Misplaced Pages

Islam: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 18:02, 14 June 2007 view sourceArrow740 (talk | contribs)7,908 edits Undue OR, skewing← Previous edit Revision as of 08:12, 15 June 2007 view source Lovechaz (talk | contribs)3 edits ←Replaced page with 'this is gay'Next edit →
Line 1: Line 1:
this is gay
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{dablink|For other uses, including people named "Islam", see ].}}{{Islam}}
'''Islam''' (]: {{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|الإسلام; ''al-'islām''}}) is a ] ] originating with the teachings of ], a 7th-century ] religious and political figure. The word ''Islam'' means "submission," or the total surrender of one's self to ] (Arabic: ]). Islam's adherents are known as ]s, meaning "one who submits (to God)".<ref name="EoI-Islam">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> There are between 0.9 and 1.3 billion Muslims, making Islam the ], after ].<ref>Teece (2003), p.10</ref>

Muslims believe that God ] the ] to Muhammad, God's ], and regard the Qur'an and the ] (the words and deeds of Muhammad) as the fundamental sources of Islam.<ref>See:
*Esposito (1996), p.41
*Ghamidi (2001): </ref> They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of ], ], ], and other ]. Islamic tradition holds that ] and ] ] the messages of these prophets over time either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted">See:
*Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
*Esposito (1998), pp.6,12
*Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
*F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tahrif | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Hava Lazarus-Yafeh | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Islam includes many religious practices. Adherents are generally required to observe the ], which are five duties that unite Muslims into a community.<ref>Esposito (2002b), p.17</ref> In addition to the Five Pillars, ] (''Sharia'') has developed a tradition of rulings that touch on virtually all aspects of life and society. This tradition encompasses everything from practical matters like ] and ] to practices like ].<ref>See:
*Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Almost all Muslims belong to one of two major denominations, the ] and ]. The schism developed in the late 7th century following disagreements over the religious and political leadership of the Muslim community. Roughly 85 percent of Muslims are Sunni and 15 percent are Shi'a. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the ], as well as in parts of ], ], ], and ]. Large communities are also found in ], ], the ], and ]. Only about 20 percent of Muslims come from ].<ref>See:
* Esposito (2002b), p.21
* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43</ref>

==Etymology and meaning==
The word ''islām'' is derived from the ] ''aslama'', which means to accept, surrender, or submit. Thus, Islam means submission to and acceptance of God, and believers must demonstrate this by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding ]. The word is given a number of meanings in the ]. In some verses ('']''), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."<ref>{{cite quran|6|125|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|61|7|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|39|22|style=ref}}</ref> Other verses connect ''islām'' and '']'' (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (''dīn'') for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."<ref>{{cite quran|5|3|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|19|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|3|83|style=ref}}</ref> Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God — more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|9|74|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|49|14|style=ref}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

==Beliefs==
{{main|Aqidah}}
According to the Qur'an all Muslims should believe in God, his revelations, his ], his ], and in the "]".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Also, there are other beliefs that differ between ]. The ] concept of predestination is called ],<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> while the ] version is called ]. Unique to the Shi'a is the doctrine of '']'', or the political and spiritual leadership of the ]s.<ref>See:
* Farah (2003), p.109
* Momen (1987), p.176</ref>

Muslims believe that God ] his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the ]. For them, Muhammad was God's final prophet and the Qur'an is the revelations he received over more than two decades.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21</ref> In Islam, prophets are men selected by God to be his messengers. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic prophets are considered to be the closest to perfection of all humans, and are uniquely the recipients of divine ] — either directly from God or through angels.<ref>See:
* Momem (1987), p.176
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-20}}</ref> Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers since ] preached the message of Islam — submission to the will of the one God. Islam is described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind",<ref>{{cite quran|30|30|style=ref}}</ref> and the Qur'an states that the ] ''Muslim'' was given by ].<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|22|78|style=ref}}
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref>

As a historical phenomenon, Islam originated in ] in the early 7th century.<ref>"Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religion''</ref> Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "]" (''ahl al-kitāb''), and distinguishes them from polytheists. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the '']'' (]) and the '']'' (]), had become ]—either in interpretation, in text, or both.<ref name="Distorted"/>

