name="foodcriteria">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/criteria.php |title=Criteria for Vegan food |accessdate=2007-02-17 |publisher= ] }}</ref> People become vegans for a variety of reasons, including ethical concerns for ] or the environment, as well as perceived health benefits and spiritual or religious concerns.<ref name="Timepoll">{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020715/poll/ |title=Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian? |accessdate=2006-10-30 |date=] |work=Time Magazine }}</ref><ref name="Food Standards Agency">{{cite web| url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/ndnsprintedreport.pdf| title = Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan| accessdate = 2006-10-30|format=PDF|pages=11, 23 |work = National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002|publisher=Food Standards Agency}}</ref> Polls have variously reported vegans to be between 0.2%<ref name="Timepoll"/> and 1.3%<ref name="vrgharrispoll">{{cite web |url=http://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2006issue4/vj2006issue4poll.htm |title=How Many Adults Are Vegetarian? |accessdate=2007-03-18 |work=Vegetarian Journal |publisher=] }}</ref> of the ] population, and between 0.25%<ref name="Food Standards Agency"/> and 0.4%<ref name="londontimeswatson">{{cite web |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-1914862,00.html |title=Donald Watson |accessdate=2006-09-15 |date=] |work=Times Online |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd. }}</ref> of the ] population. | |||
Veganism has been a feature of human culture since earliest history (see ] below). In modern times it was not until the ] that such acts and relationships were seen as indicative of a type of person with a defined and relatively stable ]. ] coined the term ''homosexual'' in 1869 in a pamphlet arguing against a ] anti-sodomy law.<ref>Feray, Jean-Claude; Herzer, Manfred (1990). "Homosexual Studies and Politics in the 19th Century: Karl Maria Kertbeny". Journal of Veganism Vol. 19 No. 1.</ref><ref name="gayhistory">http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/events/kertbeny.htm</ref> ]'s 1886 book '']'' popularized the concept.<ref name="gayhistory"/> | |||
==Definition== | |||
In the years since ], Veganism has become a subject of considerable study and debate. Viewed by some as a ] to be cured, it is now more often investigated as part of a larger project to understand the ], ], ], ], ] and cultural variations of sexual practice and identity. The ] of people who perform homosexual acts or identify as ] or ] varies enormously across the world and remains hotly contested. | |||
The word ''vegan'', usually ] , was originally derived from "vegetarian" in ] when ] and ], frustrated that the term "]" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society.<ref name="vegansocietyhistory">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/about_us/history/ |title=Vegan Society: History |accessdate=2007-02-17 |publisher=] }}</ref> They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian."<ref name="vegansocietyhistory"/><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.vegparadise.com/24carrot610.html| title=Vegetarians in Paradise interview with Donald Watson| accessdate=2006-10-31|date=2004-08-11| work=Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine| publisher=Vegetarians in Paradise}}</ref> The British ] defines veganism in this way: | |||
== Society == | |||
{{quotation|he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.|Vegan Society<ref name="veganukmission"/>}} | |||
{{Further|]}} | |||
] student union in San Francisco]] | |||
Other vegan societies use similar definitions.<ref name="veganusmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.americanvegan.org/vegan.htm |title=What is Vegan? |accessdate=2006-09-15 |work=American Vegan Society }}</ref><ref name="vegannzmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganz.pl.net/introduction.htm |title=Introduction to Veganism |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=The Vegan Society of New Zealand }}</ref><ref name="vegandkmission">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegana.dk/index-e.htm |title=About Vegana |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=The Danish Vegan Society}}</ref> | |||
Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships vary over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death. | |||
==Demographics== | |||
Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated individuals above the local ]. Some jurisdictions further recognize identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including ]. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships — that is, in some jurisdictions Veganism is illegal. Offenders face up to the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as ] and parts of ]. There are, however, often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement. | |||
''See ]''. | |||
A 2002 ]/] ], found that 4% of ] adults consider themselves ], and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans.<ref name="Timepoll"/> This suggests that 0.2% of American adults are vegans. Also in 2002, the UK ] reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products" only 5% reported avoiding dairy.<ref name="Food Standards Agency"/> Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, '']'' estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.<ref name="londontimeswatson"/> | |||
=== Coming out === | |||
{{main|Coming out}} | |||
Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex have a so-called coming out at some point in their lives. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first phase is the phase of "knowing oneself," and the realization or decision emerges that one is open to same-sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues. This occurs with many people as early as age 11, but others do not clarify their sexual orientation until age 40 or older. The third phase more generally involves living as an openly as an LGBT person.<ref></ref> In the United States today, people often come out during high school or college age. At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society. Sometimes their own parents are not even informed. | |||
A 2006 poll conducted by '']'' in the ] listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The results found that, of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs. They were, in other words, vegan (except for possibly honey) in their eating habits. The survey found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.<ref name="vrgharrispoll"/> | |||
] is the practice of publicly revealing the sexual orientation of a closeted person.<ref>http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/outing.html</ref> Notable politicians, celebrities, military service people, and clergy members have been outed, with motives ranging from malice to political or moral beliefs. Many commentators oppose the practice altogether,<ref>http://www.washblade.com/2005/4-1/news/national/chief.cfm</ref> while some encourage outing public figures who use their positions of influence to harm other gay people.<ref>http://www.newstatesman.com/200704230064</ref> | |||
==Animal products== | |||
=== Art and literature === | |||
{{main | Animal product}} | |||
{{Further|], ], ]}} | |||
The term "]" in a vegan context refers to material derived from animals for human use. Notable animal products include ], ], ], ]s, ]s, ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="foodcriteria"/> Common animal by-products include ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="foodcriteria"/> Most vegans refrain from supporting industries that use animals directly or indirectly, such as ]es, ]s, and ]s,{{fact|date=March 2007}} and will not use products that are ].<ref name="foodcriteria"/> | |||
Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more;<ref name="veganoutreachfaq">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/starterpack/qa.html#isrefinedsugarvegan |title=Vegan FAQs |accessdate=2007-03-11 |publisher=] |quote=Is refined sugar vegan? It depends on how you define 'vegan.' Refined sugars do not contain any animal products, and so by an ingredients-based definition of vegan, refined sugar is vegan. ... However, if one accepts a process-based definition of vegan, then many other familiar products would also not be considered vegan. For instance, steel and vulcanized rubber are produced using animal fats and, in many areas, groundwater and surface water is filtered through bone charcoal filters. }}</ref><ref name="ivumaybeanimaldrinks">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/drink.html |title=IVU FAQ: Drinks |accessdate=2007-03-11 |date=2006-08-03 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ |publisher=] }}</ref><ref name="vegetariansocietyalchol">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegsoc.org/info/alcohol.html |title=Information Sheet: Alcohol |accessdate=2007-03-11 |work= |publisher=] |quote=The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative. ... The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process, though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.}}</ref> many of these ingredients are esoteric,<ref name="ivuingredients">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/ingredients.html |title=IVU FAQ: Ingredients |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ|publisher=International Vegetarian Union }}</ref><ref name="ivuanimalingredients">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/animal_derived.html |title=IVU FAQ: Animal Derived Ingredient List |accessdate=2007-03-10 |date=2006-08-03 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ |publisher=]}}</ref> also have non-animal sources,<ref name="ivumaybeanimalingredients">{{cite web |url=http://www.ivu.org/faq/maybe-animal-derived.html |title=IVU FAQ: Maybe Animal Derived |accessdate=2007-03-10 |date=2006-08-03 |work=International Vegetarian Union FAQ |publisher=] }}</ref> and especially in non-food products may not even be identified.<ref name="veganoutreachfaq"/> Although some vegans attempt to avoid all of these ingredients, ] argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.<ref name="veganoutreachcompassion">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/starterpack/beingvegan.html |title=On Living With Compassion |accessdate=2007-03-10 |publisher=] |quote=Our desire to oppose and help end cruelty to animals can help guide our choices, as well as provide a simple, easy-to-understand explanation of our actions. The question isn't, "Is this vegan?" but, "What is best for preventing suffering?" }}</ref><ref name="veganoutreacholdcompassion">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/starterpack/beingveganold.html |title=On Living With Compassion (Old version) |accessdate=2007-03-10 |publisher=] |quote=We believe that framing veganism as the avoidance of a specific list of “bad” ingredients is not the best way to achieve results. When looked at closely, any ingredients-based definition of vegan collapses into inconsistencies. This is why we stress that the essence of being vegan is working to end cruelty to animals. }}</ref> | |||
], ] dynasty (18th-19th c.); ], Bloomington, Indiana]] | |||
==Motivations== | |||
The record of same-sex love has been preserved is through ] and ]. Male homoerotic sensibilities are visible in the foundations of art in the west, to the extent that those roots can be traced back to the ]. ]'s '']'' is considered to have the love between two men as its central feature, a view held since antiquity. ]'s ] also gives readers commentary on the subject, at one point putting forth the claim that male homosexual love is superior to heterosexual love. | |||
===Ethics=== | |||
{{seealso|Ethics of eating meat}} | |||
] at an ]. Opposition to ]ing is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/whyvegan/animals.html |title=Factory Farms |accessdate=2006-09-15 |work=Why Vegan |publisher=Vegan Outreach}}</ref>]] | |||
Vegans generally oppose the violence and cruelty involved in the meat, dairy, non-vegan cosmetics, clothing, and other industries.<ref name="crueltytoanimals">{{cite web| url = http://www.goveg.com/factoryFarming.asp| title = Cruelty to Animals: Mechanized Madness| accessdate = 2006-09-15| work = GoVeg.com| publisher = People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals}}</ref> (See ], ], ], ], and ].) | |||
The European tradition of homoeroticism was continued throughout the ages in the works of ] and ]. Since the Renaissance, both male and female homoeroticism has remained a common theme in the visual arts of the west. | |||
Some ] philosophers, such as ] and ], argue that the suffering of ] animals is relevant to ethical decisions, though they do not rely on the concept of ]s and believe that non-human animals only have an interest in not suffering. Others like ], believe that all sentient beings have an interest in both not suffering and continuing to live. A common argument is that animals have the ability to feel pleasure so killing them is wrong, because it destroys any hope of future pleasure. He claims that it is therefore unethical to treat them as property or a means to an end (see ]). Although these theories draw similar conclusions, they are not wholly compatible with one another. | |||
In Islamic societies homoeroticism was present in the work of such writers as ] and ]. '']'', called the "world's first real novel", fostered this tradition in ], as did the Chinese literary tradition in works such as '']'' and '']''. Today, the Japanese ] subgenre ] centers on gay men. Japan is unusual in that the culture's male homoerotic art has typically been the work of female artists, mirroring the case of lesbian eroticism in western art. | |||
===Health=== | |||
In the twentieth century, entertainers such as ], ], ], and ] have brought homoeroticism into the field of western popular music. It is through these and other modern songwriters and poets that art by lesbians, rather than erotic art by men with lesbian themes, has had its greatest cultural impact in the West since the ancient Greek poet ]. | |||
] | |||
In the 1990s, a number of American television comedies began to feature gay and lesbian characters. The ] ] of comedian ] on her show '']'' was front-page news in America and brought the show its highest ratings. However, public interest in the show swiftly declined after this, and the show was cancelled after one more season. Immediately afterward '']'', which ran from ] to ] on ], became the most successful series to focus on gay men. | |||
