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Ronald Wilson Reagan
40th President of the United States
In office January 20 1981 – January 20 1989
Vice President	George H. W. Bush
Preceded by	Jimmy Carter
Succeeded by	George H. W. Bush
33rd Governor of California
In office January 3 1967 – January 7 1975
Lieutenant	Robert Finch (1967–1969) Ed Reinecke (1969–1974) John L. Harmer (1974–1975)
Preceded by	Edmund G. "Pat" Brown, Sr.
Succeeded by	Edmund G. "Jerry" Brown, Jr.
Personal details
Born	February 6, 1911 Tampico, Illinois, USA
Died	June 5, 2004(2004-06-05) (aged 93) Bel Air, California
Political party	Republican
Spouse(s)	(1) Jane Wyman (married 1940, divorced 1948) (2) Nancy Davis Reagan (married 1952)
Alma mater	Eureka College
Occupation	Actor
Signature

Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981 – 1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967 – 1975). Born and raised in Illinois, Reagan moved to California in the 1930s, where he became a Hollywood actor, President of the Screen Actors Guild, a spokesman for General Electric, and later met his second wife, Nancy. Previously a New Deal Democrat, Reagan became a Republican in 1962. During his work for General Electric Theatre, he began to articulate the political themes that would carry him into the California Governorship, which he won in 1966. He later made two presidential bids: the first, unsuccessful, in 1976, and the second, which he won, in 1980.

Reagan stated that his two proudest achievements as President were expanding the economy and restoring American morale following a time of political setbacks and economic stagflation. Derived from supply-side economics, "Reaganomics" consisted of large tax cuts, moderate deregulation, and increases in defense spending, resulting in about 16 million new jobs and significantly lower inflation rates, but also record budget deficits, a soaring national debt and a growing gap between rich and poor. After surviving an assassination attempt in his first term, Reagan was reelected in a landslide in 1984. His administration saw a number of scandals, most notably the Iran-Contra Affair.

Reagan instituted his policy of "peace through strength" in an arms race with the Soviet Union. He rejected détente and confronted Communism, famously portraying the USSR as an "Evil Empire" and bolstering anti-Communist movements worldwide. Reagan negotiated with Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev to shrink both countries' nuclear arsenals and help bring a peaceful end to the Cold War.

In 1994, five years after leaving office, Reagan disclosed that he had been afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease, and died ten years later at the age of ninety-three.

Early life

Reagan was born in a flat above the local bank building in Tampico, Illinois. During his youth, Reagan's family briefly lived in several small Illinois towns, and Chicago. In 1920, when "Dutch" was nine years old, his family settled in the small town of Dixon, Illinois. The Midwestern "small universe" made a lasting impression on Reagan "where I learned standards and values that would guide me the rest of my life," he said. "I learned that hard work is an essential part of life – that by and large, you don't get something for nothing – and that America was a place that offered unlimited opportunity to those who did work hard."

Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed a passion for storytelling and acting. In 1926, his first job was that of a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park, near Dixon. He was credited with saving 77 lives during the seven summers that he worked there. After High School, Reagan attended Eureka College, where he majored in economics and sociology. He was a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and was very active in sports.

Entertainment career

Radio and film

In 1932, after graduating from Eureka, Reagan worked at radio stations WOC in Davenport, Iowa, and then WHO in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games. As an announcer, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with the Warner Brothers studio. Initially, Reagan secured roles in "B" films and later in more significant "A" pictures.

His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air. By the end of 1939, he had appeared in nineteen films. Before Santa Fe Trail in 1940, he played the role of George "The Gipper" Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American. From this role he acquired the nickname the Gipper, which he retained the rest of his life. Reagan's favorite acting role was in Kings Row in 1942,. But his performance did not meet with universal approval — one reviewer felt that Reagan had made "only casual acquaintance with the ". plus he played in Tennessee's Partner, Hellcats of the Navy, This Is the Army, Bedtime for Bonzo, Cattle Queen of Montana, and The Killers in a 1964 remake.

World War II

On May 25, 1937, Reagan was appointed a second lieutenant in the Officers' Reserve Corps of the Cavalry, serving with Troop B, 322nd Cavalry. Reagan was prevented from serving overseas due to nearsightedness, and remained in Hollywood for the duration of the war. In June 1942, he was assigned to the First Motion Picture Unit, which made training and education films for the war effort.

Television and SAG President

Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s, and moved to television as the host and a frequent performer for General Electric Theater. At one point in the late 1950s, Reagan was earning approximately $125,000 per year ($800,000 in 2006 dollars). His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days.

Reagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941, serving as an alternate. Following World War II, he resumed service and became 3rd Vice President in 1946. The adoption of conflict-of-interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six Board members to resign; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of SAG President by fellow Board member Gene Kelly and was elected. Reagan would subsequently be elected by the membership to seven additional one-year terms, from 1947–1952 and in 1959. Reagan led SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor-management disputes, the Taft-Hartley Act, the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era.

In 1947, as SAG President, Reagan testified before HUAC regarding the influence of Communists in the motion picture industry. Strongly opposed to communism, Reagan reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles, stating, "As a citizen, I would hesitate to see any political party outlawed on the basis of its political ideology. However, if it is proven that an organization is an agent of foreign power, or in any way not a legitimate political party – and I think the government is capable of proving that – then that is another matter."