===God===
{{main|Allah}}
{{seealso|Islamic concept of God}}
Islam's fundamental theological concept is '']''—the belief that there is only one God. The Arabic term for God is ''Allāh''; most scholars believe it was derived from a contraction of the words '']'' (the) and ''{{ArabDIN|]}}'' (deity, masculine form), meaning "the God" (''{{ArabDIN|al-ilāh}}''), but others trace its origin to the Aramaic ''Alāhā''.<ref>See:
* "Islam and Christianity", ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking ]s and ]s also refer to God as ''Allāh''.
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> The first of the Five Pillars of Islam, ''tawhīd'' is expressed in the '']'' (testification), which declares that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger. In traditional Islamic theology, God is transcendent and above all comprehension; Muslims are not expected to know God directly but to worship and adore him as a protector. Although Muslims believe that ] was a prophet, they reject the Christian doctrine of the ], comparing it to polytheism. In Islamic theology, ] is just a man and not the son of God;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Tathlith, Trinity | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=David Thomas | accessdate=2007-05-11}}: Contrary to Muslim understanding, some scholars have suggested that the Qur'an only opposes certain deviant forms of Trinitarian belief.</ref> God is described in a chapter ('']'') of the Qu'ran as "…God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him."<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|112|1|end=4|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
* Esposito (2004), p.22
* Griffith (2006), p.248
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Allah, Tawhid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | author=D. Gimaret | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Qur'an===
] in a Qur'anic manuscript by ]]]
{{main|Qur'an}}
{{Seealso|Origin and development of the Qur'an}}
Muslims consider the Qur'an to be the literal word of God; it is the central ] of Islam.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an| encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the angel Gabriel on many occasions between the years 610CE and his death on ] ]CE. The Qur'an was written down by Muhammad's companions ('']'') while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of ], the first caliph, and was standardized in the time of ], the third caliph. From textual evidence, modern Western academics find that the Qur'an of today has not changed significantly over the years.<ref>See:
*William Montgomery Watt in ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p.32
*F. E. Peters (1991), pp.3–5: "Few have failed to be convinced that … the Quran is … the words of Muhammad, perhaps even dictated by him after their recitation."</ref>

The Qur'an is divided into 114 ]s, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,000 '']s'', or poetic verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.<ref>See:
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}
</ref> The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".<ref>Esposito (2004), p.79</ref> Muslim jurists consult the ''hadith'', or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as '']''.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tafsir | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref>

The word ''Qur'an'' means "recitation". When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.<ref>See:
* Teece (2003), pp.12,13
* C. Turner (2006), p.42
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qu'ran | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The word ''Qur'an'' was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are ] about this term and its formation.</ref>

===Angels===
{{main|Angels in Islam}}
Belief in angels is crucial to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for Angels (''malak'') means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (''malʾak'') and Greek (''angelos''). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess ], and worship God in perfect obedience.<ref>{{cite quran|21|19|end=20|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}</ref> Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He adds to Creation as He pleases…"<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|35|1|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Malā'ika | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=W. Madelung | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Angel | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Gisela Webb | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Muhammad===
{{main|Muhammad}}

Muhammad (c. ] – ] ]), (also ''Mohammed'', ''Mohamet'', and other variants), was an Arab religious, political, and military leader who founded the religion of Islam as a historical phenomenon. Muslims view him not as the creator of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last and the greatest in a series of ]—as the man closest to perfection, the possessor of all virtues.<ref>See:
* Esposito (1998), p.12
* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-17}}</ref> For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|18|110|style=ref}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

] ("Mosque of the Prophet") in ] is the site of Muhammad's tomb.]]
During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of ], imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the '']'' ("emigration") to the city of ] (formerly known as ''Yathrib'') in 622. There, with the Medinan converts ('']'') and the Meccan migrants ('']''), Muhammad established his political and ]. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the ] in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the ] in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement or death, and the Jewish enclave of ] was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.<ref>See:
* F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
* Lapidus (2002), pp.23-28</ref> By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless ], and by the time of his death in 632 he ruled over the ].<ref name="EoI-Muhammad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Muhammad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=F. Buhl | coauthors=A. T. Welch | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