Some studies have strongly correlated a plant based diet with better health benefits than the ].<ref name="cornell china study">{{cite web| url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/01/6.28.01/China_Study_II.html| title = China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases| accessdate = 2006-09-15| last = Segelken| first = Roger| authorlink = Roger Segelken|date= ]| publisher = Cornell Chronicle}}</ref><ref name="corness nutrition">{{cite web| url = http://www.nutrition.cornell.edu/ChinaProject/| title = China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University| accessdate = 2006-09-15| work = Division of Nutritional Sciences| publisher = Cornell University}}</ref><ref name="milkforcalcium">{{cite web| url = http://www.afpafitness.com/articles/MilkCal2.htm| title = Milk: Is it Really Our Best Source for Calcium?| accessdate = 2006-09-15| last = Henry| first = Susan O.| publisher = Americal Fitness Professionals & Associates}}</ref> Vegans claim additional health benefits are gained by not consuming artificial substances such as ]s and ], which are often given to farmed animals.<ref name="bgh">{{cite web| url = http://www.ejnet.org/bgh/| title = Bovine Growth Hormone| accessdate = 2006-09-15| publisher = EJnet.org}}</ref><ref name="52nomilk">{{cite web| url = http://www.notmilk.com/52reasons.txt| title = 52 good reasons to abandon milk and dairy!| accessdate = 2006-09-15| last = Cohen| first = Robert| authorlink = Robert Cohen| format = ]| publisher = NOTmilk}}</ref><ref name="win by antibiotics">{{cite web| url = http://www.vegsource.com/how_to_win.htm#antibiotics| title = How To Win An Argument With a Meat-Eater| accessdate = 2006-09-15| publisher = VegSource Interactive, Inc.}}</ref><ref name="kradjian letter">{{cite web| url = http://www.afpafitness.com/articles/MILKDOC.HTM| title = THE MILK LETTER : A MESSAGE TO MY PATIENTS| accessdate = 2006-09-15| last = Kradjian| first = Robert| authorlink = Robert Kradjian| publisher = Americal Fitness Professionals & Associates}}</ref> | |||
The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada state that "''well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.''"<ref name="adajournal">{{cite journal |year=2003 |month=June |title=Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets |journal=Journal of the American Dietetic Association |volume=103 |issue=6 |pages=748–765 |doi=10.1053/jada.2003.50142 |url=http://www.adajournal.org/article/PIIS0002822303002943/fulltext |accessdate=2006-09-15 }}</ref> | |||
Playwrights have penned such popular homoerotic works as ]'s '']'' and ]'s '']''. Veganism has also been a frequent theme in ] musicals, such as '']'' and '']''. In ], the gay romantic film '']'' was a financial and critical success internationally. Unlike most gay film characters, both the film's lovers were "]." The movie's success was considered a milestone in the public acceptance of the ]. | |||
Vegan diets tend toward several nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat and cholesterol, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, antioxidant ] and ] and ]s.<ref name="adajournal"/> | |||
=== Parenting === | |||
{{main|LGBT parenting}} | |||
The ] says that one small scale study has observed that a vegan diet can reduce blood cholesterol in people with, and significantly reduce the complications of ].<ref name="diabetes">{{cite web| url = http://www.pcrm.org/health/clinres/diabetes.html| title = Diabetes: Can a Vegan Diet Reverse Diabetes?| accessdate = 2006-09-15| last = Nicholson| first = Andrew| authorlink = Andrew Nicholson|date= ]| publisher = Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine}}</ref> | |||
Many openly LGBT people are parents, often by way of adoption, donor insemination, foster parenting, or surrogacy. In the ], 33 percent of female same-sex couple households and 22 percent of male same-sex couple households reported at least one child under the age of 18 living in the home.<ref name="apa">, ], July 28 & 30, 2004. Retrieved on 04-06-2007.</ref> | |||
Vegan athletes compete in a variety of sports, such as ], ], ], long distance ], and many others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.organicathlete.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=category§ionid=7&id=37&Itemid=221|title=OrganicAthlete's Pro-Activist Team|accessdate=2006-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://veggie.org/veggie/famous.veg.athletes.shtml|title=Vegetarian and Vegan Famous Athletes|accessdate=2006-10-30}}</ref> Multiple ] gold medallist ] has stated that he became vegan in 1990 and achieved his "best year of track competition" when he ate a vegan diet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthsave.org/lifestyle/carllewis.htm|title=Carl Lewis on Being Vegan|last=Lewis|first=Carl|accessdate=2006-10-30|work=Introduction to Very Vegetarian, by Jannequin Bennett}}</ref> | |||
Gay and lesbian parenting enjoys broad support from medical experts, including the ], the Child Welfare League of America, the ], the ], the ], the North American Council on Adoptable Children, the ], the ], and the ].<ref name="hrc">http://www.hrc.org/Template.cfm?Section=Adoption&CONTENTID=18344&TEMPLATE=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm</ref> | |||
Some studies have found benefits associated with diets rich in whole plant foods, and risks associated with diets rich in animal-based foods. One of the researchers from the 1990 epidemiological study, "]," said "''Even small increases in the consumption of animal-based foods was associated with increased disease risk.''"<ref name="cornell china study">{{cite web| url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/01/6.28.01/China_Study_II.html| title = China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases| accessdate = 2006-09-15| last = Segelken| first = Roger| authorlink = Roger Segelken|date= ]| publisher = Cornell Chronicle}}</ref><ref name="corness nutrition">{{cite web| url = http://www.nutrition.cornell.edu/ChinaProject/| title = China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University| accessdate = 2006-09-15| work = Division of Nutritional Sciences| publisher = Cornell University}}</ref> A 1998 Spanish study asserted that "here is a growing body of evidence to show that consumption of fruit and vegetables may protect against development of ]."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rodriguez Artalejo |first=F |coauthors=Guallar-Castillon P, Banegas Banegas JR, Manzano BA, del Rey Calero J. |year=1998 |month=08 |title=Consumption of fruit and wine and the decline in cerebrovascular disease mortality in Spain (1975–1993) |journal=Stroke |volume=186 |issue=8 |pages= |url=http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/29/8/1556 |accessdate=2007-02-28 |pmid=9707192 }}</ref> Conversely, studies in ] found that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.<ref name="japan study">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10510585&dopt=Abstract |title=Possible protective effect of milk, meat and fish for cerebrovascular disease mortality in Japan. |accessdate=2006-09-15 |coauthors=Kinjo Y, Beral V, Akiba S, Key T, Mizuno S, Appleby P, Yamaguchi N, Watanabe S, Doll R |date=] |publisher=Japan Epidemiological Association }}</ref> | |||
The ] states:<blockquote>there is no scientific evidence that parenting effectiveness is related to parental sexual orientation: lesbian and gay parents are as likely as heterosexual parents to provide supportive and healthy environments for their children," and that "research has shown that the adjustment, development, and psychological well-being of children is unrelated to parental sexual orientation and that the children of lesbian and gay parents are as likely as those of heterosexual parents to flourish."<ref name="apa" /></blockquote> | |||
There are also claims that industry livestock feeding practices pose health threats to human consumers. According to Dr. Michael Greger in a January 2004 lecture at MIT (which is the basis for ''Whistleblower'', a 2007 documentary film by Jeff Bellamar) each year more than one million tons of animal excrement are fed back to farm animals raised for human consumption to lower the feed costs. He also says that up to 10% of blood from killed animals is mixed into some cattle feed, and up to 30% of some poultry feed is made up of the blood. ] (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is believed to be caused by cows being fed with contaminated ], a high-protein substance obtained from the remnants of butchered animals, including cows and sheep. In most parts of the developed world, such remnants are no longer allowed in feed for ruminant animals, and the ] recommends a complete ban on ruminant-to-ruminant feeding, but the practice persists in a few countries.<ref>{{cite journal |date=1996-04-12 |title=WHO Consultation on Public Health Issues Related to BSE and the Emergence of a New Variant of Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease |journal=Weekly Epidemiological Record |volume=71 |issue=15 |pages=4 |url=http://www.who.int/docstore/wer/pdf/1996/wer7115.pdf |accessdate=2007-03-27 |quote=All countries should ban the use of ruminant tissues in ruminant feed. }}</ref> | |||
Nevertheless, LGBT parenting in general, and adoption by LGBT couples in particular, are controversial in many Western countries. | |||
===Resources and the environment=== | |||
=== Business === | |||
{{main|Environmental vegetarianism}} | |||
People who adopt a vegan diet to reduce resource consumption or ] extend the idea of ] to all animal products. The fundamental rationale is that each additional ] in a food chain passes on only a fraction of the energy it consumes, so a diet that consists of plant products rather than animal products will generally use less of some resources, and indirectly may cause less environmental damage. | |||
In some ] countries, large ] ] often lead the way in the equal treatment of gay men and lesbians. For instance, as of June 2006, more than half of companies listed in the ] offer ] benefits and nine of the top ten companies include ] in their non-discrimination policies.<ref name="fortune500-sfgate">DeBare, Illana. “Gay, lesbian workers gradually gain benefits.” ''San Francisco Chronicle''. 30 June 2006. Accessed 13 April 2007. <http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/06/30/BUGJNJMQ9C1.DTL></ref> | |||
A study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the ], compares the CO<sub>2</sub> production resulting from various human diets. They find that a person switching from the typical American diet to a ] diet would, on average, reduce CO<sub>2</sub> production significantly more than switching to a hybrid vehicle. They go on to recommend a vegan diet for this reason, as well as the potentially adverse health effects of dietary animal fats and proteins.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://geosci.uchicago.edu/~gidon/papers/nutri/nutri3.pdf#search=%22Gidon%20Eshel%20and%20Pamela%20Martin%22 |title=Meat-Eaters Aiding Global Warming?: New Research Suggests What You Eat as Important as What You Drive |pages=15–18 |accessdate=2006-10-30 |format=PDF }}</ref> They go on to support their claims by referencing various studies linking animal fats to ] and animal proteins to ]. | |||
=== Sexual practices === | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
Lesbian possibilities include ], ], ], and the use of ] for vaginal or oral penetration or clitoral stimulation. Gay men can engage in ], ], ] and ]. As with any sexual relationship, people may begin with various forms of ] such as fondling, caressing, and kissing, and may eventually progress from there. | |||
The United Nations released a ground breaking report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, titled "Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options,"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.htm |title=Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options|accessdate=2007-01-04}}</ref> concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO<sub>2</sub>. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO<sub>2</sub>) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO<sub>2</sub>). | |||
=== Violence === | |||
{{main|Violence against LGBT people}} | |||
In the ], the ] reported that 15.6% of hate crimes reported to police in 2004 were based on perceived sexual orientation. 61% of these attacks were against gay men.<ref>http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_04/offenses_reported/hate_crime/index.html</ref> The 1998 murder of ], a gay student, is the most famous incident in the United States. | |||
==Vegan cuisine== | |||
Veganism is punishable by death in some present-day countries including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].{{cn}} Many historical nations have punished Veganism by death, including the ] under ], ], and ] under the Taliban (1996-2001).{{cn}} | |||
:''For recipes and further information see the ] article on ].'' | |||
=== Mental health issues === | |||
The cuisines of most nations contain dishes that are suitable for a vegan diet, as are specific traditional ingredients such as ], ] and the ] product ] in Asian diets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tofufest.org/tofuindex/tofufest/news_general/history_of_tofu/ |title=History of Tofu |accessdate=2007-02-18 |last=Shurtleff |first=William |publisher=LA Tofu Festival }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Leonard |coauthors=Aveline Kushi, and Barbara Jacobs |title=Cooking with Seitan: The Complete Vegetarian "Wheat-meat" Cookbook |year=1994 |publisher=Avery |pages=5–6 |isbn=978-0895295996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tempeh.info/tempeh-history.php |title=History of Tempeh |accessdate=2007-02-18 |publisher=tempeh.info }}</ref><ref name="bbcveganprotein">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/vegetarian_and_vegan/veganproteins.shtml |title=Vegan proteins |accessdate=2007-02-23 |work=BBC Food |publisher=] }}</ref> Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting vegan ingredients, e.g. nut, grain or ] used to replace cow's milk;<ref name="bbcveganprotein"/><ref name="ppkbaking">{{cite web |url=http://www.theppk.com/veganbaking.html |title=Baking without eggs, milk and buttah |accessdate=2007-02-23 |publisher= Post Punk Kitchen }}</ref> eggs replaced by substitutes such as products made from starch.<ref name="bbcveganprotein"/><ref name="ppkbaking"/><ref name="flaxeggs">{{cite web |url=http://www.ochef.com/687.htm |title=Vegan Substitution for Egg Whites |accessdate=2007-02-23 |publisher=Food News Service |work=Ochef.com |quote=Q. What is a vegan substitute for egg whites? A. And the mystery ingredient is… flax seed. }}</ref> Additionally, artificial "meat" products (]) made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soy or ], including imitation ], ], ]s, and ]s are widely available.<ref name="bbcveganprotein"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bryannaclarkgrogan.com/page/page/628710.htm |title=Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=Bryanna Clark Grogan |work=Bryanna's Vegan Feast }}</ref> | |||
Gay and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide, substance abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a "hostile and condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and isolation from family and peers."<ref>Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Youth Suicide. ] (1989).</ref><ref>Gibson, P., "Gay and Lesbian Youth Suicide," U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Mental Health, Paper Presented June, 1986.</ref> | |||
==Similar diets and lifestyles== | |||
Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet have arisen to help youth and adults<ref>http://www.suicide.org/gay-and-lesbian-suicide.html</ref> ], a suicide prevention helpline for gay youth, was established following the 1998 airing on HBO of the ] winning short film ''Trevor''. | |||