Marriages and children

In 1938, Reagan co-starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman. They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre, and they married on January 26, 1940, at the Week Kirk O'Heather Church in Forest Lawn, California. Together they had two children, Maureen Reagan (1941 – 2001) and Christine Reagan (born and died June 26, 1947), and adopted a third, Michael Reagan (born 1945). Reagan and Wyman divorced on June 28, 1948 following arguments about Reagan's political ambitions. Reagan is the only United States President to have been divorced.

Reagan met actress Nancy Davis in 1949, after Davis contacted then-President of the Screen Actors Guild Reagan to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a communist blacklist in Hollywood (Davis was mistaken for another Nancy Davis). They were engaged at Chasen's restaurant in Los Angeles, and were married on March 4, 1952 at the Little Brown Church in the San Fernando Valley. Ronald and Nancy Reagan had two children: Patti (b.1952) and Ron (b.1958).

Observers described Ronald and Nancy Reagan's relationship as close, real, and intimate. While President and First Lady, the Reagans were reported to frequently display their affection for each other. He often called her "Mommy"; she called him "Ronnie." When the President was recuperating in the hospital after the assassination attempt in 1981, Nancy Reagan slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by the scent; in a letter to Mrs. Reagan, President Reagan wrote, "whatever I treasure and enjoy...all would be without meaning if I didn’t have you." In 1998, while her husband was severely affected by Alzheimer's disease, Nancy Reagan told Vanity Fair, "Our relationship is very special. We were very much in love and still are. When I say my life began with Ronnie, well, it's true. It did. I can't imagine life without him."

Early political career

Reagan was originally a Democrat, a supporter of the New Deal, and an admirer of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and in the late 1940s, Reagan was a visible speaker defending President Harry S Truman, but his political loyalties soon shifted to the Republican Party.

His first major political role was as President of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), the labor union that represented most Hollywood actors. In this position, he testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) on suspected communist influence in the motion picture industry. The Screen Actors Guild, he claimed, was being infiltrated by communists.

A committed anti-Communist, Reagan supported the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956, as well as that of Richard Nixon in 1960, while remaining a registered Democrat. Following the election of John F. Kennedy, Reagan formally switched parties, becoming a Republican in 1962. "I didn't leave the Democratic Party", he claimed. "The party left me." He also implied that Thomas Jefferson, Woodrow Wilson, and FDR would have also disapproved of the change in the Democratic Party.

Two years after switching parties, Reagan joined the campaign of conservative Presidential contender Barry Goldwater. Speaking on Goldwater's behalf, Reagan revealed his ideological motivation in a famed speech given on October 27, 1964: "The Founding Fathers knew a government can't control the economy without controlling people. And they knew when a government set out to do that, it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose. So we have come to a time for choosing." The address soon became known as the "Time for Choosing" speech, it being considered the speech that launched Reagan's poitical career.

Governor of California, 1967–1975

After Reagan's "Time for Choosing" speech, California Republicans became impressed with his political views and charisma. They nominated him for Governor of California in 1966, and he was elected, defeating two-term governor Edmund G. "Pat" Brown. In Reagan's campaign, he emphasized two main themes, "to send 'the welfare bums' back to work," and in reference to burgeoning anti-war and anti-establishement student protests at the University of California at Berkeley, "to clean up the mess at Berkeley." Reagan was sworn in as Governor on January 3, 1967. In his first term, he froze government hiring but also approved tax hikes to balance the budget.

Shortly after the beginning of his term, Reagan tested the Presidential waters in 1968 as part of a "Stop Nixon" movement which included those from the party's left, led by then-New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller. Reagan managed to win the pledges of some 600 delegates, but Richard Nixon quickly steamrolled to the nomination.

Reagan entered into high-profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era. In 1969, during the People's Park protests at UC Berkeley, Reagan met with Regent Edwin Pauley to discuss and try to end the unrest, and Reagan sent California Highway Patrol officers onto the campus to quell the riots. On May 15 of that year, the riots increased, and the officers resorted to firearms, shooting and killing a twenty-five year- old San Jose man and injuring many others. Reagan then called out 2,200 state National Guard troops to the University to crack down on the anti-war protesters and rioters.

Early in 1967, the national debate on abortion was beginning. Democratic California state senator Anthony Beilenson introduced the "Therapeutic Abortion Act," in an effort to reduce the number of "back-room abortions" performed in California. The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan's desk, and after many days of indecision, he signed the bill. About two million abortions would be performed as a result, most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well-being of the mother. Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill, and stated that had he been more experienced as governor, it would not have been signed. After he recognized what he called the "consequences" of signing the bill, he announced that he was pro-life.

Reagan was re-elected in 1970, defeating "Big Daddy" Jesse Unruh, but chose not to seek a third term. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment. He had campaigned as a strong supporter; however, his efforts to enforce the state's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision, which invalidated all death sentences issued in California prior to 1972, but the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment. The only execution during Reagan's governorship was on April 12, 1967, when Aaron Mitchell was killed by the state in San Quentin's gas chamber.

1976 presidential campaign

In 1976, Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party's candidate for president. Ford was considered a more moderate Republican.

Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate; like-minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union became the key components of his political base.The ACU benefited from early knowledge of the changes in rules permitting PACs to contribute to campaigns, and "undertook one of the first independent, non-party campaigns on behalf of a presidential candidate," sponsoring hundreds of radio and newspaper ads contrasting Reagan's conservative views with Ford's. He relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to seriously damage the lift-off of Ford's campaign, such as his victories in North Carolina, Texas, and California: but the strategy disintegrated. Poor management of the campaign, and other financial problems caused Reagan to lose New Hampshire and later Florida.