In Islam, the "]" example of Muhammad's life is called the '']'' (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as ] ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ] (d. 820) established the importance of the Sunnah in ], and Muslims were encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.<ref>See:
* ''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'' (2003), p.666
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadith | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=J. Robson | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=D. W. Brown | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Resurrection and judgment===
{{main|Qiyama}}
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", '']'' (also known as ''yawm ad-dīn'', "Day of Judgment" and ''as-sā`a'', "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and ]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Qur'an and the ], and also in the commentaries of ]s. The Qur'an emphasizes ], a break from the ]n understanding of death. It states that resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.<ref>See:
* "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, ] and dishonesty. Muslims view paradise ('']'') as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to a greater joy—acceptance by God (''ridwān'').<ref>{{cite quran|9|72|style=ref}}</ref> Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.<ref>See:
* Smith (2006), p.89; ''Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World'', p.565
* "Heaven", ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' (2000)
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Garden | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Asma Afsaruddin | accessdate=2007-05-08}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Paradise | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Predestination===
{{main|Qadr (doctrine)|Adalah}}

Islamic belief in ], or divine preordainment (''al-qadā wa'l-qadar''), is called '']'', which means that God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'…"<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|9|51|style=ref}}
* D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…"&nbsp;'&nbsp;"
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Fate | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ahmet T. Karamustafa | accessdate=2007-05-02}}: The verb ''qadara'' literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".</ref> For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. In Islamic theology, divine preordainment does not suggest an absence of God's indignation against evil, because any evils that do occur are thought to result in future benefits men may not be able to see. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in ''al-Lawh al-Mahfūz'', the "Preserved Tablet".<ref>See:
* Farah (2003), pp.119–122
* Patton (1900), p.130</ref>

The Shi'a understanding of predestination is called "divine justice" (''Adalah''). This doctrine, originally developed by the ], stresses the importance of man's responsibility for his own actions. In contrast, the Sunni deemphasize the role of individual free will in the context of God's creation and foreknowledge of all things.<ref>Momen (1987), pp.177,178</ref>

==Duties and practices==
===Five Pillars===
{{main|Five Pillars of Islam}}
]'') written on a plaque in the ], ]]]

] (prayer)]]

] (pilgrimage) include walking seven times around the ] in Mecca.]]

] (Arabic: اركان الدين) are five practices essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.<ref>See:
* Momem (1987), p.178
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> They are:

* The ''''']''''', which is the basic creed or tenet of Islam: "''{{ArabDIN|'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh}}''", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam (although technically the Shi'a do not consider the ''shahadah'' to be a separate pillar, just a belief). Muslims must repeat the ''shahadah'' in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.<ref>See:
* Farah (1994), p.135
* Momen (1987), p.178
* "Islam", ''Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals''(2004)</ref>

* ''''']''''', or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day. (However, the Shi'a are permitted to run together the noon with the afternoon prayers, and the evening with the night prayers). Each salah is done facing towards the ] in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. In many Muslim countries, reminders called ] (call to prayer) are broadcast publicly from local mosques at the appropriate times. The prayers are recited in the ], and consist of verses from the Qur'an.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
* Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
* Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
* Momen (1987), p.178</ref>

* ''''']''''', or ]. This is the practice of giving based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all Muslims who can afford it. A fixed portion is spent to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. The zakat is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving ('']''). Many Shi'ites are expected to pay an additional amount in the form of a '']'' tax, which they consider to be a separate ritual practice.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|2|177|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2004), p.90
* Momen (1987), p.179
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-11}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Zakat | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

* ''''']''''', or ]. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. ''Sawm'' is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|2|184|style=ref}}
* Esposito (2004), pp.90,91
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/fasting/tajuddin/fast_21.html#HEADING20 | title=For whom fasting is mandatory | publisher=USC-MSA | work=Compendium of Muslim Texts | accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref>

* The ''''']''''', which is the pilgrimage during the ] of '']'' in the city of ]. Every ] Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is about ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in ], which consists of two white seamless sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the ], touching the ], running seven times between ] and ], and symbolically ] in ]. The pilgrim, or the ''hajji'', is honored in his or her community, although Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God instead of a means to gain social standing.<ref>See:
* Farah (1994), pp.145–147
* Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hajj | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

In addition to the ''khums'' tax, Shi'a Muslims consider three additional practices essential to the religion of Islam. The first is jihad, which is also important to the Sunni, but not considered a pillar. The second is '']'', the "Enjoining to Do Good", which calls for every Muslim to live a virtuous life and to encourage others to do the same. The third is '']'', the "Exhortation to Desist from Evil", which tells Muslims to refrain from vice and from evil actions and to also encourage others to do the same.<ref>Momen (1987), p.180</ref>