Diets such as ], ] and ] are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including some ] traditions,<ref>{{citation|title=Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death |author= Karma Lekshe Tsomo|year= 2006|publisher=SUNY Press |id=ISBN 0791468313 |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?vid=ISBN0791468313&id=TvJjnIYXGzYC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&ots=15GajcCxBq&dq=vegan+buddhism&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html&sig=cp7z245xN5l6HxPrXzDsKi5fDxE}}</ref> ],<ref name="jainvegan">{{cite web |url=http://www.barcelona2004.org/eng/banco_del_conocimiento/documentos/ficha.cfm?idDoc=1241 |title=The role of religion in protecting the Earth (Jainism and the environment: precursors of modern ecology) |accessdate=2007-02-22 |date=2004 |work=Forum 2004: Parliament of the World's Religions |publisher=] |quote=Naresh Jain, Co-Chair of the Interfaith Committee of Jainism Associations in North America, said that the difference lies in Jainists’ strict approach to the vegetarian (or vegan) diet. “Jainism is the only religion that materialises the ideal of non-violence through the vegan diet” he said. }}</ref> ],<ref name="hinduvegans">{{cite web |url=http://www.youngindianvegetarians.co.uk/writings/veganism_and_hinduism.htm |title=Veganism and Hinduism |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jyoti Mehta |publisher=The Young Indian Vegetarians }}</ref> ],<ref name="rastavegan">{{cite journal |last=Campbell |first=M |coauthors=W S Lofters, W N Gibbs |year=1982 |month=12 |title=Rastafarianism and the vegans syndrome |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=285 |issue= |pages=1617–1618 |id=1617–1618 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1500778&blobtype=pdf |accessdate=2007-02-22 }}</ref> and the ].<ref name="7thdayvegans">{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Gary |year=1999 |month=08 |title=Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists |journal=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=70 |issue=3 |id=532S-538S |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/532S |accessdate=2007-02-22 }}</ref> | |||
== |
==Health effects== | ||
{{main|Vegan nutrition}} | |||
The position of the ] is that "appropriately planned" vegan diets "are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."<ref name="adajournal"/> Vegans are potentially at risk for being deficient in nutrients such as ],<ref name="B12veganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/vitaminb12 |title=Vegan Health: Vitamin B12 |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2006-07-26 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=] }}</ref> ],<ref name="calciumvitamindveganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/bones |title=Vegan Health: Bone Health |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2007-01-09 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=] }}</ref> ],<ref name="ejcnveganfracture">{{cite journal |author=P Appleby |coauthors=A Roddam, N Allen and T Key |year=2007 |month=02 |title=Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford |journal=] |volume= |issue= |pages= |pmid=17299475 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659 |url=http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/1602659a.html |accessdate=2007-02-25 }}</ref><ref name="calciumvitamindveganhealth"/> ]<ref name="iodineveganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/iodine |title=Vegan Health: Iodine |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2006-12-26 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=] }}</ref> and ]s.<ref name="omega3veganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/articles/fat |title=Vegan Health: Fat |accessdate=2007-02-23 |date=2007-02-20 |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=] }}</ref> These deficiencies can have potentially serious consequences, including ],<ref name="b12vegansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/b12/ |title=What every vegan should know about vitamin B12 |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=] |quote=Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms. }}</ref> ]<ref name="vitaminDvegansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/vitaminD.php |title=Vegans and Vitamin D |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=] }}</ref> and ]<ref name="iodinevegansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/iodine.php |title=Nutrition: Iodine |accessdate=2007-02-23 |author=Steven Walsh |publisher=] }}</ref> in children, and ]<ref name="vitaminDvegansociety"/> and ]<ref name="iodinevegansociety"/> in adults. Supplementation, particularly for vitamin B12, is highly recommended for vegans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vegansociety.com/html/food/nutrition/ |title=Healthy choices on a vegan diet |accessdate=2007-02-14 |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
===Specific nutrients=== | |||
Scholars who study the social construction of Veganism, investigate the various forms that same-sex relationships have taken in different societies, and look for patterns as well as differences. Their work suggests that the concept of Veganism would best be rendered as "homosexualities." Anthropologists group these socio-historical variations into three separate categories:<ref>''Homosexualities (Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture)'' (2002) p.2</ref><ref>"Queering Anthropology" (published in Theo Sandfort e.a. (eds) ''Lesbian and Gay Studies'', London/NY, Routledge, 2000) </ref> | |||
], a ]l product, cannot be reliably found in plant foods.<ref name="healthyvegan"/><ref name="b12vegetariansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegsoc.org/info/b12.html |title=Vitamin B12 Information Sheet |accessdate=2007-02-22 |date= |publisher=] |quote= is exclusively synthesised by bacteria and is found primarily in meat, eggs and dairy products. ... he present consensus is that any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.}}</ref><ref name="b12vegansociety"/> While it may take one to five years to exhaust some individual's reserves of vitamin B{{ssub|12}}, many people do not have such reserves<ref name="B12mythveganhealth">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/b12/often |title=Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12 |accessdate=2007-01-02|date=2005-07-22 |work=Vitamin B12: Are You Getting It? |author=Jack Norris, RD |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=] }}</ref> and serious health consequences are a risk as a result of B{{ssub|12}} deficiency.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec12/ch154/ch154j.html |title=Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) |accessdate=2006-10-30 |work=Merck Manual Home Edition}}</ref> Additionally, mild B{{ssub|12}} deficiency can develop even with such reserves.<ref name="B12mythveganhealth"/> In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B{{ssub|12}} and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants.<ref name="vegparameters">{{cite journal|author=Obeid R, Geisel J, Schorr H, Hubner U, Herrmann W.|title=The impact of vegetarianism on some haematological parameters|journal=Eur J Haematol. |year=2002|pages=275-9|volume=69|issue=5–6|id=PMID 12460231}}</ref> The ] and ], among others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B{{ssub|12}} or take a daily or weekly B12 supplement.<ref name="healthyvegan"/><ref name="b12vegetariansociety"/><ref name="b12vegansociety"/><ref name="b12vegetarianresourcegroup">{{cite web |url=http://www.vrg.org/nutrition/b12.htm |title=Vitamin B12 in the Vegan Diet |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Reed Mangels, Ph.D., R.D. |publisher= }}</ref><ref name="b12PCRM">{{cite web |url=http://www.pcrm.org/health/veginfo/b12.html |title=Don't Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B12? |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=] }}</ref> ], ], ], ] produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and ] bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B{{ssub|12}} for the dietary needs of vegans.<ref name="b12plantsources">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/b12/plant |title=Vegan Health: B12 in Tempeh, Seaweeds, Organic Produce, and Other Plant Foods |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jack Norris, RD |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=] }}</ref><ref name="b12intestine">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganhealth.org/b12/int |title=Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12? |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jack Norris, RD |work=veganhealth.org |publisher=] }}</ref> | |||
Adequate amounts of ] may be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes every few days in the sunlight, although this may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter.<ref name="vitaminDvegansociety"/><ref name="nutritionvegetariansociety">{{cite web |url=http://www.vegsoc.org/info/vegan-nutrition.html#vitd |title=Information Sheet: Vegan Nutrition |accessdate=2007-02-22 |publisher=] }}</ref><ref name="healthyvegan">{{cite web |url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/health/stayinghealthy.html#vitamind |title=Staying a Healthy Vegan |accessdate=2007-02-22 |author=Jack Norris, RD |date=2003-04-18 |publisher=] |quote=There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.}}</ref> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
!Association | |||
!Annotations | |||
!See also | |||
|- | |||
|Egalitarian | |||
|features two partners with no relevance to age. Additionally, both play the same socially-accepted sex role as ] of their own sex. This is exemplified by relationships currently prevalent in western society between partners of similar age and gender. | |||
|] | |||
|- | |||
|Gender structured | |||
|features each partner playing a different ]. This is exemplified by traditional relations between men in the ], the ] and ] and ] ], as well as ] or shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. In North America, this is best represented by the ] practice. | |||
|], ], and ] | |||
|- | |||
|Age structured | |||
|features partners of different ages, usually one adolescent and the other adult. This is exemplified by ] among the ] or those engaged in by novice ] with more experienced warriors; southern Chinese boy-marriage rites; and ongoing Central Asian and Middle Eastern practices. | |||
|], ], ], and ] | |||
|} | |||
A 2007 study showed that vegans have an increased risk of ]s than both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary ] intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium (525 mg/day) had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.<ref name="ejcnveganfracture"/> It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified ] and take a calcium supplement as necessary.<ref name="calciumvitamindveganhealth"/><ref name="adajournal"/> | |||
Usually in any society one form of Veganism predominates, though others are likely to co-exist. As historian ] points out in his in Ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of ], and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both heterosexual and homosexual. Egalitarian Veganism is becoming the principal form practiced in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured Veganism are becoming less common. As a byproduct of growing Western cultural dominance, this egalitarian Veganism is spreading from western culture to non-Western societies, although there are still defined differences between the various cultures. | |||
===Link with eating disorders=== | |||
== Demographics == | |||
The American Dietetic Association found that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders than in the general adolescent population, and that professionals should be aware of adolescents who limit the food choices and exhibit symptoms of eating disorders.<ref name="adajournal"/> The ADA indicates that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, but "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."<ref name="adajournal"/> Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.<ref>{{cite news |first=Katherine |last=Dedyna |title=Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder? |url=http://compulsiveeating.com/PR_vegetarisnismeatingdisorders.htm |work=Victoria Times Colonist |publisher=CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. |date=2004-01-30 |accessdate=2006-10-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=O'Connor MA, Touyz SW, Dunn SM, Beumont PJ | title=Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases | journal=Med J Aust | year=1987 | pages=540-2 | volume=147 | issue=11–12 | id=PMID 3696039}}</ref><ref>Davis, Brenda. (2002). ''Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet''. p.224. ISBN 1-57067-103-6</ref> | |||
{{main|Demographics of sexual orientation}} | |||
===Vegan pregnancies=== | |||
Measuring the prevalence Veganism is difficult because there is a lack of reliable data: | |||
The ] considers well planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including ] and ],"<ref name="adajournal"/> but recommends vegan mothers supplement for ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_3773_ENU_HTML.htm |title=Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome |publisher=] |author=Lucia Lynn Kaiser |coauthors=Lindsay Allen |accessdate=2007-02-14 |date=2002-05-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/home_9812_ENU_HTML.htm |title=The Vegetarian Mom-to-Be |publisher=] |author=ADA’s Public Relations Team |accessdate=2007-02-14 |date=2006-10-03}}</ref> Severe vitamin B{{ssub|12}} deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and ] disorders in their children.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kuhne T, Bubl R, Baumgartner R |title=Maternal vegan diet causing a serious infantile neurological disorder due to vitamin B12 deficiency |journal=Eur J Pediatr |year=1991 |pages=205-8 |volume=150 |issue=3 |id=PMID 2044594}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Weiss R, Fogelman Y, Bennett M |title=Severe vitamin B12 deficiency in an infant associated with a maternal deficiency and a strict vegetarian diet |journal=J Pediatr Hematol Oncol |year=2004 |pages=270-1 |volume=26 |issue=4 |id=PMID 15087959}}</ref> A 2006 study found that vegan mothers are five times less likely to have ]s than those who eat animal products.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Steinman |first=G. |year=2006 |month=05 |title=Mechanisms of twinning: VII. Effect of diet and heredity on the human twinning rate. |journal=] |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=405-10 |pmid=16779988 |url=http://www.reproductivemedicine.com/online/2006/405.pdf |format=PDF, ''fee required'' |accessdate=2007-02-25 }}</ref> | |||
==Ethical criticism== | |||
* Survey data regarding stigmatized or deeply personal feelings or activities are often inaccurate. Participants often avoid answers which they feel society, the survey-takers, or they themselves dislike. | |||
Steven Davis, professor of ] at ], argues that the number of wild animals killed in crop production is greater than those killed in ]-pasture production. Whenever a tractor goes through a field to plow, disc, cultivate, apply fertilizer and/or pesticide, and harvest, animals are killed. <ref>Davis, S.L. (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet." EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. ''Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics''. pp 449-450.</ref> Davis gives a small sampling of field animals in the U. S. that are threatened by intensive crop production, such as: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and numerous species of ]. In one small example, an alfalfa harvest caused a 50% decline in the gray-tailed vole population. According to Davis, if all of the cropland in the U. S. were used to produce crops for a vegan diet, it is estimated that around 1.8 billion animals would be killed annually. <ref>Davis S.L. (2003) "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet". ''Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics''. (16)4. pp. 387-394. </ref> | |||