As the party's convention in Kansas City neared, Ford appeared close to victory, in thanks partly to New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania delegates ostensibly under the control of Ford's liberal Republican Vice President Nelson Rockefeller. Acknowledging the strength of his party's moderate wing, Reagan choose moderate Republican Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate. Nonetheless, Ford narrowly won, with 1,187 delegates to Reagan's 1,070.

Reagan's concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union. Although Reagan lost the nomination, in the November election he received 307 write-in votes in New Hampshire, 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming's ballot, and a single electoral vote from a Washington State "faithless elector." Ford went on to lose the 1976 presidential election to the Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter.

1980 presidential campaign

The 1980 presidential campaign, led by William J. Casey, was conducted in the shadow of the Iran hostage crisis. Every day during the campaign, the networks reported on Jimmy Carter's unavailing efforts to free the hostages. On the domestic front, Reagan attacked Carter's inability to deal with double-digit inflation, soaring interest rates, and high unemployment. With respect to the economy, Reagan quipped, "I'm told I can't use the word depression. Well, I'll tell you the definition. A recession is when your neighbor loses his job; depression is when you lose your job. Recovery is when Jimmy Carter loses his."

Reagan's showing in the televised debates boosted his campaign. He seemed more at ease, deflecting President Carter's criticisms with remarks like "there you go again." One of his most influential remarks was a closing question to the audience in which he asked, "Are you better off now than you were four years ago?" (a phrase he would successfully reuse in the 1984 campaign). During the Republican National Convention, Reagan unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate an unusual power-sharing arrangement that would entice former President Gerald Ford to be the Vice Presidential nominee. Instead, Reagan selected his opponent in the primaries, George H. W. Bush, who had extensive international experience.

Reagan swept to a landslide, carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to 49 for Carter, representing 6 states and the District of Columbia. Reagan won 50.7% of the popular vote while Carter took 41% and independent John B. Anderson (a liberal Republican) received 6.7%. Thanks in large part to the enthusiastic Republican campaign and Reagan's coattails, twelve Democrats were defeated in Senate races, which the GOP captured for the first time since 1952, with the margin of 54-46. The GOP gained 34 House seats, but the Democrats retained a majority of 242-192.

Presidency, 1981–1989

First term, 1981–1985

During his Presidency, Ronald Reagan pursued policies that reflected his optimism in individual freedom, promoted individual liberty domestically, and pursued freedom abroad. The "Reagan Revolution" as it came to be known, aimed to reinvigorate American morale, and reduce the people's reliance upon government. Addressing the economic malaise he inherited in his inaugural address, Reagan argued, "Government is not the solution to our problems; Government is the problem." The Reagan Presidency began in a historic manner. The first major event happened just thirty minutes into the administration on January 20, 1981. As Reagan was delivering his inaugural address, fifty-two American hostages, held by Iran for 444 days, were set free.

Assassination attempt

On March 30, 1981, only sixty-nine days into the new administration, Reagan, his press secretary James Brady, and two others were struck by gunfire from a deranged would-be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr.. Missing Reagan’s heart by less than one inch, the bullet instead pierced his left lung, which probably spared his life. In the operating room, Reagan joked to the surgeons, "I hope you're all Republicans!" Though they were not, Dr. Joseph Giordano replied, "Today, Mr. President, we're all Republicans." Reagan famously told his wife, "Honey, I forgot to duck" (using defeated boxer Jack Dempsey's quip). On April 12, Nancy Reagan and their daughter, Patti, escorted the President home from the hospital.

Air traffic controllers' strike

Main article: 1981 Air Traffic Controllers' Strike
Only a short time into his administration, Federal air traffic controllers went on strike, violating a regulation prohibiting Government unions from striking. Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft Hartley Act, Reagan held a press conference in the White House Rose Garden, where he stated that if the air traffic controllers "do not report for work within 48 hours, they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated." On August 5, 1981, Reagan fired 11,359 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order to return to work.

"Reaganomics" and the economy

When Ronald Reagan entered office, the American economy faced the highest rate of inflation since 1947, and double-digit unemployment, as well as high interest rates, were considered the nation's principal economic problems. When Reagan returned from the hospital, he focused on reviving the economy through his economic policies. Partially based on supply-side economics, the policies sought to stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts, and aimed to reduce the growth of Government spending, regulation, and inflation. Reagan's expansionary fiscal policies soon became known as "Reaganomics", and were considered to be the most serious attempt to change the course of U.S. economic policy of any administration since the New Deal.

President Reagan's tenure marked a time of economic prosperity for the majority of Americans. Tax rates were lowered significantly, with the top personal tax bracket dropping from 70% to 28% in 7 years, and GDP growth recovered strongly after the 1982 recession. Unemployment peaked at over 11 percent in 1982, then dropped steadily, plus inflation significantly decreased. During Reagan's eight years in office, the economy grew at a robust annual rate of 3.8% per year. Reagan reappointed Fed Chairman Paul Volcker, as well as the monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him. He preserved the core New Deal safeguards, such as the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), the GI Bill and Social Security, while rolling back what he viewed as the excesses of 1960s and 1970s liberal policies.