===Law===
{{main|Sharia|Fiqh}}

The ''Sharia'' (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".<ref name="BritannicaShariah">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Shari'ah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and ], to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines '']'' as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of ], ], and ], as well as rules for ], ], and ]. However, these ] and ] may be broad, so their application in practice varies. ] (known as ''ulema'') have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.<ref>See:
* Menski (2006), p.290
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Hadd | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. Carra de Vaux | coauthors=J. Schacht, A.M. Goichon | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sharia | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=N. Calder | coauthors=M. B. Hooker | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

'']'', or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as '']'' ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists ('']''), and analogical reasoning ('']''). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ] provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ''ar-Risālah''.<ref>Weiss (2002), pp.xvii,162</ref>

====Religion and state====

Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the ulema function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control. As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. ] has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of ]. In contrast, the ] replaced a mostly secular regime with an ] led by the ].<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), p.84
* Lapidus (2002), pp.502–507,845
* Lewis (2003), p.100</ref>

===Etiquette and diet===

{{Main|Adab (behavior)|Islamic dietary laws}}

Many practices fall in the category of ''adab'', or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "'']''" ("peace be unto you"), saying '']'' ("in ]") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. ] practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health, such as the circumcision of male offspring. ] include saying the '']'' ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet, and prohibited foods include pig products, blood, ], and ]. All meat must come from a ] animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as ] food.<ref>See:
* {{cite quran|5|5|style=ref}}
* Curtis (2005), p.164
* Esposito (2002b), p.111
* Ghamidi (2001):
* Ghamidi (2001):
* Ghamidi (2001):
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Slaughter | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online | author=Ersilia Francesca | accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>

===Jihad===
{{mainarticle|Jihad}}
Jihad literally means "struggle" and some Muslim authorities call it the ].<ref name="jih">Esposito (2003), p.93</ref> Within ], jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the ] or ] of the ], the ultimate purpose of which is to establish the domination of Islam. Jihad, the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law, may be declared against a non-Muslim state if it refuses to convert to Islam or submit to Islamic rule.<ref name="jihad">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Djihād | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Jihad is perpetual in nature; in theory, there can be no permanent peace with non-Muslim states, only truces which can be repudiated when circumstances become favorable for the resumption of hostilities. It ceases when ]s, ]s, and ]s submit to the authority of Islam and agree to pay the '']'' (a ]) and '']'' (a land tax), thereby receiving the status of ]s, and when ]s convert to Islam.<ref name="jihad"/> In theory, conquered polytheists are given the choice between conversion, slavery, and death. In practice, however, the status of dhimmi was extended to many polytheists as well.<ref>Ruthven (2005), p.45</ref>

Under most circumstances and for most people, jihad is a collective duty (''fard kifaya''): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (]), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a ].<ref name="jihad"/> Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.<ref name="jihad"/> In modern usage, jihad may also refer to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.<ref>See:
*Esposito (2003), p.93
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=jihad | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-06-13}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|Muslim history|Spread of Islam}}

Islam's historical development resulted in major political, economic, and military effects inside and outside the ]. Within a century of Muhammad's first recitations of the ], an Islamic empire stretched from the ] in the west to ] in the east. This new polity soon broke into civil war, and successor states fought each other and outside forces. However, Islam continued to spread into regions like ], the ], and ]. The Islamic civilization was one of the most advanced in the world during the ], but was surpassed by Europe with the economic and military growth of the West. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Islamic dynasties such as the ] and ] fell under the sway of European imperial powers. In the 20th century ] and newfound wealth in the Islamic world led to both rebirth and conflict.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), pp.50,112,197,380,489,578,817
* Lewis (2004), pp.29,51–56</ref>

===Rise of empire (632–750)===
{{see|Succession to Muhammad|Muslim conquests|Arab Empire}}
Islam began in ] in the 7th century under the leadership of Muhammad, who united the ] under his rule. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. ], a prominent ] of Muhammad, nominated ], who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first ]. (This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that ], his cousin and son-in-law, was in fact his designated successor.) Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by ] (or ]) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the ], or "Wars of Apostasy".<ref>See:
* Holt (1977a), p.57
* Hourani (2003), p.22
* Lapidus (2002), p.32
* Madelung (1996), p.43
* Tabatabaei (1979), p.30-50</ref>
] in the year 750]]

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by ] and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as ''al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn'' ("]"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into ] and ] territories.<ref>See
* Holt (1977a), p.74
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> When Umar was assassinated in 644, ] as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the ] (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by ] in 661. Following this, a prominent military leader named ] seized power, beginning the ].<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.67–72</ref>