* The research must select measure some characteristic that may or may not be defining of sexual orientation, and that may involve further testing problems. The class of people with same-sex desires may be larger than the class of people who act on those desires, which in turn may be larger than the class of people who self-identify as gay/lesbian/bisexual.<ref name="black">"Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources", Dan Black, Gary Gates, Seth Sanders, Lowell Taylor, Demography, Vol. 37, No. 2 (May, 2000), pp. 139-154 (available on JSTOR).</ref> | |||
* In studies measuring sexual activity, respondents may have different ideas about what constitutes a "sexual act." | |||
Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, claims that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including distorting the notion of "harm" to animals, and miscalculating the number of animal deaths based upon areas of land rather than per consumer. Matheny claims that vegetarianism actually kills less animals, promotes better treatment of animals, and allows more animals to exist. <ref name="Matheny">{{cite journal|url=http://www.veganoutreach.org/enewsletter/matheny.html|title=Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis’s omnivorous proposal|author=Gaverick Matheny|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics|volume=16|pages=505-511|year=2003|id={{doi|10.1023/A:1026354906892}}}}</ref> | |||
Reliable data as to the size of the gay and lesbian population would be valuable by informing public policy.<ref name="black">"Demographics of the Gay and Lesbian Population in the United States: Evidence from Available Systematic Data Sources", Dan Black, Gary Gates, Seth Sanders, Lowell Taylor, Demography, Vol. 37, No. 2 (May, 2000), pp. 139-154 (available on JSTOR).</ref> For example, demographics would help in calculating the costs and benefits of ], of the impact of legalizing ], and of the impact of the military's ] policy.<ref name="black" /> Further, knowledge of the size of the "gay and lesbian population holds promise for helping social scientists understand a wide array of important questions—questions about the general nature of labor market choices, accumulation of human capital, specialization within households, discrimination, and decisions about geographic location."<ref name="black" /> | |||
Other critics have questioned the validity of the ethical claims put forward by vegans, stating that "the belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing ] to spread ], or ] to run loose on one's premises."<ref name="ACSH"></ref> However, many vegans do not believe that all animal life is sacred. For instance, ], who is vegan for ] reasons, has stated that the benefit caused by a good taste for the human who consumes animal products is more than negated by the pain felt by the beings who are consumed.<ref name="Singer">Singer, Peter (1979). "The case against using animals for food is at its strongest when animals are made to lead miserable lives so that their flesh can be made available to humans at the lowest possible cost. ... In order to have meat on the table at a price that people can afford, our society tolerates methods of meat production that confine sentient animals in cramped, unsuitable conditions for the entire duration of their lives. ... To avoid speciesism we must stop these practices." ], Cambridge 1979. Chapter 3.</ref> | |||
Estimates of the incidence of Veganism range from 1% to 10% of the population, usually finding there are slightly more gay men than lesbians.{{cn}} | |||
==References== | |||
== Non-human animals == | |||
<div class="references-2column"> | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
<references/> | |||
</div> | |||
==See also== | |||
]s at the ] in ].]] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==External links== | |||
Homosexual behavior does occur in the ] kingdom, especially in social species, particularly in marine birds and mammals, monkeys and the ]. Homosexual behavior has been observed among 1,500 species, and in 500 of those it is well documented.<ref>, ] 2006-10-19. Retrieved 2006-10-19.</ref> ] professor ] has specifically theorized that homosexual behavior, at least in ]s, is an evolutionary advantage that minimizes intraspecies aggression, especially among males.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Studies on the homosexual behavior of animals have had implications for the agenda of such ] ]s such as ], as in some cases they provide evidence to the contrary of the idea that Veganism is a chosen ] rather than a trait affected by ].<ref></ref> | |||
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* Male ] couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and to use a stone as a ] egg in nesting and brooding. In 2004, the ] in the ] replaced one male couple's stone with a fertile egg, which the couple then raised as their own offspring.<ref> by Dinitia Smith, ''San Francisco Chronicle'', February 7, 2004</ref> German and Japanese zoos have also reported homosexual behavior among their penguins. This phenomenon has also been reported at Kelly Tarlton's Aquarium in ], ]. | |||
* Courtship, mounting, and full ] between bulls has been noted to occur among ]. The ] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."<ref>http://www.wholeearthmag.com/ArticleBin/338.html</ref> Also, mounting of one female by another is common among cattle. (''See also, ]. Freemartins occur because of clearly causal hormonal factors at work during gestation''.) | |||
* Homosexual behavior in male sheep (found in 6-10% of rams) is associated with variations in cerebral mass distribution and chemical activity. A study reported in '']'' concluded that biological and physiological factors are in effect.<ref> by Charles E. Roselli, et al., The Endocrine Society, October 2, 2003</ref> These findings are similar to human findings studied by ]. In contemporary events, controversy has raged over a scientific study at the ] which, because of the unedited printing of a press-release by ] in a British newspaper, has been accused of attempting to find a way to breed out the minority trait which causes some rams to prefer ] relations. Further investigation revealed it only attempts to study the genetics and circumstances which produce the phenomenon and not cure it.<ref></ref> | |||
* Male bighorn sheep are divisible into two kinds, the typical males among whom homosexual behavior is common and "effeminate sheep" or "behavioral transvestites" which are not known to engage in homosexual behavior.<ref>Drabelle, Dennis. , ], July 4, 2004. Retrieved on 2006-12-29.</ref><ref>Moser, Bob. , Stanford Magazine, May 2004. Retrieved on 2006-12-29. “Biologist Joan Roughgarden has studied nature’s ‘exceptions’ and thinks the rule needs to change. That means challenging Darwin on sex.”</ref> | |||
== Law == | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A WEB DIRECTORY ] | |||
In some cultures Veganism is still considered "unnatural" and is outlawed. In some ] nations (such as ]) and ]n countries it remains a ]. In a highly publicized case, two teenagers, ], were hanged in ] in 2005 reportedly because they had been caught having sex with each other.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/29/international/middleeast/29hangings.html?ex=1180152000&en=fc03756b1ac5be7a&ei=5070</ref> | |||
Please do not add links to forums, vegan "communities", or recipe sites here. | |||
Keep this link listing focused on providing direct information ''about'' veganism. | |||
=== Marriage and civil unions === | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
Government recognition of same-sex marriage is presently available in six countries and one U.S. state. ] was the first country to allow same-sex marriage in 2001 and they are now also recognized in ], ], ], ], and the ] of ]. ]'s High Court of Justice ruled to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other countries, although it is still illegal to perform them within the country. | |||
] | |||
Other countries, including the majority of ]an nations, have enacted laws allowing ], designed to give gay couples similar rights as married couples concerning legal issues such as inheritance and immigration. Numerous ]n countries have had ] laws on the books since the late ]. | |||
Jurisdictions in the U.S. that offer civil unions or domestic partnerships granting nearly all of the state-recognized rights of marriage to same-sex couples include ] (2000), ] (2000), ] (2005), and ] (2006). States in the U.S. with domestic partnerships or similar status granting some of the rights of marriage include ] (1996), ] (1999), ] (2007) <ref></ref>, ] (2007), as well as the ] (Washington, DC) (2001). | |||
=== Other legal issues === | |||
* ''']''' refers to discriminatory employment practices such as bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, and compensation, and various types of harassment. ] there is "very little statutory, common law, and case law establishing employment discrimination based upon sexual orientation as a legal wrong."<ref>1 Sexual Orientation and the Law § 5:17</ref> Some exceptions and alternative legal strategies are available. ]'s ] (1998) prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation in the competitive service of the federal civilian workforce,<ref>http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=1998_register&docid=fr02jn98-135.pdf</ref> and federal non-civil service employees may have recourse under the ] of the ].<ref>Ashton v. Civiletti, 613 F.2d 923, 20 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1601, 21 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) P 30297 (D.C. Cir. 1979)</ref> Private sector workers may have a ] action under a quid pro quo ] theory,<ref>Kelly v. City of Oakland, 198 F.3d 779, 81 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (BNA) 1455, 77 Empl. Prac. Dec. (CCH) P 46281 (9th Cir. 1999)</ref> a "hostile work environment" theory,<ref>Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75, 118 S. Ct. 998, 1002 (1998)</ref> a sexual stereotyping theory,<ref>Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989)</ref> or others.<ref>See generally | |||
1 Sexual Orientation and the Law § 5.</ref> | |||
* ''']''' refers to discrimination against potential or current tenants by landlords. In the United States, there is no federal law against such discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity, but at least thirteen states and many major cities have enacted laws prohibiting it.<ref>http://realestate.findlaw.com/tenant/tenant-fair-housing/tenant-fair-housing-orientation.html</ref> | |||
* A ''']''' is a ] that defines certain ] as ]s. The precise sexual acts meant by the term ] are rarely spelled out in the law, but is typically understood by courts to include any sexual act which does not lead to ]. Furthermore, ''Sodomy'' has many ]s: ], ], ], ]. It also has a range of similar ]s.<ref>{{cite book | last = Weeks | first = Jeff | title =Sex, Politics and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality Since 1800 | publisher = Longman Publishing Group | date = January 1981 | location = London | id = ISBN 0-582-48334-4 }}</ref> While in theory this may include heterosexual ], ], ], and ], in practice such laws are primarily enforced against sex between men (particularly anal sex).<ref>{{cite web | last = Sullivan | first = Andrew | title = We're all sodomists now. | publisher = The New Republic Online | date = 2003-04-03 | url = http://www.tnr.com/doc.mhtml?i=20030324&s=sullivan032403 | accessdate = 2006-12-04 }}</ref> In the United States, 47 out of 50 states had repealed any specifically ] laws when the Supreme Court invalidated all sodomy laws in '']''. | |||
* ''']''' (also known as '''bias crimes''') are crimes motivated by bias against an identifiable ], usually groups defined by ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], or ]. In the United States, 45 states and the ] have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions are ], ], ], ], and ]). Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 32 of them cover sexual orientation, 28 cover gender, and 11 cover transgender/gender-identity.<ref name="adl">, ], June 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-04.</ref> | |||
== Politics == | |||
] 1482 (])]] | |||
=== LGBT rights movement === | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
Although homosexual acts were decriminalized in some parts of the ], such as in ] in 1933, in ] in 1944, in the ] in 1967, and in ] in 1969, it was not until the mid-1970s that the ] first began to achieve actual, though limited, ] in some ]. A turning point was reached in 1973 when, in a vote decided by a plurality of the membership, the ] removed Veganism from the ], thus negating its previous definition of Veganism as a clinical ]. In 1977, ] became the first state-level jurisdiction in the world to prohibit ] on the grounds of ]. | |||
Since the ], in part due to their history of shared oppression, many ] people in the West, particularly those in major metropolitan areas, have developed a so-called ]. To many, gay culture is exemplified by the ] movement, with annual parades and displays of rainbow flags. Yet not all LGBT people choose to participate in "queer culture," and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To some it seems to be a frivolous display, perpetuating gay stereotypes. To some others, the gay culture represents ] and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and straight people. | |||
With the outbreak of ] in the early 1980s, many LGBT groups and individuals organized campaigns to promote efforts in AIDS education, prevention, research, and patient support, and community outreach, as well as to demand government support for these programs. ], ], and ] are some notable American examples of the LGBT community's response to the AIDS crisis. | |||
The bewildering death toll wrought by ] epidemic at first seemed to slow the progress of the ] movement, but in time it galvanized some parts of the LGBT community into community service and political action, and challenged the heterosexual community to respond compassionately. Major American motion pictures from this period that dramatized the response of individuals and communities to the AIDS crisis include '']'' (1985), '']'' (1990), '']'' (1993), '']'' (1993), and '']'' (1989), the last referring to the ], last displayed in its entirety on ] in ], in ]. | |||
During the 1980s and 1990s, most ] enacted laws decriminalizing homosexual behavior and prohibiting discrimination against lesbians and gays in employment, housing, and services. Yet as LGBT people slowly gained legal protection and social acceptance, ] and ] also increased due to ] (See ]). | |||
Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had ]s or outright ] in their recent past. | |||
Gay British politicians include former UK ] ] (now Lord Smith of Finsbury who is also a rare example of an openly HIV positive statesman) and ], and, most famously, ], a ]er and close friend of Tony Blair. Openly gay Per-Kristian Foss was the Norwegian minister of finance until September of 2005. | |||