Reagan's policies became common flashpoints for both critics and supporters. Critics charged that Reagan was unconcerned with income inequality and its effects, and derided his economic policies as "Trickle-down economics". They also stated that the combination of significant tax cuts and a massive increase in Cold War related defense spending caused large budget deficits, as well as the U.S. trade deficit expansion, and contributed to the Savings and Loan crisis. In order to cover new federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $700 billion dollars to $3 trillion dollars, and the United States moved from being the world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation. Reagan described the new debt as the "greatest disappointment" of his presidency.

Reagan himself was criticized for his supposed lack of understanding of economics. Donald Regan, the President's former Secretary of the Treasury, and later Chief of Staff, stated, "In the four years that I served as Secretary of the Treasury, I never saw President Reagan alone and never discussed economic philosophy or fiscal and monetary policy with him one–on–one....The President never told me what he believed or what he wanted to accomplish in the field of economics.”

Many scholars agree that overall, Reagan's tax policies and emphasis on deregulation invigorated America's economy. Although there is speculation about deficits from Reaganomics being the reason that Reagan's successor, George H.W. Bush, reneged on a campaign promise and raised taxes, according to the Cato Institute, the American Economy performed better during the Reagan years than during the pre- and post- Reagan years. At the end of the Reagan administration, the United States was enjoying its longest recorded period of peacetime prosperity without recession or depression.

War on Drugs

Not long after being sworn into office, Reagan declared more militant policies in the "War on Drugs". He promised a "planned, concerted campaign" against all drugs, which eventually led to dramatic decreases in adolescent drug use in America.

On October 27, 1986, President Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill into law, which granted $1.7 billion dollars to fight the crisis, and ensured a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses. The Bill was criticized, saying that the minimum penalty promoted significant racial disparities in the prison population, because of the differences in sentencing for crack vs. powder cocaine.

Many critics also charged that the Administration's policies did little to actually reduce the availability of drugs or crime on the street, while resulting in a great financial and human cost for American society. Many critics regarded Reagan as indifferent to the needs of poor and minority citizens. Nevertheless, most surveys showed that illegal drug use among Americans declined significantly during Reagan's presidency, leading supporters to argue that the policies were successful.

Reagan's First Lady, Nancy, even took on the War on Drugs as her main cause, by founding the "Just Say No" anti-drug association. Still today, there are hundreds of "Just Say No" clinics around the country, aimed at helping and rehabilitating children and teenagers with drug problems.

Judiciary

During his 1980 campaign, Reagan pledged that, if given the opportunity, he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice. That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart. In his second term, Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren Burger as Chief Justice, and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat. However in 1987 Reagan lost a significant political battle when the Senate rejected the nomination of Robert Bork. Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place.

Both his Supreme Court nominations and his lower court appointments were in line with Reagan's philosophy that judges should interpret law as enacted and not "legislate from the bench". By the end of the 1980s, a conservative majority on the Supreme Court had put an end to the perceived "activist" trend begun under the leadership of Earl Warren. Critics pointed out that the conservative justices were equally activist, but showed sympathy to corporate America.

Lebanon and Grenada, 1983

American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, with a multinational force during the Lebanese Civil War, were attacked on October 22, 1983. The Beirut barracks bombing, in which 241 American servicemen were killed by suicide bombers, was the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States Marine Corps since the Battle of Iwo Jima, and the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States military since the first day of the Tet offensive. Reagan called the attack "despicable," pledged to keep a military force in Lebanon, and had plans to target the Sheik Abdullah barracks in Baalbek, Lebanon, which housed Iranian Revolutionary Guards believed to be training Hezbollah fighters. Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger aborted the mission, however, reportedly because of his concerns that it would harm U.S. relations with other Arab nations. Besides a few shellings, there was no serious American retaliation.

Three days later, U.S. forces invaded Grenada, where a 1979 coup d’état had established a Marxist-Leninist government aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. The Grenadan Government began military expansion and construction of an international airport with Cuban assistance. On October 13, 1983, a faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. A formal appeal from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) led to the intervention of U.S. forces; President Reagan also cited the regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George's University as adequate reasons to invade. On October 25, 1983, in the first major operation conducted by the U.S. military since the Vietnam War, several days of fighting commenced, and led to U.S. victory, with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers.In mid-December, after a new government was appointed by the Governor-General, U.S. forces withdrew.

In Lebanon, meanwhile, the Marines were moved offshore where they could not be targeted. On February 7, 1984, President Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from Lebanon. This was completed on February 26: the rest of the MNF was withdrawn by April.

1984 presidential campaign

Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas, Texas, on a wave of positive feeling bolstered by the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the Los Angeles Olympics that summer. He became the first American President to open a summer Olympic Games held in the United States.

Reagan's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale. With questions about Reagan's age, and a weak performance in the first presidential debate, many wondered if he was up to the task of being President for another term. Reagan rebounded in the second debate, and confronted questions about his age, stating, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience," which generated applause and laughter from members of the audience.

In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan was re-elected over Mondale, winning 49 of 50 states. The President's landslide victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota (by 3800 votes) and the District of Columbia. Reagan received nearly 60 percent of the popular vote.

Second term, 1985–1989

Reagan was sworn in as President for the second time on January 21, 1985, in the Rotunda of the United States Capitol Building. The 20th of January fell on a Sunday, so no public celebration was held until the next day, which was the coldest day on record in Washington, D.C. Because of the record low temperatures, inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol.

On July 13, 1985, Reagan underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon, causing the first-ever invocation of the Acting President clause of the 25th Amendment, and on January 5, 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for prostate cancer which caused further worries about his health; for the President was 76 years old.