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as ]s. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the ].<ref>Waines (2003) p.46</ref> After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "]". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the ] as well as ] and the ]. During this time, the decadence of the Umayyads inspired the formation of a movement of ascetics led by a devout Muslim named ]. This movement would evolve into ].<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-13}}</ref>

For the Ummayad aristocracy, Islam was viewed as a religion for Arabs only; the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims ('']'') did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. Their discontent and the internal strife among the Arab tribes contributed to the overthrow of the Umayyads by the ] 750.<ref>Lewis (1993), pp. 71&ndash;83</ref> Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "]", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.<ref>See:
* Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
* Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
* Lapidus (2002), p.56
* Lewis (1993), p.84
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Golden Age (750–1258)===
{{main|Islamic Golden Age}}
]

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, Persia, and Central Asia provinces broke away, and the Shia ]s contested even the religous authority of the caliphate. By 1055 the ] had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power. Nevertheless, they continued to respect the caliph's religious position, and from then on he then became a ruler in name only.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.107
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Abbasid Dynasty | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> During this time expansion continued—sometimes by military warfare and sometimes by peaceful ]. The first stage in the ] began around the year 1000, at the same time that Islam was established in sub-Saharan ].<ref name="EoI-Islam"/>

The Golden Age saw new legal, philosophical, and religious developments. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist ]; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.<ref>Lapidus (2002), p.86</ref> Philosophers ] (Avicenna) and ] sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian ] argued against them and ultimately prevailed.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.160
* Waines (2003) p.126,127</ref> Finally, Sufism and Shi'ism both underwent major changes in the 9th century. ] became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), pp.44–45
* Lapidus (2002), pp.90-94
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sufism | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

] into Christian Europe spread as far as ].

Starting in the 9th century, Muslim conquests in Christian Europe began to be reversed. The ] was launched against Muslim ] in Spain, and Muslim ] were lost to the ]. At the behest of the ], the ] were launched in response to Muslim gains in the Mediterranean and in support of the Byzantine empire against the ]. Successful at first, the Crusaders' advance was halted by the Muslim general ], who regained Jerusalem at the ] in 1187.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310</ref> The ] put an end to the Abbasid dynasty at the ], which saw the Muslims overrun by the superior Mongol army. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier ]s took control in an uprising in 1250.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.292
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Ottomans and Mughals (1258–1918)===
The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the ] (named after ]) was established with a string of conquests that included the ], parts of ], and western ]. In 1453 under ] the Ottomans laid siege to ], the capital of Byzantium. The Byzantine fortress ] shortly afterward, having been battered by the Ottoman's superior ].<ref>See:
* Holt (1977a), p.263
* Lapidus (2002), p.250
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Istanbul | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of ] to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.<ref>Esposito (2004), pp.104,105</ref> Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the ], a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century ] poet ]. The Masnavi had a profound influence on the development of Sufi religious thought; to many Sufis it is second in importance only to the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic Art | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

Although Islam continued to expand, in Spain a ] with the Christian kingdoms ended in the ] in 1492. In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite ] assumed control in Persia, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained powerful for two centuries. Meanwhile, Mamluk Egypt fell to the Ottomans in 1517, who then launched a European campaign which reached as far as ] in 1529.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet | coauthors=J. Jomier | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

During the early 16th century the Muslim ] was formed in the ], but by the mid-18th century the ] had ended the Mughal dynasty.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624</ref> The Mughals were noted for their achievements in art and architecture, exemplified by the ], which Shah Jahan built as a memorial to his wife.<ref>Esposito (2004), p.65</ref> Simultaneously the ] movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher ], Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.<ref>See:
* Lapidus (2002), p.572
* Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.</ref>

By the 17th and 18th centuries, the Ottoman empire had begun to feel threatened by European economic and military advantages despite attempts at modernization. In the 19th century, the ] resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, and several Balkan states followed suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the ] of 1877–1878. The end of the Ottoman empire would not come until after ]'s end in 1918, however.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493</ref>

===Modern times (1918–present)===
After ] losses, the remnants of the empire were parceled out as European ]s or ]. Since then most Muslim societies have become independent nations, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the state of ] have assumed prominence.<ref>Lapidus (2002), pp.281–282,380,489–493,556,578,823,835</ref>