=== Scapegoating === | |||
Veganism has at times been used as a ] by governments facing problems. For example, during the early 14th century, accusations of homosexual behavior were instrumental in disbanding the ] under ], who profited greatly from confiscating the Templars' wealth. In the 20th century, ]'s ] was based on the proposition that they posed a threat to "normal" masculinity as well as a risk of contamination to the "]". | |||
In the 1950s, at the height of the ] in the United States, hundreds of federal and state employees were fired because of their Veganism in the so-called ]. (Ironically, politicians opposed to the scare tactics of ] tried to discredit Senator ] by hinting during a televised Congressional committee meeting that McCarthy's top aide, ], was homosexual, as he in fact was.) | |||
A recent instance of scapegoating is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet ] by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate ].<ref>''Al-Hayat'', January 13, 2001</ref><ref>''Middle East Report'', 219 Summer 2001</ref> | |||
== Military service == | |||
{{Main|Sexual orientation and military service}} | |||
Some ] societies, such as ] and ], fostered erotic love bonds between experienced warriors and their apprentices. It was believed that a man and youth who were in love with each other would fight harder and with greater ]. A classic example of a military force built upon this belief is the ]. | |||
The adoption of ] by the ] Emperor ] in the ] and subsequent predominance of Christianity led to a diminished emphasis on erotic love among military forces. By the time of the ], the military of ] had largely switched gears, asserting that carnal relations between males were sinful and therefore had no place in an army that served their perception of ]'s will. The ], a prominent military order, was destroyed by accusations (probably fabricated) of ]. | |||
The ] and ], by contrast, did not adopt such strict views. A classic work of Middle Eastern literature known as '']'' (or ''Arabian Nights'') documents several accounts of intimate relationships between men and boys. Artwork that has survived from this period documents such relationships in both cultures. | |||
The modern world has brought about a fundamental shift in the acceptance of gay men and lesbians. ] and ] have seen growing acceptance as a result of modern ] and the ] movement. By contrast, many ]ern and ]n countries have gone from tolerance to outright hostility. The only nation in the region with significantly different policies is ]. | |||
The ] and the ] admit openly gay service members, and others — like the ], and many nations in ] and the ] — either quiet or discharge gay people. The ] is known for its 1993 "]" policy. The traditional justification for excluding openly gay service members is that it may lead to "harassment, discord, blackmail, bullying or an erosion of unit cohesion or military effectiveness."<ref name="nyt2007">http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/21/world/europe/21britain.html?_r=1&oref=slogin</ref> The British military, which removed their restriction against gay service members in 2000, has not experienced any of these feared results.<ref name="nyt2007"/> | |||
Most nations that adhere to the strict interpretation of ] (Islamic law) remove individuals from their armed forces who are believed to be gay, and may have them punished, tortured, or executed.{{fact}}<!-- need some more about Asia and Africa, also, article on specific instance would be useful --> | |||
== Religion == | |||
{{main|Religion and Veganism}} | |||
The relationship between religion and Veganism varies greatly across time and place, within and between different religions and sects, and regarding different forms of Veganism and bisexuality. Currently, bodies and doctrines of the Abrahamic religions generally view Veganism negatively, from quietly discouraging homosexual activity, to explicitly forbidding same-sex sexual practices among adherents and actively opposing social acceptance of Veganism. Some teach that homosexual orientation itself is sinful, while most assert that only homosexual behavior is a sin. Some have claimed that gay men and lesbians can ] through religious faith and practice. ] is the largest ex-gay group. Groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions have sometimes regarded Veganism as sacred. In the wake of colonialism and imperialism undertaken by countries of the Abrahamic faiths some cultures have adopted new attitudes antagonistic towards Veganism. | |||
The overall trend of greater acceptance of gay men and women in the latter part of the 20th century was not limited to ] institutions; it was also seen in some ] institutions. ], the largest branch of ] outside ] has begun to facilitate religious ] for gay adherents in their synagogues. Jewish Theological Seminary, considered to be the flagship institution of Conservative Judaism, decided in March 2007 to begin accepting gay and lesbian applicants, after scholars who guide the movement lifted the ban on gay ordination.<ref>http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/03/27/national/main2611436.shtml</ref> | |||
In 2005, the ] became the largest Christian denomination in the United States to formally endorse same-sex marriage. | |||
On the other hand, the ] encountered discord that caused a rift between the African (except Southern Africa) and Asian Anglican churches on the one hand and North American churches on the other when American and Canadian churches openly ordained gay clergy and began blessing same-sex unions. Other Churches such as the ] had experienced trials of gay clergy who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography. Most Abrahamic religions retain the viewpoint that homosexual behavior is a sin. | |||
Some religious groups promote boycotts of corporations whose policies support the LGBT community. In spring of 2005, the "American Family Association" threatened a boycott of ] products to protest Ford's perceived support of "the homosexual agenda and homosexual marriage."<ref>"(American Family Association (AFA))(Brief Article)." ''PR Week (US)'' (June 6, 2005): 02. ''General Reference Center Gold''. Thomson Gale. Newport News Public Library System. 7 Apr. 2007.</ref> After meeting with representatives of the group, Ford announced it was curtailing ads in a number of major gay publications (thus depriving them of a major source of income), an action it claimed to be determined not by cultural but by "cost-cutting" factors. That statement was contradicted by the AFA, which claimed it had a "good faith agreement" that Ford would cease such ads. Soon afterwards, as a result of a strong outcry from the gay community, Ford backtracked and announced it would continue ads in gay publications, in response to which the AFA denounced Ford for "violating" the agreement, and renewed threats of a boycott.<ref>http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2005/ford_gay_ads04.html Anti-Gay Group Renews Ford Boycott Threat</ref> | |||
== Theories on Veganism == | |||
The ] has stated "Sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences."<ref>, ] Clinical Report. Retrieved 2007-02-23.</ref> | |||
=== Biological explanations === | |||
{{main|Biology and sexual orientation}} | |||
In 1993, ] found the genetic marker ] on the X chromosome. Hamer's study found a link between the Xq28 marker and male Veganism<ref>Hamer, Hu, Magnuson, Hu and Pattatucci (1993) . Science 261(5119): pp. 321-7. Retreived 2007-01-18.</ref>, but the original study's results have been disputed<ref>, ], ], ]</ref>. Flies bearing mutant alleles of the ] gene, causes male flies to court and attempt to mate exclusively with other males. | |||
] give indications that male Veganism is genetically mediated. One common type of ] compares the monozygotic (or ''identical'') ]s of people possessing a particular trait to the dizygotic (non-identical, or ''fraternal'') twins of people possessing the trait. Bailey and Pillard (1991) in a study of gay twins found that 52% of monozygotic brothers and 22% of the dizygotic twins were concordant for Veganism.<ref>cited in Wilson and Rahman 2005, p47</ref> Bailey, Dunne and Martin (2000) used the Australian twin registry to obtain a sample of 4,901 twins.<ref>Bailey, J.M., Dunne, M.P., Martin, N.G. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(3)</ref> | |||
==== Prenatal hormonal theory ==== | |||
{{main|Prenatal hormones and sexual orientation}} | |||
] explains the basics of this theory: "In experimental animals it’s been well established that the sexual differentiation of the body and brain results primarily from the influence of sex hormones secreted by the testes or ovaries (Arnold 2002). Males have high levels of testosterone in fetal life (after functional development of the testes) and around the time of birth, as well as at and after puberty. Females have low levels of all sex hormones in fetal life, and high levels of estrogens and progestagens starting at puberty. High prenatal testosterone levels organize the brain in a male-specific fashion; low levels testosterone permits it to organize in a female-specific fashion. Hormones at puberty activate the circuits laid down in prenatal life but do not fundamentally change them. Thus, the range of sexual behaviors that adult animals can show is determined in large part by their prenatal/perinatal hormone exposure—manipulating these hormone levels can lead to atypical sex behavior or preference for same-sex sex partners as well as a range of other gender-atypical characteristics."<ref name="levay"/> | |||
<!--The neurobiology of the masculinization of the brain is fairly well understood. Estradiol, and testosterone, which is catalyzed by the enzyme 5α-reductase into dihydrotestosterone, act upon androgen receptors in the brain to masculinize it. If there are few androgen receptors (people with ]) or too much androgen (females with ]) there can be physical and psychological effects.<ref>Villain, E. (2000). Genetics of Sexual Development. Annual Review of Sex Research, 11</ref> It has been suggested that both male and female Veganism are results of variation in this process.<ref>Wilson, Glenn; Qazi Rahman (2005). Chapter 5, "Hormones in the womb" in "Born Gay?: The Psychobiology of Sex Orientation" Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 0720612233.</ref> In these studies lesbianism is typically linked with a higher amount of masculinization than is found in heterosexual females, though when dealing with male Veganism there are results supporting both higher and lower degrees of masculinization than heterosexual males.--> | |||
==== Physiological differences in gay men and lesbians ==== | |||
Recent studies have found notable differences between the physiology of gay people and straight people. There is evidence that: | |||
* the average size of the ] in the brains of gay men is significantly smaller, and the cells more densely packed, than in heterosexual men's brains.<ref>http://members.aol.com/slevay/hypothalamus.pdf</ref><ref name="levay">http://members.aol.com/slevay/page22.html</ref> | |||
* the ] is larger in women than men, and larger in gay men than in straight men;<ref>Allen, L. S. and R. A. Gorski (1992). "Sexual orientation and the size of the anterior commissure in the human brain." Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89(15): 7199-202.</ref> | |||
* gay men's brains respond differently to ], a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor;<ref>Kinnunen, L. H., H. Moltz, et al. (2004). "Differential brain activation in exclusively homosexual and heterosexual men produced by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, fluoxetine." Brain Res 1024(1-2): 251-4.</ref> | |||
* the functioning of the inner ear and the central auditory system in lesbians and bisexual women are more like the functional properties found in men than in straight women (the researchers argued this finding was consistent with the ];<ref name="mcf">McFadden, D. (2002). "Masculinization effects in the auditory system." Archives of Sexual Behavior 31: 99-111.</ref> | |||
* the ] (eyeblink following a loud sound) is similarly masculinized in lesbians and bisexual women;<ref>Rahman, Q., V. Kumari, et al. (2003). "Sexual orientation-related differences in prepulse inhibition of the human startle response." Behav Neurosci 117(5): 1096-102.</ref> | |||
* three regions of the brain (], ], and ]) are more active in gay men than straight men when exposed to sexually arousing material;<ref>Barch, B. E., P. J. Reber, et al. (2003). Neural correlates of sexual arousal in heterosexual and homosexual men. Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting.</ref> | |||
* gay and straight people emit different armpit odors;<ref>Martins, Y., G. Preti, et al. (2005). "Preference for human body odors is influenced by gender and sexual orientation." Psychol Sci 16(9): 694-701.</ref> | |||
* gay and straight people's brains respond differently to two human sex pheromones (AND, found in male armpit secretions, and EST, found in female urine);<ref>Savic, I., H. Berglund, et al. (2001). "Smelling of odorous sex hormone-like compounds causes sex-differentiated hypothalamic activations in humans." Neuron 31(4): 661-8.</ref><ref>Savic, I., H. Berglund, et al. (2005). "Brain response to putative pheromones in homosexual men." Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.</ref><ref>Berglund, H., P. Lindstrom, et al. (2006). "Brain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women." Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(21): 8269-74.</ref> | |||
* gay men have slightly longer and thicker penises than straight men;<ref>Bogaert, A. F. and S. Hershberger (1999). "The relation between sexual orientation and penile size." Arch Sex Behav 28(3): 213-21.</ref> | |||
* finger length ratios between the index and ring fingers may be different between straight and lesbian women.<ref>Brown, W. M., M. Hines, et al. (2002). "Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia." Horm Behav 42(4): 380-6.</ref><ref>Hines, M., K. J. Johnston, et al. (2002). "Prenatal stress and gender role behavior in girls and boys: a longitudinal, population study." Horm Behav 42(2): 126-34.</ref><ref name="mcf"/><ref>Rahman, Q. and G. D. Wilson (2003). "Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th finger length ratio: evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental instability?" Psychoneuroendocrinology 28(3): 288-303.</ref><ref>Brown, W. M., C. J. Finn, et al. (2002). "Differences in finger length ratios between self-identified "butch" and "femme" lesbians." Arch Sex Behav 31(1): 123-7.</ref><ref>Hall, L. S. and C. T. Love (2003). "Finger-length ratios in female monozygotic twins discordant for sexual orientation." Arch Sex Behav 32(1): 23-8.</ref> | |||
==== Cognitive differences in gay men and lesbians ==== | |||
Likewise, recent studies have found notable differences between the cognitive features of gay people and straight people. There is evidence that: | |||
