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Alternate meaning: Bohai Sea

Balhae (698 - 926) was an ancient kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-young, a former Goguryeo general of possible Mohe ethnicity, established Jin, later called Balhae, by uniting various Mohe and Goguryeo elements.

Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and Primorsky Krai, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula. It was defeated by the Khitans in 926, becoming mostly a part of the Liao Dynasty while southern parts were absorbed by Goryeo.

History

Founding

The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae come from the Book of Tang, which was compiled between 941 to 945. Southern Manchuria and northern Korea were previously the territory of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of Silla and the Tang Dynasty in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River and became Unified Silla. In the "New Book of Tang", it was recorded that the founder of Balhae, Dae Joyeong (大祚榮) was a former Goguryeo general of Sumo Mohe stock. According to the "Book of Tang", Dae Joyeong was of a minority tribe in Goguryeo. And the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms (i.e., Samguk Yusa) written several hundred years later states that he was of Goguryeo inheritance.

Expansion and foreign relations

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History of Manchuria
Prehistoric period Liao civilization
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The second king Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the Shandong Peninsula in 732. Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Balhae, which resumed tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region.

The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. He also established Holhanseong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 755. During his reign, a trade route with Silla, called Sillado, was established.

By the 8th century, Balhae controlled northern Korea, all of Northeastern Manchuria, the Liaodong peninsula, and what is now Primorsky Krai of Russia. Its strength was such that Silla was forced to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defences along the common border.

Fall and legacy

Traditionally, historians believed that the ethnic conflicts between ruling Koreans and underclass Malgal weakened the state. Recent study suggests that the downfall of Balhae is largely due to the catastrophic eruption in the 10th century of Baekdu Mountain located at the center of Balhae territory. Baekdu mountain still has one of the biggest volcanic caldera in the world Chonji. Ashes of this eruption can still be found in a large area, even in a sedimentary layer in northern Japan. This massive explosion century created tremendous volcanic ash, damaging the agriculture and even societal integrity. The Khitans took advantage of this natural disaster.

Eventually, Balhae would succumb to the Khitans, an emerging power in the Liaoxi area (east of current Beijing area). After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom, which was soon followed by the annexation by Liao in 936. Some Balhae aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent. Some Balhae people including aristocrats (est. 1 million), led by the last Crown Prince Dae Gwang-Hyun (대광현), fled southward to Goryeo, the new self-claimed succesor of Goguryeo (934). Many descendants of the Balhae royal family in Goryeo, changed their family name to Tae (태,太) while Crown Prince Dae Kwang Hyun was conferred family name Wang (왕,王), the royal family name of Goryeo dynasty. Balhae was the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria, although later Korean dynasties would continue to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae. Moreover that was the beginning of series of northern expansion of later Korean dynasties.

The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people, who founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people (Koreans) as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven Wuji(勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family". The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo, Khitan and Jurchen. This suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom.

Aftermath

After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, it was renamed Dongdan by its new Khitan masters , who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. However, starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: Later Balhae, Jung-Ahn Kingdom, and Dae-Won Kingdom. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the Liaodong peninsula , but they were all eventually decimated by the Liao Empire.

In 934, Dae Gwang-Hyun, the last Crown Prince of Balhae, revolted against their Khitan masters. After being defeated, he fled to Goryeo, where he was granted protection and the imperial surname. This resulted in the Liao breaking off diplomatic relations with Koryo, but there was no threat to invade.

Government and culture

The people of Balhae were made up of former Goguryeo elements and of several Tungusic peoples present in Manchuria, of which the Mohe (Malgal) made up the largest element.

Its culture and government was heavily influenced by Tang China. It modeled its system of government upon that of Tang China, to an even greater extent than Silla. The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries, and its capital, Sanggyong, was modeled after Chang'an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty. In addition, Balhae sent many students to Tang China to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations.()

An important source of cultural information on Balhae was discovered at the end of the 20th century at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Jeong-Hyo.

Characterization and political interpretation

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Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but there is some dispute over his ethnicity, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive.

Koreans regard Balhae as a Korean state, particular from the Joseon Dynasty onwards. The 18th century, during the Joseon Dynasty, was a period in which Korean scholars began a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the Yalu and Tumen rivers in 1712, and Jang Ji-yeon (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. Yu Deuk-gong in his eighteenth-century work Parhaego (An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria. Korean historian Sin Chae-ho, writing about Jiandao in the early twentieth century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu as their home” and that “half of our ancestor Dangun ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized Kim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi, for excluding Balhae from his historical work and claiming that Silla had achieved unification of Korea. Inspired by ideas of Social Darwinism, Sin wrote:

How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. Moreever, when in the possession of another race, if that race is the northern race, then Korea enters that northern race's sphere of power. If an eastern race obtains Manchuria, then Korea enters that race's sphere of power. Alas! This is an iron rule that has not changed for four thousand years.