The 20th century saw the creation of many new Islamic "revivalist" movements. Groups such as the ] in Egypt and ] in Pakistan advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. Sometimes called ], they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. In countries like Iran and Afghanistan (under the ]), revolutionary movements replaced existing regimes with Islamist states, while transnational groups like ]'s ] engage in ] to further their goals. In contrast, ] is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and ]. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".<ref>See:
* Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
* Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830</ref>

==Community==
] in ] as it exists today]]
{{main|Muslim world}}

===Demographics===
{{see also|Islam by country|Demographics of Islam}}

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007, range from 900&nbsp;million to 1.3&nbsp;billion. Approximately 85% are ] and 15% are ], with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30-40 countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide. ] and ] contain the most populous Muslim countries, with ], ], ], and ] having more than 100&nbsp;million adherents each.<ref name=Islam_by_country>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/rel_isl_num_of_mus-religion-islam-number-of-muslim
|title=Number of Muslim by country
|publisher=nationmaster.com
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20&nbsp;million Muslims and more than 40,000 Islamic places of worship in ].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71338.htm
|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 - China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)
|year=]
|publisher=U.S. department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref>

In the ], the non-Arab countries of ] and ] are the largest Muslim-majority countries, while in ], ] and ] lead the pack.<ref name=Islam_by_country/>
Islam is the second largest religion after ] in many ] countries, such as ].<ref>See:
*Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
*{{cite encyclopedia | title=Islamic World | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}<br>{{cite web | url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html | title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents | publisher=Adherents.com | accessdate=2007-01-09}}
*{{cite web | title=Muslims in Europe: Country guide | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | publisher=BBC | work=BBC News | date=] | accessdate=2006-09-28}}
* {{cite web | title=Religion In Britain | url= http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 | publisher=Office for National Statistics | work=National Statistics | date=] | accessdate=2006-08-27}}</ref>

===Mosques===
{{Main|Mosque}}
]s on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the ], ]. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic calendar.]]
A mosque is a ] for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, ''masjid''. The word ''mosque'' in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (''masjid jāmi`''). Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the ] as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as ]s.<ref>See:
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Masdjid | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author= J. Pedersen | coauthors=R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Mosque | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Family life===
{{seealso|Women and Islam}}
The basic unit of Islamic society is the ]. Islam prescribes mutual respect and responsibility among family members, along with legal rights and obligations. The father is seen as financially responsible for the family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of ] is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. ] is a civil ] which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a ] ('']'') to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.<ref>
* Waines (2003) pp. 93—96
* The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
* Esposito (1998) p. 79</ref>

A man may marry up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may marry one man only. The process of divorce in Islam is known as '']'', which is more easily initiated by the husband than by the wife. Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as ] and seclusion (]). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these restrictions and other practices such as ], with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. ] groups and regimes like the ] mostly seek to continue traditional law as applied to women.<ref>
* Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage and Divorce | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an | author=Harald Motzki | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Marriage Practices | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures | author=Lori Peek | accessdate=2007-05-15}}
</ref>

===Calendar===
{{main|Islamic calendar}}

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the ] in 622CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (''Anno Hegirae'') in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by ]. It is a ], with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years: allowance must also be made for the fact that each Hijri century corresponds to only 97 years in the Christian calendar.<ref>See:
* Adil (2002), p.288
* F. E. Peters (2003), p.67
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Tarikh̲ | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=B. van Dalen | coauthors=R. S. Humphreys, Manuela Marín, et al. | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>
The year 1428AH coincides almost completely with 2007CE.

Islamic ] fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in ] in different years in the ]. The most important Islamic festivals are '']'' (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1<sup>st</sup> of '']'', marking the end of the fasting month '']'', and '']'' (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10<sup>th</sup> of '']'', coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.<ref>Ghamidi (2001): </ref>

===Other religions===
] on the ] in ], a holy site in both Islam and ] that has been a source of controversy]]
] congregation building. Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven on this site.]]
{{main|Islam and other religions}}

The Qur'an "claimed it was restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in various, not clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians".<ref>Holt (1977a), pp.43–44</ref> This accusation may originally have been just a charge of false interpretation, but was later understood to have meant that the Bible itself had become textually corrupted.<ref>See:
* Holt (1977a), pp.43–44
* Watt (1974), p.116</ref> Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands had the status of ] and were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy".<ref>Lewis (1984), p.21</ref> They were guaranteed their ] and security of property, in return for paying tribute ('']'') and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Dhimmis were subject to legal restrictions such as prohibitions against bearing arms or bans against giving testimony in court in cases involving Muslims.<ref>Lewis (1984), pp.9,27</ref>