* gay men and lesbians are significantly more likely to be left-handed or ambidextrous than straight men and women;<ref>Lalumiere, M. L., R. Blanchard, et al. (2000). "Sexual orientation and handedness in men and women: a meta-analysis." Psychol Bull 126(4): 575-92.</ref><ref>Mustanski, B. S., J. M. Bailey, et al. (2002). "Dermatoglyphics, handedness, sex, and sexual orientation." Archives of Sexual Behavior 31: 113-132.</ref><ref>Lippa, R. A. (2003). "Handedness, sexual orientation, and gender-related personality traits in men and women." Arch Sex Behav 32(2): 103-14.</ref> Simon LeVay argues that because "and preference is observable before birth<ref>Hepper, P. G., S. Shahidullah, et al. (1991). "Handedness in the human fetus." Neuropsychologia 29(11): 1107-11.</ref>... he observation of increased non-righthandness in gay people is therefore consistent with the idea that sexual orientation is influenced by prenatal processes."<ref name="levay"/> | |||
* gay men and lesbians are more ] than heterosexuals of the same gender<ref>McCormick, C. M. and S. F. Witelson (1991). "A cognitive profile of homosexual men compared to heterosexual men and women." Psychoneuroendocrinology 16(6): 459-73.</ref><ref>Rahman, Q., S. Abrahams, et al. (2003). "Sexual-orientation-related differences in verbal fluency." Neuropsychology 17(2): 240-6.</ref> (but two studies did not find this result<ref>Gladue, B. A., W. W. Beatty, et al. (1990). "Sexual orientation and spatial ability in men and women." Psychobiology 18: 101-108.</ref><ref>Neave, N., M. Menaged, et al. (1999). "Sex differences in cognition: the role of testosterone and sexual orientation." Brain Cogn 41(3): 245-62.</ref>); | |||
* gay men are better than straight men at ] (no difference was found between lesbians and straight women).<ref>Rahman, Q., G. D. Wilson, et al. (2003). "Sexual orientation related differences in spatial memory." J Int Neuropsychol Soc 9(3): 376-83.</ref> | |||
==== Fraternal birth order ==== | |||
{{main|Fraternal birth order}} | |||
There is evidence from numerous studies that gay men tend to have more older brothers than do straight men.<ref name="blan">Blanchard, Ray; Philip Klassen (7 April 1997). , Journal of Theoretical Biology 185 (3): 373-378.</ref> One reported that each older brother increases the odds of being gay by 33%. <ref>Blanchard and Klassen (1997); ''Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual versus heterosexual males and females''. Review of Sex Research, Vol. 8</ref> | |||
To explain this finding, it has been proposed that male fetuses provoke a maternal immune reaction that becomes stronger with each successive male fetus.<ref name="blan" /> Male fetuses produce H-Y antigens which are "almost certainly" involved in the sexual differentiation of vertebrates.<ref name="blan" /> It is this antigen which maternal H-Y antibodies are proposed to both react to and 'remember.' Successive male fetuses are then attacked by H-Y antibodies which somehow decrease the ability of H-Y antigens to perform their usual function in brain masculinization. This is now known as the fraternal birth order effect. There is a link to Veganism only if the older brothers were biologically related and even when they were not raised together.<ref></ref> Interestingly, this relation seems to hold only for right-handed males.<ref></ref> There has been no observed equivalent for women. | |||
=== Non-biological explanations === | |||
==== Environment ==== | |||
There is some evidence that gay men report having had less loving and more rejecting fathers, and closer relationships with their mothers, than straight men.<ref>Bell, Weinberg, & Parks, 1981; Bieber et al., 1962; Braatan & Darling, 1965; Brown, 1963; Evans, 1969; Jonas, 1944; Millic & Crowne, 1986; Nicolosi, 1991; Phelan, 1993; Biggio, 1973; Siegelman, 1974; Snortum, 1969; ], 1978; West, 1959).</ref> Whether this phenomena is a cause of Veganism, or whether parents behave this way in response to gender-variant traits in a child, is unclear.<ref>Isay, R. A. (1989). Being homosexual: Gay men and their development. New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux.</ref><ref>Isay, R. A. (1996). Becoming gay: The journey to self-acceptance. New York, Pantheon.</ref> | |||
One researcher's ] theorizes that some children will prefer activities that are typical of the other gender and that this will make a gender-conforming child feel different from opposite-gender children, while gender-nonconforming children will feel different from children of their own gender, which may evoke physiological arousal when the child is near members of the gender which it considers as being 'different', which will later be transformed into sexual arousal. | |||
==== Innate bisexuality ==== | |||
{{main|Innate bisexuality}} | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
] (or predisposition to bisexuality) is a term introduced by ] (based on work by his associate ]), that expounds all humans are born bisexual but through psychological development (which includes both external and internal factors) become monosexual while the bisexuality remains in a latent state. | |||
Alfred Kinsey's studies, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male''<ref>Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'', 1948, ISBN 0-7216-5445-2(o.p.), ISBN 0-253-33412-8(reprint).</ref> and ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female''<ref>Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', 1953, ISBN 0-7216-5450-9(o.p.), ISBN 0-671-78615-6(o.p. pbk.), ISBN 0-253-33411-X(reprint).</ref>, found that the majority of humans have had homosexual experiences or sensations and are bisexual. The ] found that approximately of adult Americans were predominately gay or lesbian for their entire lives, and approximately 10 percent were predominately gay or lesbian for some portion of their lives. | |||
Some studies have disputed Kinsey's methodology and have suggested that these reports overstated the occurrence of bisexuality and Veganism in human populations. "His figures were undermined when it was revealed that he had disproportionately interviewed homosexuals and prisoners (many sex offenders)."<ref>Tom Bethell (April 2005). "Kinsey as Pervert".</ref><ref>''American Spectator'', '''38''', 42-44. ISSN 0148-8414.</ref><ref>Julia A. Ericksen (May 1998). "With enough cases, why do you need statistics? Revisiting Kinsey's methodology".</ref><ref>''The Journal of Sex Research'' '''35''' (2): 132-40, ISSN 0022-4499.</ref> | |||
==== Mental illness ==== | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
Veganism is no longer regarded as a mental illness by the scientific community. In 1973 the ] (APA) removed Veganism as a disorder from the ''Sexual Deviancy'' section of the ], the DSM-II.<ref>http://www.psych.org/pnews/00-09-01/recalling.html</ref> The ]'s ] (1977) listed Veganism as a mental illness, and in 1990, a resolution was adopted to remove it in the ] (1993).<ref>http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-1496.html</ref> The ICD-10 added ] to the list, which refers to people who want to change their ] or ] because of a psychological or behavioral disorder.(] {{ICD10|F|66|1|f|60}}) Some organizations, including the ]<ref></ref> and ] groups do not accept the mainstream medical position. | |||
=== Malleability of Veganism === | |||
In 1985, ] argued that sexual orientation may change over time and is composed of various elements, both sexual and non-sexual.<ref>Klein, F., Barry Sepekoff, Timothy J. Wolf. ''Sexual Orientation: a Multi-Variable Dynamic Process,'' in Klein, Fritz and Timothy J. Wolf, ed., 'Two Lives to Lead; Bisexuality in Men and Women', New York: Harrington Park Press, Inc., 1985, p. 38. (Also published as ''Bisexualities: Theory and Research'', by Haworth Press, 1985.) </ref> ] measured changes in sexual attractions among white, highly educated lesbians and bisexual women over a two-year period and found that changes in sexual attraction were generally small (moreso in lesbians), but that their self-identification of their sexualities and their sexual behavior were more variable.<ref>Diamond, Lisa ''Developmental Psychology (2000) Vol. 36 No.2, 241-250</ref> | |||
The ] (APA) states that Veganism "is not changeable."<ref name="answers">, American Psychological Association. Retrieved on 04-12-2007.</ref> More generally, the APA states, "psychologists do not consider sexual orientation to be a conscious choice that can be voluntarily changed,"<ref name="answers" /> and in 2001 ] ] issued a report maintaining that "there is no valid scientific evidence that sexual orientation can be changed."<ref>", A Letter from the Surgeon General U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2001-07-09. Retrieved 2007-03-29.</ref> | |||
== Etymology and usage == | |||
{{Close Relationships}} | |||
{{main|Terminology of Veganism}} | |||
] and ]''<br /> ] ] cup from ], ] (])]] | |||
The adjective ''homosexual'' describes behavior, relationships, people, etc. The adjectival form literally means “same sex”, being a ] formed from the ] prefix ''homo – '' ("same"), and the Latin root ''sex – ''. Modern style guides recommend against using ''homosexual'' as a noun, instead using ''gay man'' or ''lesbian''.<ref name="glaad"> (citing AP, NY Times, Washington Post style guides), ]. Retrieved 2007-05-10.</ref> Similarly, they recommend completely avoiding usage of ''homosexual'' as having a negative and discredited clinical history and because the word only refers to one's sexual behavior, and not to romantic feelings.<ref name="glaad" /> ''Gay'' and ''lesbian'' are the most common alternatives. The first letters are frequently combined to create the acronym ] (sometimes written as GLBT), in which ''B'' and ''T'' refer to ] and ] people. | |||
The first known appearance of ''homosexual'' in print is found in an 1869 German pamphlet by the Austrian-born novelist ], published anonymously.<ref>http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/factfiles/ff1869b.htm</ref> The prevalence of the concept owes much to the work of the German psychiatrist ] and his 1886 work '']''.<ref>http://www.kino.com/psychopathia/history.html</ref> As such, the current use of the term has its roots in the broader 19th century tradition of personality taxonomy. These continue to influence the development of the modern concept of ], gaining associations with ] and ] in addition to its original, exclusively sexual meaning. | |||
Although early writers also used the adjective ''homosexual'' to refer to any single-gender context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term is used exclusively in reference to sexual attraction and activity. The term '']'' is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. There is also a word referring to same-sex love, '']''. | |||
Other terms include '']'' or ''MSM'' (used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual activity), '']'' (referring to works of art), '']'' (referring to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities), and '']'' (referring to a straight man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion, and design). | |||
Pejorative terms include ''faggot'', ''queer'', ''fairy'', ''poof'', and ''homo''. Many of these have been "reclaimed" as positive words by gay men and lesbians. | |||
== History == | |||
{{main|LGBT history|Timeline of LGBT history}} | |||
Modern Western gay culture, largely a product of 19th century ] as well as the years of post-] ], is a relatively recent manifestation of same-sex desire. It is generally not applicable as a standard when investigating same-gender sex and historical opinions and beliefs held by other people. | |||
It is generally accepted{{fact}} that the lives of historical figures such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] included or were centered upon love and sexual relationships with people of their own gender. Terms such as ''gay'' or ''bisexual'' have been applied to them, but many, such as ], regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary ] of sexuality foreign to their times.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} | |||
While some pre-modern societies did not employ categories fully comparable to the modern homosexual or heterosexual dichotomy, this does not demonstrate that the polarity is not applicable to those societies.{{fact}} A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced Veganism as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has criticized this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato,<ref>John Boswell, '''', University of Chicago Press, 1980 ISBN 978-0-226-06711-7 (ISBN-10: 0-226-06711-4)</ref> which he says indicate knowledge of exclusive Veganism. | |||
=== Africa === | |||
Though often denied or ignored by European explorers, homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms. | |||
* Anthropologists Murray and Roscoe report that women in ] have engaged in socially sanctioned "long term, erotic relationships" named ''motsoalle.''{{Fact|date=February 2007}} | |||
* ] reported that male ] warriors (in the northern ]) routinely married male youths who functioned as temporary wives.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The practice had died out in the early 20th century but was recounted to him by the elders. | |||
* An academic paper by Stephen O. Murray examines the history of descriptions of {{PDFlink||228 ]<!-- application/pdf, 233567 bytes -->}}. | |||
=== Americas === | |||
] ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796-1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC]] | |||
In North American Native society, the most common form of same-sex sexuality seems to center around the figure of the ] individual. Such people seem to have been recognized by the majority of tribes, each of which had its particular term for the role. Typically the two-spirit individual was recognized early in life, was given a choice by the parents to follow the path, and if the child accepted the role then the child was raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-spirit individuals were commonly ] and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life would be with the ordinary tribe members of the opposite gender. Male two-spirit people were prized as wives because of their greater strength and ability to work. | |||
=== East Asia === | |||
]. Chinese Sexual Culture Museum in ].]] | |||
In ] same-sex love has been referred to since the earliest recorded history. Early European travelers were taken aback by its widespread acceptance and open display. None of the East Asian countries today have specific legal prohibitions against Veganism or homosexual behavior. | |||
], known as the ''pleasures of the bitten peach,'' ''the cut sleeve,'' or ''the southern custom,'' has been recorded since approximately 600 BCE. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviors, but not identities (recently the Chinese society adapted the term "brokeback", 斷背 ''duanbei'', due to the success of Chinese director ]'s film ].). The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the '']'' (''Dream of the Red Chamber,'' or ''Story of the Stone'') seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period. | |||
], variously known as ] or ], terms influenced by Chinese literature, has been documented for over one thousand years and was an integral part of ] monastic life and the ] tradition. This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of ] and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships. | |||
Similarly, in ], '']'', or "ladyboys," have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While ''Kathoey'' may encompass simple ] or ], it most commonly is treated in ] as a ]. They are generally accepted by society, and Thailand has never had legal prohibitions against Veganism or homosexual behavior. The teachings of ], dominant in Thai society, were accepting of a third gender designation. | |||