In 1985, Ronald and Nancy Reagan visited a cemetery in Bitburg, Germany, where Reagan was to lay a wreath. Some Jewish leaders criticized him for deciding to visit the cemetery, after they discovered that 47 Waffen SS men were buried there. Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel pleaded with Reagan not to go, stating, "May I, Mr. President, if it is possible at all, implore you to do something else, to find a way, to find another way, another site." Reagan argued that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Helmut Kohl, and in the end, two retired generals laid the wreath in the cemetery with Reagan present. In 1983, and again in 1984, Reagan told prominent Israelis and American Jews — notably Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir of Israel, Simon Wiesenthal, and Rabbi Martin Hier of Los Angeles — of his personal experience vis-à-vis the Holocaust, saying "I was there" and that that he himself had assisted personally at the liberation of Nazi death camps; in fact, he was in a film unit in Hollywood that processed raw footage it received from Europe for newsreels, but Reagan was not in Europe itself during the war.

Reagan's administration was also criticized for their slow response to the HIV-AIDS epidemic, until the illness of movie star and national icon Rock Hudson became public news in July 1985, by which time over 10,000 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and over 6,000 had died.

The Iran-Contra Affair

In 1986, the Reagan Administration was found to have illegally sold arms to Iran to fund Contra rebels in Nicaragua. The Iran-Contra Affair was the largest political scandal in the United States during the 1980s. President Reagan professed ignorance of the plot's existence and quickly called for an Independent Counsel to investigate. Reagan's denial of awareness of the scandal belied his signing a secret presidential "finding" describing the deal as "arms-for-hostages." Critics objected to his comparison of the Contras to the Founding Fathers and to the French Resistance. The International Court of Justice, in its ruling on Nicaragua v. United States, found that the U.S. had been involved in the "unlawful use of force" in Nicaragua due to its treaty obligations and the customary obligations of international law not to intervene in the affairs of other states.

Reagan appointed a non-partisan, three-man Tower Commission to review the Scandal. Headed by John Tower, the other two members were Edmund Muskie and Brent Scowcroft. In the end, ten officials in the Reagan Administration were convicted, and others were forced to resign. Secretary of Defense Casper Weinberger was indicted for perjury and later received a presidential pardon from George H.W. Bush. In 2006, historians ranked the Iran-Contra affair as one of the ten worst mistakes by a U.S. president.

The Cold War

Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in 1979 following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.The Reagan Administration implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union, with reviving of the B-1 bomber program that had been canceled by the Carter administration, and the production of the MX "Peacekeeper" missile. In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing II missile in West Germany.

One of Reagan's more controversial proposals was the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI, a defense project. The program would essentially send missiles into space which could intercept missiles being fired anywhere in America. Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible, but the unlikelihood that the technology could ever work led opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars," and argue that the technological objective was unattainable. Soviet Leader Yuri Andropov became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have on the Soviet Union, and considered the possibility that Reagan was pushing to win the Cold War. He called it, "putting the entire world in jeopardy.". Today, the legacy of SDI can be seen with the development of the Patriot, THAD, and AEGIS missile systems – a layered approach to SDI, brought back into light by North Korea's development of nuclear missiles and threats against the United States.

In a famous address on June 8, 1982 to the British Parliament, Reagan called the Soviet Union an "Evil Empire" that would be consigned to the "ash heap of history." On March 3, 1983, Reagan predicted that Communism would collapse, stating, "communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written." After Soviet fighters downed Korean Airlines Flight 007 on September 1, 1983, Reagan labeled the act a "massacre" and declared that the Soviets had turned "against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere." The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States, and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets, hurting them financially.

Reagan's foreign policies were criticized variously as aggressive, imperialistic, and were derided as "warmongering". Critics denounced his opposition to Fidel Castro's government in Cuba and claimed that he was ignoring human rights around the World.

All this was before a reformer, Mikhail Gorbachev, rose to power in the Soviet Union in 1985. To confront the Soviet Union's serious economic problems, Gorbachev implemented bold new policies for openness and reform called glasnost and perestroika.

End of the Cold War

By the late years of the Cold War, Moscow had built up a military which surpassed that of the United States.In the past, the United States had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets, but with Soviet technological advances in the 1980s, the gap between the two nations was narrowed. With the military buildup came large budget deficits, and as a result, Gorbachev offered major concessions to the United States on the levels of conventional forces, nuclear weapons, and policy in Eastern Europe.

Ronald Reagan recognized the real change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Gorbachev, and shifted to diplomacy, with a view to encourage the Soviet Leader to go further with his reforms. Gorbachev agreed to meet Reagan in four summit conferences around the world: the first, in Geneva, Switzerland, the second in Reykjavík, Iceland, the third, held in Washington, D.C., along with the fourth summit, in Moscow, Russia. Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to look at the prosperous American economy, they would embrace free markets and a free society. Gorbachev, facing severe economic problems at home, was swayed.

Speaking at the Berlin Wall, on June 12, 1987, Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further:

General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!

When Gorbachev visited Washington, D.C. for the third summit in 1987, he and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty at the White House (they finalized it a year later), which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons.

When Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in 1988, he was viewed as a celebrity by Russians. A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire. "No," he replied, "I was talking about another time, another era." At Gorbachev’s request, Reagan gave a speech on free markets at Moscow University.