Regarding religions other than Judaism and Christianity, Islamic law states that unless there is a pact between members of these religions and Muslims, they are to be fought and compelled to accept Islam. However, in practice the status of dhimmi was extended to ]s, ]s, and members of other scriptural faiths as well.<ref>See:
* Ruthven (2005), p.45
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Dhimma | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=Cl. Cahen | accessdate=2007-05-14}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Ethics and the Qur'an | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an | author=A. Kevin Reinhart | accessdate=2007-05-14}}</ref> Outspoken atheists and agnostics, though, were considered beyond the pale of tolerance.<ref>Lewis (2001), p.273</ref>

==Denominations==
{{main|Divisions of Islam}}
Islam consists of a number of ]s that are essentially similar in belief but which have significant theological and legal differences. The major division is between the ] and the ], while ]sm is generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a, with a small minority who are members of other ].<ref>See:
* Esposito (2002b), p.2
* {{cite web | url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/61.htm | title=Sunni and Shia Islam | work=Country Studies | publisher=U.S. Library of Congress | accessdate=2007-01-09}}</ref>
===Sunni===
{{main|Sunni}}

] Muslims are the largest group in Islam. In ], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. Sunnis believe that the first four ]s were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or ]s: ], ], ] and ]. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations ('']''). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions within Sunnism. For example, the recent ] movement sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shariah | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Sunnite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

===Shi'a===
{{main|Shi'a}}
{{see also|Historic background of the Sunni-Shi'a split}}
The ], who constitute the second-largest branch of Islam, believe in the political and religious ] of ] ]s from the progeny of ]. They believe that he, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first ''Imam'' (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To them, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation.<ref>See
* Lapidus (2002), p.46
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Imam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=Shi'ite | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref>]]</ref> Although the Shi'a share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Shi'a follow a legal tradition called ].<ref>See:
*Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
*Nasr (1994), p.466</ref> Shi'a Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the ] (''{{ArabDIN|iṯnāʿašariyya}}''), while the others are the ], the ]s, and the ].<ref>See:
* Kramer (1987),
* </ref>

===Sufism===
{{main|Sufism}}

Not strictly a denomination, ] is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.<ref>Trimingham (1998), p.1</ref> Sufism and ] are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by some Muslims for being an unjustified ]. Most Sufi orders, or '']s'', can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.<ref>See:
* Esposito (2003), p.302
* Malik (2006), p.3
* B. S. Turner (1998), p.145
* {{cite web | url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html | work=Country Studies | publisher=U. S. Library of Congress (Federal Research Division) | title=Afghanistan: A Country Study | accessdate=2007-04-18 | pages=150}}</ref>

===Others===

The ] are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites (which was itself divided into numerous sub-sects) is the ]. Ibadism is distinguished from Sunni Islam by its rejection of ] and ], and from Shi'ism by its belief that the Muslim leader should be chosen on the basis of his faith rather than his ancestry. Ibadi Islam is noted for its strictness, but unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadis do not regard major sins as automatically rendering a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadi Muslims live in ].<ref>See:
* J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
* {{cite encyclopedia | title=al-Ibāḍiyya | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref>

The ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] religions either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. ]'s holy book, the ], contains some writings by Muslim figures, as well as by Sikh and Hindu ]s.<ref name="parrinderp259">Parrinder (1971), p.259</ref>

==Criticism==
{{main|Criticism of Islam}}
{{seealso|Criticism of Muhammad|Criticism of the Qur'an}}
The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are found in the writings of ]s like ] (born c. 676). In the ], a few Arab philosophers like the poet ] adopted a critical approach to Islam, and the Jewish philosopher ] contrasted Islamic views of morality to Jewish views that he himself elaborated.<ref>See:
* Novak (February 1999)
* Sahas (1997), pp.76–80
* Warraq (2003), p.67</ref> Medieval Christian ecclesiastical writers emphatically denied the validity of Islamic beliefs and portrayed Muhammad as possessed by ]. More recently, in the 19th century, the ] scholar ] wrote harshly about the Qu'ran.<ref>See:
* {{cite encyclopedia | author=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia | url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10424a.htm | title=Mohammed and Mohammedanism}}
* {{cite news | url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199901/koran | publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group | work=The Atlantic Monthly | title=What Is the Koran? | author=Toby Lester |date=January 1999}}</ref>