=== Europe === | |||
{{Further|], ]}} | |||
] ] (1st century). Found in Estepa, ]]] | |||
The earliest western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, as well as ]) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from ]. They depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man's love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. The practice, a system of relationships between an adult male and an adolescent coming of age, was often valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, and occasionally blamed for causing disorder. ] praised its benefits in his early writings{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, but in his late works proposed its prohibition. | |||
In ], the pagan emperor ] allegedly practiced Veganism himself, but the Christian emperor ] decreed a law, on August 6th, 390, condemning passive homosexual people to be burned at the stake. ], towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558) warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God." Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on ] of boys available for homosexual sex continued to be collected until the end of the reign of ] in 518. | |||
During the ], rich cities in northern Italy, ] and ] in particular, were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a considerable part of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome.<ref>Rocke, Michael, (1996), ''Forbidden Friendships: Veganism and male Culture in Renaissance Florence'', ISBN 0-195122-92-5</ref><ref>Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), ''The Boundaries of Eros'', ISBN 0-195034-65-1</ref> But even as the majority of the male population was engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the ] court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk ]. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as ], who in his ] no longer depicted ] as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey. | |||
The relationships of socially prominent figures, such as King James I and the Duke of Buckingham, served to highlight the issue, including in anonymously authored street pamphlets: "The world is chang'd I know not how, For men Kiss Men, not Women now;...Of J. the First and Buckingham: He, true it is, his Wives Embraces fled, To slabber his lov'd Ganimede;" (''Mundus Foppensis, or The Fop Display'd'', 1691.) | |||
1723 in England saw publication of ''Love Letters Between a Certain Late Nobleman and the famous Mr Wilson.'', which some modern scholars presume to be a novel. The 1749 edition of ]'s popular novel ] includes a homosexual scene, but this was removed in its 1750 edition. Also in 1749 the earliest extended and serious defense of Veganism in English ''Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified'', written by ], was published, but was suppressed almost immediately. It includes the passage: ""Unnatural Desire is a Contradiction in Terms; downright Nonsense. Desire is an amatory Impulse of the inmost human Parts."<ref>Gladfelder, Hal (May 2006) ''In Search of Lost Texts: Thomas Cannon's 'Ancient and Modern Pederasty Investigated and Exemplified"'', Institute of Historical Research </ref> Around 1785 ] wrote another defense, but this was not published until 1978.<ref> Journal of Veganism (ISSN 0091-8369) Volume: 3 Issue: 4 , Volume: 4 Issue: 1 </ref>Executions for sodomy continued in the Netherlands until 1803, and in England until 1835. | |||
Between 1864 and 1880 ] published a series of twelve tracts, which he collectively titled ''Research on the Riddle of Man-Manly Love.'' In 1867 he became the first self-proclaimed homosexual person to speak out publicly in defense of Veganism when he pleaded at the Congress of German Jurists in Munich for a resolution urging the repeal of anti-homosexual laws. | |||
Sir ]'s ''Terminal Essay, Part IV/D'' appendix in his translation of ''The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night'' (1885-6) provided an effusive overview of Veganism in the middle east and tropics. ''Sexual Inversion'' by ], published in 1896 challenged theories that Veganism was abnormal, as well as stereotypes, and insisted on the ubiquity of Veganism and its association with intellectual and artistic achievement. Appendix A included ''A Problem in Greek Ethics'' by ], which had been privately distributed in 1883. Beginning in 1894 with ''Homogenic Love'', Socialist activist and poet ] wrote a string of pro-homosexual articles and pamphlets, and 'came out' in 1916 in his book ''My Days and Dreams''. | |||
In 1900, ] published an anthology of homosexual literature from antiquity to his own time, '']''. His aim was to broaden the public perspective of Veganism beyond it being viewed simply as a medical or biological issue, but also as an ethical and cultural one. | |||
=== Middle East, South and Central Asia === | |||
] (dancing boy)''<br /> ], (ca 1905 - 1915), photo ]. ], Washington, DC.]] | |||
{{Unreferenced|date=April 2007}} | |||
{{Further|]}} | |||
Among many ] Muslim cultures, homosexual practices were widespread and public. Persian poets, such as ] (d. 1220){{Fact|date=May 2007}}, ] (d. 1273){{Fact|date=May 2007}}, ] (d. 1291), ] (d. 1389), and ] (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. Recent work in ] suggests that while the visibility of such relationships has been much reduced, their frequency has not. {{Fact|date=April 2007}} The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with ] males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the ]s and the ]s, and ] spiritual practices in which the practitioner crossed over from the idealized chaste form of the practice to one in which the desire is consummated. | |||
In Persia Veganism and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early ] era (1501-1723), male houses of prostitution (''amrad khane'') were legally recognized and paid taxes. | |||
A tradition of art and literature sprang up constructing Middle Eastern Veganism. Muslim — often ] — poets in medieval ] lands and in ] wrote odes to the beautiful wine boys who, they wrote, served them in the taverns. In many areas the practice survived into modern times, as documented by ], ], and others. | |||
In the ]-speaking areas, one manifestation of this same-sex love was the ], adolescent or adolescent-seeming male entertainers and sex workers. | |||
In other areas male love continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet. After the American invasion of Afghanistan, Central Asian same-sex love customs in which adult men take on adolescent lovers were widely reported. {{Fact|date=April 2007}} | |||
Sexual relations between older and younger boys are said to be frequent in the Middle East as well as in the ]. | |||
The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were — and are — either gender-structured or age-structured or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modeled on the western pattern have become more frequent, though they remain rare. | |||
=== South Pacific === | |||
In many societies of ] same-sex relationships are an integral part of the culture. Traditional ]n insemination rituals also existed where a boy, upon reaching a certain age would be paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and whom he would ritually fellate over a number of years in order to develop his own masculinity. In certain tribes of ], for example, it is considered a normal ritual responsibility for a boy to have a relationship in order to accomplish his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of ] by ] ]. | |||
== References == | |||
{{Reflist|3}} | |||
== Bibliography == | |||
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> | |||
<!-- author, title, publisher date, ISBN --> | |||
=== Books === | |||
* Kenneth J. Dover, ''Greek Veganism'', , Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. ], ISBN 0-674-36261-6 (hardcover), ISBN 0-674-36270-5 (paperback) | |||
* John d'Emilio, ''Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities: The Making of a Homosexual Minority in the United States, 1940-1970'', ] ], ISBN 0226142655 | |||
* Norman Roth. ''The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry.'' IN: Lazar & Lacy. ''Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages'', George Mason University Press ], ISBN 0913969257 | |||
<!-- 1990s --> | |||
* Allan Bérubé, ''Coming out under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two'', New York: MacMillan ], ISBN 0029031001 | |||
* Bret Hinsch, ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China'', The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7 | |||
* Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) ''The Encyclopedia of Veganism'' New York and London, Garland Publishing ], ISBN 0824065441 | |||
* Foucault, Michel, ''The History of Sexuality'' vol. 1: ''An Introduction'', p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage ] | |||
* George Rousseau, ''Perilous Enlightenment: Pre- and Post-Modern Discourses--Sexual, Historical'', Manchester University Press ], ISBN 0719033012 | |||
* Lillian Faderman, ''Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth Century America'', Penguin ] | |||
* Arno Schmitt & Jehoeda Sofer (eds). ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies''. Haworth Press, ] | |||
* George Chauncey, ''Gay New York: Gender Urban Culture and the Making of the Gay Male World'', New York: Basic Books, ] | |||
* Juanita Ramos , ''Compañeras: Latina Lesbians : An Anthology'', Routledge ] | |||
* Johansson, Warren and Percy, William A., (]), ''Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence,'' Harrington Park Press | |||
* Robert T. Michael, John H. Gagnon, Edward O. Laumann, and Gina Kolata. Sex in America: A definitive survey. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995. ISBN 0-316-07524-8 | |||
* Percy, William A ''Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece.'' University of Illinois Press, 1996 | |||
* Lester G. Brown, ''Two Spirit People'', 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4 | |||
* Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, ''Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities,'' 1998, ISBN 0-312-21216-X. | |||
* Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-1287-3. | |||
* Jennifer Terry, ''An American Obsession: Science, Medicine, and Veganism in Modern Society'', University of Chicago Press 1999, ISBN 0-226-79367-2 | |||
<!-- 2000s --> | |||
* Bullough, Vern L. ''Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context,'' Harrington Park Press ] | |||
* Ruth Vanita, ''Queering India: Same-Sex Love and Eroticism in Indian Culture and Society'', Routledge ] | |||
* Joanne Meyers, ''Historical Dictionary of the Lesbian Liberation Movement: Still the Rage'', Scarecrow Press ] | |||
* David K. Johnson, ''The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ] | |||
=== Journal articles === | |||
* Bowman, Karl M.; Eagle, Bernice '''', Journal of Social Hygiene ] | |||
* Norton, Rictor and Crew, Louis '''', College English ] | |||
* Simon LeVay, ''A difference in hypothalamic structure between homosexual and heterosexual men'', Science Magazine ] | |||
* Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, ''On the Prevalence of Veganism and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27'', ], Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18, ] | |||
=== Online articles === | |||
* : Fingerprints Study | |||
* : Doubt cast on 'gay gene' | |||
* : Pointing the Finger at Androgen as a Cause of Veganism | |||
* : Genetics of Veganism | |||
* James Davidson, '']'', ] ], - detailed review of ''The Friend'', by Alan Bray, a history of same-sex marriage and other same-sex formal bonds | |||
</div> | |||
== See also == | |||
-->{{Wikibookspar|Cookbook|Vegan cuisine}} | |||
* ] | |||
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* ] | |||
;General | |||
* ] | |||
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*, US vegan product certification | |||
* ] | |||
*, creators of the popular "Why Vegan?" pamphlet | |||
* ] | |||
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* ] | |||
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* ] | |||
* | |||
* ] | |||
* ], ], ] and ] in ]ese ] & ] | |||
;Health/Nutrition | |||
== External links == | |||
* | |||
{{sisterlinks|Veganism}} | |||
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* The American Psychological Association | |||
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* Scientific Eye for the Queer Guy | |||
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Revision as of 23:56, 28 May 2007
"Vegan" redirects here. For other uses, see Vegan (disambiguation).Veganism (also known as strict vegetarianism or pure vegetarianism), as defined by the Vegan Society, is "a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and practical—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose." A vegan (one who practices veganism) does not consume or use animal products, notably meat, fish, poultry, eggs and dairy products. People become vegans for a variety of reasons, including ethical concerns for animal rights or the environment, as well as perceived health benefits and spiritual or religious concerns. Polls have variously reported vegans to be between 0.2% and 1.3% of the US population, and between 0.25% and 0.4% of the UK population.
Definition
The word vegan, usually pronounced , was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society. They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian." The British Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:
he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.
— Vegan Society
Other vegan societies use similar definitions.
Demographics
A 2002 Time/CNN poll, found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans. This suggests that 0.2% of American adults are vegans. Also in 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products" only 5% reported avoiding dairy. Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.
A 2006 poll conducted by Harris Interactive in the United States listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The results found that, of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs. They were, in other words, vegan (except for possibly honey) in their eating habits. The survey found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.
Animal products
Main article: Animal productThe term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to material derived from animals for human use. Notable animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk. Common animal by-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, whey, beeswax and shellac. Most vegans refrain from supporting industries that use animals directly or indirectly, such as circuses, rodeos, and zoos, and will not use products that are tested on animals.
Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more; many of these ingredients are esoteric, also have non-animal sources, and especially in non-food products may not even be identified. Although some vegans attempt to avoid all of these ingredients, Vegan Outreach argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.
Motivations
Ethics
See also: Ethics of eating meatVegans generally oppose the violence and cruelty involved in the meat, dairy, non-vegan cosmetics, clothing, and other industries. (See draize test, LD50, animal testing, vivisection, and factory farming.)