In his autobiography An American Life, Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction that they charted, his warm feelings for Gorbachev, and his concern for Gorbachev's safety because Gorbachev pushed reforms so hard: "I was concerned for his safety," Reagan wrote. "I've still worried about him. How hard and fast can he push reforms without risking his life?" Events would unravel far beyond what Gorbachev originally intended. In 1990, the Berlin Wall was torn down. A year later, the Soviet Union officially collapsed.

Close of the Reagan Era

In 1988, Reagan's Vice President, George H. W. Bush, was elected President of the United States. On January 11, 1989, Reagan addressed the nation for the last time on television from the Oval Office, nine days before handing over the presidency to George H. W. Bush. On the morning of January 20, 1989, Ronald and Nancy Reagan escorted the Bushes to the Capitol Building, where Bush took the Oath of Office. The Reagans then boarded a Presidential helicopter, and flew to Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland. There, they boarded the Presidential Jet (in this instance, it was not called Air Force One), and flew home to California – to their new home in the wealthy suburb of Bel Air in Los Angeles. Reagan was the oldest president to serve (at 77), surpassing Dwight Eisenhower, who was 70 when he left office in 1961.

Post-presidential years, 1989–2004

Ronald and Nancy Reagan would enjoy the private life for the next five years, traveling from their Bel-Air, California home to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara, California every few months. Reagan made occasional appearances on behalf of the Republican Party, including a well-received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention. He publicly spoke in favor of a line-item veto, a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget, and repealing the 22nd Amendment, which prohibits a President from serving more than two terms. Reagan's final public speech was on February 3, 1994, during a tribute in Washington, D.C. His last major public appearance was at the funeral of fellow Republican President Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994.

In 1992, President Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. The award, the highest given by the Reagan Foundation, is presented on a regular basis to one person in the World who has "made monumental and lasting contributions to the cause of freedom worldwide," and who "embodies President Reagan's lifelong belief that one man or woman truly can make a difference." The first recipient was former leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, and the most recent was former United States President George H.W. Bush. When President Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's Disease, Nancy Reagan took on the role of presenting the award on behalf of her husband.

Presidential Library and Museum

On November 4, 1991, The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public. At the dedication ceremonies, four former presidents, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Reagan, and the current president, George H. W. Bush, were all in attendance, as well as five former first ladies, Lady Bird Johnson, Pat Nixon, Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, and Nancy Reagan, plus the current First Lady, Barbara Bush. Currently, the library is the largest of all of the Presidential Libraries. Notable exhibits include ones on the Reagan's Ranch; a full-scale replica of the Oval Office; the limousine that President and Mrs. Reagan used while in the White House; and the actual Boeing 707, Air Force One, that served President Reagan during his eight years in office. On June 11, 2004, after a state funeral in Washington, D.C., President Reagan was interred on the property. On May 3, 2007, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation hosted the first 2008 Republican Presidential Candidates debate in the Air Force One Pavillion at the Library, with Mrs. Reagan in attendance.

Alzheimer's disease

On November 5, 1994, Reagan informed the Nation via a hand-written letter that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's Disease. With his trademark optimism, he stated: "I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life. I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead. Thank you, my friends. May God always bless you."

As the years went on, the disease slowly destroyed his mental capacity, and he and Nancy decided that he would live in quiet isolation. On February 6, 2001, Reagan reached the age of 90, becoming the third former President to do so – the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover. Just three weeks before, Reagan had undergone hip-replacement surgery; because of this and his Alzheimer's disease, his 90th birthday was a low-key celebration with his family at his home in Bel-Air. Nancy Reagan told CNN's Larry King that very few visitors were allowed access to her husband because she felt that "Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was."

Religious beliefs and philosophy

Reagan was a Christian, attending Bel Air Presbyterian Church in his later years. His burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library:

I know in my heart that man is good. That what is right will always eventually triumph. And there’s purpose and worth to each and every life.

According to Paul Kengor, author of God and Ronald Reagan and God and George Bush, Reagan had a strong belief in personal reliance and an faith in the goodness of most people, stemming from the teachings of his mother, Nelle. Nelle Reagan, a member of the Disciples of Christ Church with an optimistic view of human nature, taught young Ronald a strong sense of personal responsibility, sobriety, Christian tolerance, and faith in the goodness of God's creation. He was against discrimination, recalling a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Young Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night, and have breakfast the next morning.

Death

Reagan died at his home in Bel Air, California, at 1:00 PM PST on June 5, 2004. A few hours after his death, Mrs. Nancy Reagan released a statement saying: "My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has passed away after 10 years of Alzheimer's Disease at 93 years of age. We appreciate everyone's prayers." Reagan's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica later in the day, where well-wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American Flags in the grass. On June 7, Reagan's body was removed and taken to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, where a brief family funeral service was held. His body lay in repose in the library lobby until June 9. In that amount of time, 108,000 people came to pay their respects to President Reagan.

Later that day, Reagan's casket was removed, and flown to Washington D.C., where he became the 10th United States President to lie in state. In the thirty-four hours that it lay there, 105,000 people filed past the coffin, paying their respects.

On June 11, a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral, and presided over by President George W. Bush. Eulogies included those from former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and both Presidents Bush. The service drew leaders and dignitaries from around the World, including the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev. Many of the sitting World leaders who attended the funeral had been in the U.S. for the G-8 Summit, including British Prime Minister Tony Blair, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan, and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq.

After the funeral service, the Reagan entourage was flown back to California—to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library—where another service was held, and President Ronald Reagan was interred. He is the second longest-lived president in U.S. history, 45 days behind Gerald Ford, and was the first United States president to die in the 21st century. Reagan's state funeral was the first since that of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973.