Neither Silla nor the later Goryeo wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory.

In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North South States Period" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including Mohe, North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The Book of Tang says that Dae Joyeong was a minority of Goguryeo" (고려별종, 高麗別種), and the New Book of Tang states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe of the former realm of Goguryeo."

In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryo. Korean scholars believe Balhae founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Mohe from Goguryeo.

Like many ancient Korean and Japanese kingdoms, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and a heir who lacks this sanction was called by China 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Holhan/Huhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). However, Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own era names. Chinese historians consider Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the Manchus, considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe (Malgal). According to the Book of Jin (金史), the history of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, both the Jurchen and Balhae people originally descended from the seven tribes of the Wuji. After defeating the Khitan Liao Dynasty, the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family. (女直渤海本同一家) The People's Republic of China continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus.

The People's Republic of China is accused of limiting Korean archealogists access to historical sites located within Liaoning and Jilin. Starting from 1994, increasing numbers of South Korean tourists began to visit archaeological sites in China and often engaged in nationalistic displays. This was aggravated by a series of tomb robberies and vandalism at several of these archaeological sites between 1995 and 2000, which were widely believed to have been perpetrated by ethnic Koreans.

South Korean archeologist Song Ki-ho, who is a noted professor of Seoul National University and has published several papers criticizing the Chinese government, made several visits to China in the 1990s, 2000, 2003, and 2004, examined several historical sites and museums. However, he found himself restricted by limitations on note-taking and photography and even ejected from several sites by museum employees.

North Korea has restricted independent archaeologists from its historical sites since at least the early 1960s. Foreign scholars have criticized political bias in North Korean historiography, and have accused North Korean scholars of reconstructing or even fabricating historical sites.

Russian archaeologists and scholars, like those from China, think of Balhae as an independent Mohe state, with Central Asian and Chinese influence.

In relations with Japan, Balhae referred to itself as Goguryeo, and Japan welcomed this as a kind of restoration of its former friendly relationship with Goguryeo. Modern Japanese scholars view Balhae as an independent state.

Sovereigns of Balhae 698-926

Note : Dae Heummu had another era name Boryeok (Hangul :보력 Hanja: 寶曆; 774-?)

Media

Balhae is mentioned in a Korean film called Shadowless Sword, which is about the last prince of Balhae. Also, a Korean drama, coming out in September of 2006, will feature the founder of Balhae himself, Dae Joyeong.

References and notes

1. Second Canonical History Records of Tang Dynasty, Volume 219
2. "First Canonical History Records of Tang Dynasty, Volume 199-2
5. Andre Schmid (2000). "Looking North toward Manchuria". The South Atlantic Quarterly. 99 (1): 219–240.
6. Andre Schmid (1997). "Rediscovering Manchuria: Sin Ch'aeho and the Politics of Territorial History in Korea". The Journal of Asian Studies. 56 (1): 30. Sin was criticizing previous generations of Korean historians, who had traced Korean history back to the ancient peoples of the Korean peninsula. Sin believed that by doing so, and regarding "minor peoples" as their ancestors, they were diluting and weakening the Korean people and their history. He believed that the Korean race was in fact mainly descended from northern peoples, such as Buyeo, Goguryeo, and Balhae, and (re)claiming such a heritage would make them strong.
7. Book of Jin, 金史)
8. Mark Byington (2004). "The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
9. Leonid A. Petrov (2004). "Restoring the Glorious Past: North Korean Juche Historiography and Goguryeo". The Review of Korean Studies. 7 (3): 231–252.

• Mark Byington (October 7 - 8, 2004). ""A Matter of Territorial Security: Chinese Historiographical Treatment of Koguryo in the Twentieth Century"". International Conference on Nationalism and Textbooks in Asia and Europe, Seoul, The Academy of Korean Studies. {{cite conference}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link)

Work Cited

F.W. Mote (1999). Imperial China, 900-1800. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674012127. {{cite book}}: Text "pages 49,61-62" ignored (help)

See also

• History of China
• History of Korea
• Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain
• Mausoleum of Princess Zhenxiao
• List of Provinces of Balhae

External links

• Encyclopedia Britannica
• Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
• Stearns, Peter N. (ed.). Encyclopedia of World History (6th ed.). The Houghton Mifflin Company/Bartleby.com. the state of Parhae (or Bohai in Chinese)
• Columbia Encyclopedia
• U.S. Library of Congress: Country Studies
• Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Template:Ko iconProvinces of Balhae Kingdom in 820
• Template:Ko icon RootsInfo.co.kr
• Template:Ko icon Balhae creation and it's Extension

• Balhae
• History of China
• History of Manchuria
• History of Korea
• History of Russia
• Former countries in Asia
• 690s establishments
• 920s disestablishments