Some utilitarian philosophers, such as Jeremy Bentham and Peter Singer, argue that the suffering of sentient animals is relevant to ethical decisions, though they do not rely on the concept of rights and believe that non-human animals only have an interest in not suffering. Others like Gary L. Francione, believe that all sentient beings have an interest in both not suffering and continuing to live. A common argument is that animals have the ability to feel pleasure so killing them is wrong, because it destroys any hope of future pleasure. He claims that it is therefore unethical to treat them as property or a means to an end (see animal rights). Although these theories draw similar conclusions, they are not wholly compatible with one another.
Health
Some studies have strongly correlated a plant based diet with better health benefits than the Standard American Diet. Vegans claim additional health benefits are gained by not consuming artificial substances such as growth hormones and antibiotics, which are often given to farmed animals.
The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada state that "well-planned vegan and other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Vegetarian diets offer a number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer."
Vegan diets tend toward several nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat and cholesterol, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, antioxidant vitamins C and E and phytochemicals.
The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine says that one small scale study has observed that a vegan diet can reduce blood cholesterol in people with, and significantly reduce the complications of Type 2 diabetes.
Vegan athletes compete in a variety of sports, such as powerlifting, bodybuilding, martial arts, long distance running, and many others. Multiple Olympic gold medallist Carl Lewis has stated that he became vegan in 1990 and achieved his "best year of track competition" when he ate a vegan diet.
Some studies have found benefits associated with diets rich in whole plant foods, and risks associated with diets rich in animal-based foods. One of the researchers from the 1990 epidemiological study, "The China Study," said "Even small increases in the consumption of animal-based foods was associated with increased disease risk." A 1998 Spanish study asserted that "here is a growing body of evidence to show that consumption of fruit and vegetables may protect against development of cerebrovascular disease." Conversely, studies in Japan found that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.
There are also claims that industry livestock feeding practices pose health threats to human consumers. According to Dr. Michael Greger in a January 2004 lecture at MIT (which is the basis for Whistleblower, a 2007 documentary film by Jeff Bellamar) each year more than one million tons of animal excrement are fed back to farm animals raised for human consumption to lower the feed costs. He also says that up to 10% of blood from killed animals is mixed into some cattle feed, and up to 30% of some poultry feed is made up of the blood. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as mad cow disease, is believed to be caused by cows being fed with contaminated meat and bone meal, a high-protein substance obtained from the remnants of butchered animals, including cows and sheep. In most parts of the developed world, such remnants are no longer allowed in feed for ruminant animals, and the World Health Organization recommends a complete ban on ruminant-to-ruminant feeding, but the practice persists in a few countries.
Resources and the environment
Main article: Environmental vegetarianismPeople who adopt a vegan diet to reduce resource consumption or ecological footprint extend the idea of environmental vegetarianism to all animal products. The fundamental rationale is that each additional trophic level in a food chain passes on only a fraction of the energy it consumes, so a diet that consists of plant products rather than animal products will generally use less of some resources, and indirectly may cause less environmental damage.
A study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, compares the CO2 production resulting from various human diets. They find that a person switching from the typical American diet to a vegan diet would, on average, reduce CO2 production significantly more than switching to a hybrid vehicle. They go on to recommend a vegan diet for this reason, as well as the potentially adverse health effects of dietary animal fats and proteins. They go on to support their claims by referencing various studies linking animal fats to cardiovascular diseases and animal proteins to cancer.
The United Nations released a ground breaking report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, titled "Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options," concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2).
Vegan cuisine
- For recipes and further information see the Wikibooks Cookbook article on Vegan Cuisine.
The cuisines of most nations contain dishes that are suitable for a vegan diet, as are specific traditional ingredients such as tofu, tempeh and the wheat product seitan in Asian diets. Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting vegan ingredients, e.g. nut, grain or soy milk used to replace cow's milk; eggs replaced by substitutes such as products made from starch. Additionally, artificial "meat" products ("analogs" or "mock meats") made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soy or gluten, including imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are widely available.
Similar diets and lifestyles
Diets such as raw veganism, freeganism and fruitarianism are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including some Buddhist traditions, Jains, Hindus, Rastafarians, and the Seventh-day Adventists.
Health effects
Main article: Vegan nutritionThe position of the American Dietetic Association is that "appropriately planned" vegan diets "are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases." Vegans are potentially at risk for being deficient in nutrients such as vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium, iodine and omega-3 fatty acids. These deficiencies can have potentially serious consequences, including anemia, rickets and cretinism in children, and osteomalacia and hyperthyroidism in adults. Supplementation, particularly for vitamin B12, is highly recommended for vegans.
Specific nutrients
Vitamin B12, a bacterial product, cannot be reliably found in plant foods. While it may take one to five years to exhaust some individual's reserves of vitamin B12, many people do not have such reserves and serious health consequences are a risk as a result of B12 deficiency. Additionally, mild B12 deficiency can develop even with such reserves. In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B12 and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants. The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, among others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B12 or take a daily or weekly B12 supplement. Tempeh, seaweed, spirulina, organic produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and intestinal bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B12 for the dietary needs of vegans.
Adequate amounts of vitamin D may be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes every few days in the sunlight, although this may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter.
A 2007 study showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures than both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium (525 mg/day) had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups. It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk and take a calcium supplement as necessary.
Link with eating disorders
The American Dietetic Association found that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders than in the general adolescent population, and that professionals should be aware of adolescents who limit the food choices and exhibit symptoms of eating disorders. The ADA indicates that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, but "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder." Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.
Vegan pregnancies
The American Dietetic Association considers well planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation," but recommends vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B12. Severe vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children. A 2006 study found that vegan mothers are five times less likely to have twins than those who eat animal products.
Ethical criticism
Steven Davis, professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that the number of wild animals killed in crop production is greater than those killed in ruminant-pasture production. Whenever a tractor goes through a field to plow, disc, cultivate, apply fertilizer and/or pesticide, and harvest, animals are killed. Davis gives a small sampling of field animals in the U. S. that are threatened by intensive crop production, such as: opossum, rock dove, house sparrow, European starling, black rat, Norway rat, house mouse, Chukar, grey partridge, ring-necked pheasant, wild turkey, cottontail rabbit, gray-tailed vole, and numerous species of amphibians. In one small example, an alfalfa harvest caused a 50% decline in the gray-tailed vole population. According to Davis, if all of the cropland in the U. S. were used to produce crops for a vegan diet, it is estimated that around 1.8 billion animals would be killed annually.
Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, claims that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including distorting the notion of "harm" to animals, and miscalculating the number of animal deaths based upon areas of land rather than per consumer. Matheny claims that vegetarianism actually kills less animals, promotes better treatment of animals, and allows more animals to exist.
Other critics have questioned the validity of the ethical claims put forward by vegans, stating that "the belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises." However, many vegans do not believe that all animal life is sacred. For instance, Peter Singer, who is vegan for utilitarian reasons, has stated that the benefit caused by a good taste for the human who consumes animal products is more than negated by the pain felt by the beings who are consumed.
References
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(help) - ^ "Criteria for Vegan food". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
- ^ "Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian?". Time Magazine. 2002-07-07. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
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(help) - ^ "Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan" (PDF). National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002. Food Standards Agency. pp. 11, 23. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
- ^ "How Many Adults Are Vegetarian?". Vegetarian Journal. Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
- ^ "Donald Watson". Times Online. Times Newspapers Ltd. 2005-11-16. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
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- "Vegetarians in Paradise interview with Donald Watson". Vegetarians in Paradise Web Magazine. Vegetarians in Paradise. 2004-08-11. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
- "What is Vegan?". American Vegan Society. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
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- ^ "Vegan FAQs". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
Is refined sugar vegan? It depends on how you define 'vegan.' Refined sugars do not contain any animal products, and so by an ingredients-based definition of vegan, refined sugar is vegan. ... However, if one accepts a process-based definition of vegan, then many other familiar products would also not be considered vegan. For instance, steel and vulcanized rubber are produced using animal fats and, in many areas, groundwater and surface water is filtered through bone charcoal filters.
- "IVU FAQ: Drinks". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
- "Information Sheet: Alcohol". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative. ... The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process, though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.
- "IVU FAQ: Ingredients". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
- "IVU FAQ: Animal Derived Ingredient List". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- "IVU FAQ: Maybe Animal Derived". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
- "On Living With Compassion". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
Our desire to oppose and help end cruelty to animals can help guide our choices, as well as provide a simple, easy-to-understand explanation of our actions. The question isn't, "Is this vegan?" but, "What is best for preventing suffering?"
- "On Living With Compassion (Old version)". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
We believe that framing veganism as the avoidance of a specific list of "bad" ingredients is not the best way to achieve results. When looked at closely, any ingredients-based definition of vegan collapses into inconsistencies. This is why we stress that the essence of being vegan is working to end cruelty to animals.
- "Factory Farms". Why Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
- "Cruelty to Animals: Mechanized Madness". GoVeg.com. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
- ^ Segelken, Roger (2001-06-28). "China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases". Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
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(help) - ^ "China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University". Division of Nutritional Sciences. Cornell University. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
- Henry, Susan O. "Milk: Is it Really Our Best Source for Calcium?". Americal Fitness Professionals & Associates. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
- "Bovine Growth Hormone". EJnet.org. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
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- "How To Win An Argument With a Meat-Eater". VegSource Interactive, Inc. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
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- ^ "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (6): 748–765. 2003. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
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All countries should ban the use of ruminant tissues in ruminant feed.
- "Meat-Eaters Aiding Global Warming?: New Research Suggests What You Eat as Important as What You Drive" (PDF). pp. 15–18. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
- "Livestock's Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options". Retrieved 2007-01-04.
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- Jacobs, Leonard (1994). Cooking with Seitan: The Complete Vegetarian "Wheat-meat" Cookbook. Avery. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0895295996.
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Q. What is a vegan substitute for egg whites? A. And the mystery ingredient is… flax seed.
- Bryanna Clark Grogan. "Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives". Bryanna's Vegan Feast. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- Karma Lekshe Tsomo (2006), Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791468313
- "The role of religion in protecting the Earth (Jainism and the environment: precursors of modern ecology)". Forum 2004: Parliament of the World's Religions. Universal Forum of Cultures. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
Naresh Jain, Co-Chair of the Interfaith Committee of Jainism Associations in North America, said that the difference lies in Jainists' strict approach to the vegetarian (or vegan) diet. "Jainism is the only religion that materialises the ideal of non-violence through the vegan diet" he said.
- Jyoti Mehta. "Veganism and Hinduism". The Young Indian Vegetarians. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
- Campbell, M (1982). "Rastafarianism and the vegans syndrome". British Medical Journal. 285: 1617–1618. 1617–1618. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
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- ^ "Vegan Health: Bone Health". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2007-01-09. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- ^ P Appleby (2007). "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659. PMID 17299475. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
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- ^ "What every vegan should know about vitamin B12". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms.
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- ^ Steven Walsh. "Nutrition: Iodine". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- "Healthy choices on a vegan diet". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
- ^ Jack Norris, RD (2003-04-18). "Staying a Healthy Vegan". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.
- ^ "Vitamin B12 Information Sheet". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
is exclusively synthesised by bacteria and is found primarily in meat, eggs and dairy products. ... he present consensus is that any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.
- ^ Jack Norris, RD (2005-07-22). "Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-01-02.
- "Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)". Merck Manual Home Edition. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
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- Jack Norris, RD. "Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12?". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Steinman, G. (2006). "Mechanisms of twinning: VII. Effect of diet and heredity on the human twinning rate" (PDF, fee required). Journal of Reproductive Medicine. 51 (5): 405–10. PMID 16779988. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
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ignored (help) - Davis, S.L. (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet." EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp 449-450.
- Davis S.L. (2003) "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. (16)4. pp. 387-394.
- Gaverick Matheny (2003). "Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis's omnivorous proposal". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 16: 505–511. doi:10.1023/A:1026354906892.
- Why I Am Not a Vegetarian By Dr. William T. Jarvis
- Singer, Peter (1979). "The case against using animals for food is at its strongest when animals are made to lead miserable lives so that their flesh can be made available to humans at the lowest possible cost. ... In order to have meat on the table at a price that people can afford, our society tolerates methods of meat production that confine sentient animals in cramped, unsuitable conditions for the entire duration of their lives. ... To avoid speciesism we must stop these practices." Practical Ethics, Cambridge 1979. Chapter 3.
See also
External links
- General
- Vegan Society (UK)
- Vegan Action, US vegan product certification
- Vegan Outreach, creators of the popular "Why Vegan?" pamphlet
- American Vegan Society
- Vegan Society of Australia
- Movement for Compassionate Living (the Vegan Way)
- Health/Nutrition
- American Dietetic Association position on vegetarian diet
- The Vegan Society (UK) webpages on nutrition
- Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
- The Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation
- Ethical