Legacy

The noted biographer Richard Reeves summarized in President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination that Reagan understood

...how to be President, who knows that the job is not to manage the government but to lead a nation. In many ways, a quarter century later, he is still leading. As his vice president, George H.W. Bush, said after Reagan was shot and hospitalized in 1981: 'We will act as if he were here.' He is a heroic figure if not always a hero. He did not destroy communism, as his champions claim, but he knew it would self-destruct and hastened the collapse. No small thing. He believed the Soviet Union was evil and he had contempt for the established American policies of containment and détente. Asked about his own Cold War strategy, he answered: 'We win. They lose!' Like one of his heroes, Franklin D. Roosevelt, he has become larger than life.

When Ronald Reagan died in June 2004, he was eulogized by some as one of the greatest Presidents in United States history. President George W. Bush, who presided over the state funeral, called Reagan "a modest son of America" and said "Ronald Reagan always told us the best was yet to come.... We know that's true for him, too. His work is done." Vice-President Dick Cheney said at Reagan's memorial service, "In this national vigil of mourning, we show how much America loved this good man, and how greatly we will miss him." President Bill Clinton stated, "it is fitting that a piece of the Berlin Wall adorns the Ronald Reagan Building in Washington," and Senator Ted Kennedy said that the 40th President "will be honored as the president who won the Cold War."

Reagan's supporters, and even some who are not, believe that much of America's success today can be attributed to Ronald Reagan, including a more efficient and more prosperous economy; a peaceful end to the Cold War; and a World safer from the threat of nuclear war. Critics argue that his economic policies caused huge budget deficits, tripling the United States national debt, and hostility towards the disadvantaged.

Today, Ronald Reagan is one of America's most popular presidents. In several recent ratings of American presidents, Ronald Reagan ranked high. The Gallup Organization took a poll in February 2007 asking respondents to name the greatest president in U.S. history; Reagan came in second, after Abraham Lincoln. He ranked fifth in an ABC poll of the public in 2000. He was named the greatest president since World War II by a Quinnipiac poll of the public in 2006, and he ranked sixth in a C-SPAN poll of viewers in 1999. On June 26, 2005, the Discovery Channel asked Americans to vote for The Greatest American; Reagan received the honorary title.

According to ABC News, by date:

Honors

As a very popular former President, Reagan is honored by many monuments and objects named in his likeness. On February 6, 1998, Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport by a bill signed into law by President Clinton. Three years later, the USS Ronald Reagan was christened by Nancy Reagan and the United States Navy. It is one of few ships christened in honor of a living person, and the first to be named in honor of a living former President.

On May 5, 1998, President Bill Clinton dedicated the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center in Washington, D.C.'s Federal Triangle. The building hosts large events in the Washington, D.C. area.

In 1999, in San Antonio, Texas, a new high school was named after him, Ronald Reagan High School, and in 2002, Congress authorized the creation of Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home National Historic Site in Dixon, Illinois, pending federal purchase of the property. In 2004, the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority voted to rename Interstate 88, which was formerly called the East-West Tollway, in his memory. In 2006, a new high school in Doral, Florida was named after him. Its full name is Ronald W. Reagan High.

When Reagan died, a record number of people turned out to say their goodbyes to the late President. More than 200,000 people filed past Reagan's casket in both California and Washington, D.C. Even more lined the motorcade routes, holding signs and American flags, and waving to Nancy Reagan.

In 2005, Reagan was given three posthumous honors. The President Ronald Reagan commemorative postage stamp was made available on February 9, and issued by the United States Postal Service. An unveiling of the stamp's image had taken place in a ceremony at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library four months earlier, with Nancy Reagan in attendance. On May 14, CNN, along with the editors of TIME magazine, named him the "most fascinating person" of the network's first 25 years. TIME also named Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century. In Gallup's List of Widely Admired People, Reagan was ranked the 15th most admired person in the 20th century.

Reagan received a number of awards, both in his pre and post Presidential years. After he was elected President, Reagan received a lifetime "Gold" membership in the Screen Actors Guild, as well as the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award. In 1989, Reagan received an honorary British knighthood, The Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. This entitled him to the use of the post-nominal letters GCB but did not entitle him to be known as "Sir Ronald Reagan". He, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and George H.W. Bush are the only American Presidents to have received the honor. While in England, he was named an honorary Fellow of Keble College, Oxford. Also in 1989, the nation of Japan awarded Reagan the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum. The highest honor that the United States can give, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, was awarded to Ronald Reagan in 1993, by then-President George H.W. Bush. Reagan was also awarded the Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom, which is the highest honor bestowed by the Republican members of the Senate. On May 16, 2002, Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress, on behalf of the President and herself.

Footnotes

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146. "Congressional Gold Medal Recipients 1776 to present". Office of the Clerk: US House of Representatives. Retrieved 2007-03-22.

References

• Appleby, Joyce (2003). The American Journey. Woodland Hills, California: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. 0078241294. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Beschloss, Michael (2007). Presidential Courage: Brave Leaders and How they Changed America 1789-1989. Simon & Schuster.
• Cannon, Lou (2000). President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime. New York: Public Affairs. ISBN 1891620916.
• Cannon, Lou (2001). Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1891620843. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Diggins, John Patrick (2007). Ronald Reagan: Fate, Freedom, and the Making of History. New York: W. W. Norton.
• Freidel, Frank (1995). The Presidents of the United States of America. Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association. ISBN 0912308575. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War: A New History. The Penguin Press.
• Hertsgaard, Mark. (1988) On Bended Knee: The Press and the Reagan Presidency. New York, New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux.
• LaFeber, Walter (2002). America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1971. New York: Wiley.
• Matlock, Jack (2004). Reagan and Gorbachev: How the Cold War Ended. New York: Random House. ISBN 0679463232.
• Morris, Edmund (1999). Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan. Random House. includes fictional material
• Reagan, Nancy (1989). My Turn: The Memoirs of Nancy Reagan. New York: Harper Collins.
• Reagan, Ronald (1990). An American Life. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0743400259.
• Reeves, Richard (2005). President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743230221.
• Regan, Donald (1988). For the Record: From Wall Street to Washington. New York: Harcourt. ISBN 0151639663.
• Walsh, Kenneth (1997). Ronald Reagan. New York: Random House Value Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0517200783.

Further reading

External links

• White House biography
• RonaldReagan.com
• The Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
• Extensive essay on Ronald Reagan and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
• Full audio of 14 Reagan speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
• Extensive collection of Oral History Transcripts on the Reagan Administration from the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
• Biography and gubernatorial inaugural addresses from the CA governors office
• Video & Audio clips
• BBC historic figures
• CNN Biography with speeches
• A Memorial Site outlining Reagan's death
• Ronald Reagan at IMDb
• Template:Nndb name
• Template:Find A Grave

v t e Ronald Reagan
40th President of the United States (1981–1989) 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975)
Life and politics	Birthplace Pitney Store Boyhood home Rancho del Cielo Filmography Political positions Governorship of California Presidential Library and Museum Reagan Era Death and state funeral
Presidency	Transition First inauguration Second inauguration Domestic policy Economic policy Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 Tax Reform Act of 1986 Assassination attempt Strategic Defense Initiative Foreign policy Reagan Doctrine Cold War 1st term 2nd term Soviet Union summits Geneva Reykjavík Washington INF Treaty Moscow Governors Island Constructive engagement Invasion of Grenada Iran–Contra affair Libya bombing Cannabis policy International trips The Grace Commission Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court controversies Administration scandals "We begin bombing in five minutes" Impeachment efforts Executive orders Presidential proclamations Bush transition
Speeches	Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine (1961) "A Time for Choosing" (1964) Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech (1980) First inaugural address (1981) Joint session of Congress (1981) "Ash heap of history" (1982) "Evil empire" (1983) Second inaugural address (1985) "Tear down this wall!" (1987) State of the Union 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
Books	An American Life The Reagan Diaries
Elections	1966 California gubernatorial election 11th commandment 1970 California gubernatorial election Republican presidential primaries (1968 1976 1980 1984) Republican National Convention (1968 1976 1980 1984) 1976 presidential campaign 1980 presidential campaign "There you go again" "Let's make America great again" 1984 presidential campaign "Morning in America" "Bear in the woods" United States presidential election (1976 1980 1984)
Cultural depictions	Bibliography In music Let Them Eat Jellybeans! (1981) U.S. Postage stamps Rap Master Ronnie Ed the Happy Clown (1983 comic series) Spitting Image (TV series) (1984) A Mind Forever Voyaging (1985 game) The Dark Knight Returns (1986) film adaptation Pizza Man (1991 film) The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001 film) Reagan's War (2002 book) The Reagans (2003 film) Reagan (2011 documentary) The Butler (2013 film) Killing Reagan (2015 book) Killing Reagan (2016 film) Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War (2020 game) The Reagans (2020 miniseries) Reagan (2023 film) "What would Reagan do?" Reykjavik (TBA)
Memorials	U.S. Capitol statue USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76) Namesakes and memorials Ronald Reagan Day Reagan Day Dinner
Family	Jane Wyman (first wife) Nancy Reagan (second wife) Maureen Reagan (daughter) Michael Reagan (adopted son) Patti Davis (daughter) Ron Reagan (son) Jack Reagan (father) Nelle Wilson Reagan (mother) Neil Reagan (brother) Rex (dog)
← Jimmy Carter George H. W. Bush → Category

v t e Governors of California
Under Spain (1769–1822)	Capt. Portolá Col. Fages Capt. Rivera Capt-Gen. de Neve Col. Fages Capt. Roméu Capt. Arrillaga Col. Bórica Lt. Col. Alberní Capt. Arrillaga Capt. J. Argüello Don Solá
Under Mexico (1822–1846)	Capt. L. Argüello Lt. Col. Echeandía Gen. Victoria Don P. Pico Lt. Col. Echeandía Brig. Gen. Figueroa Lt. Col. Castro Lt. Col. Gutiérrez Col. Chico Lt. Col. Gutiérrez Pres. Alvarado · Carrillo (rival) Brig. Gen. Micheltorena Don P. Pico
Under U.S. military (1846–1850)	Cdre. Sloat Cdre. Stockton · Gen. Flores (rival) Gen. Kearny · Maj. Frémont (mutineer) Gen. Mason Gen. Smith Gen. Riley
U.S. state (since 1850)	Burnett McDougal Bigler J. Johnson Weller Latham Downey Stanford Low Haight Booth Pacheco Irwin Perkins Stoneman Bartlett Waterman Markham Budd Gage Pardee Gillett H. Johnson Stephens Richardson Young Rolph Merriam Olson Warren Knight P. Brown Reagan J. Brown Deukmejian Wilson Davis Schwarzenegger J. Brown Newsom
Before 1850 Since 1850 By education Spouses

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