Modern critiques of Islam include accusations that it is intolerant of criticism and that ] is too hard on ]. Critics such as ] and ] question the morality of the Qu'ran; for example, they say that its contents both justify the ill-treatment of women and encourage ] remarks by Muslim theologians.<ref>See:
* Spencer (2005), p.358
* Warraq (2000), p.103
* {{cite news | publisher=NYRB | work=] | date=10-05-2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}
* {{cite news | last=Bostom | first=Andrew | title=Islamic Apostates' Tales—A Review of ''Leaving Islam'' by Ibn Warraq | date=July 21, 2003 | publisher=FrontPageMagazine.com | work=FrontPage Magazine | url=http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=9000}}</ref> Others like ] and ] focus more on criticizing the spread of Islamic fundamentalism, a danger they feel has been ignored.<ref>{{cite news | last=Bernstein | first=Richard | title= Experts on Islam Pointing Fingers At One Another | url=http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70D16F734540C708CDDA80994D9404482 | publisher=] | accessdate=2007-05-14}}</ref> ] and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics, while ] says that "]" has played a part.<ref>See:
* Ernst (2004), p.11
* Seibert (1994), pp.88–89
* Watt (1974), p.231</ref> Notable Muslim apologists include ],<ref>For example see ''Major Themes of the Qur'an'' by Fazlur Rahman in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.</ref> ],<ref>For example see ''The Spirit of Islam'' by Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928). It is described by ] (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface ''Mohammed and the Rise of Islam''.</ref> ],<ref>Westerlund (2003)</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite news | publisher=Advance, ] | date=11-17-2003 | title=Ramadan Awareness Event Designed To Debunk Negative Images | author=Elizabeth Omara-Otunnu | url=http://advance.uconn.edu/2003/031117/03111715.htm}}</ref>

==See also==

{{portal}}
{{Further|]}}

{{Col-begin|width=}}

{{Col-1-of-2}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

{{Col-2-of-2}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

{{Col-end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
;Books and journals
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite journal | last=Accad | first=Martin | title=The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I) | journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations | volume=14 | issue=1 | date=2003 | id=ISSN 0959-6410}}
* {{cite book | last=Adil | first=Hajjah Amina | coauthors=Shaykh Nazim Adil Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Muhammad Hisham Kabbani | title=Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam | publisher=Islamic Supreme Council of America | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1930409118}}
* {{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=Akbar | title=Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World | publisher=I. B. Tauris | edition=2.00 | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-1860642579}}
* {{cite book | last=Cohen-Mor | first=Dalya | title=A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0195133986}}
* {{cite book | last=Curtis | first=Patricia A. | year=2005 | title=A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations | publisher=Blackwell Publishing Professional | id=ISBN 978-0813819464}}
* {{cite book | last=Eglash | first=Ron | year=1999 | title=African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design | publisher=Rutgers University Press | id=ISBN 0-8135-2614-0}}
* {{cite book | last=Ernst | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Ernst | year=2004 | title = Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | id=ISBN 0-8078-5577-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=John Obert Voll | title=Islam and Democracy | year=1996 | | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-510816-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | edition=3rd | id=ISBN 978-0195112344}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | coauthors=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad | title=Muslims on the Americanization Path? | year=2000a | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-513526-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2000b | title=Oxford History of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=978-0195107999}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002a | title=Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 978-0195168860}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=2002b | title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | id=ISBN 0-19-515713-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=] | publisher=] | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-19-512558-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | title=Islam: The Straight Path | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2004 | edition=3rd Rev Upd | id=ISBN 978-0195182668}}
* {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | id=ISBN 978-0812018530}}
* {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=Islam: Beliefs and Observances | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=2003 | edition=7th | id=ISBN 978-0764122266}}
* {{cite book | last=Ghamidi | first=Javed | authorlink=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi | title=] | publisher=] | year=2001 | id={{OCLC|52901690}}}}
* {{cite book | last=Goldschmidt, Jr. | first=Arthur | coauthors=Lawrence Davidson | title=A Concise History of the Middle East | publisher=Westview Press | year=2005 | edition=8th | id=ISBN 978-0813342757}}
* {{cite book | last=Griffith | first=Ruth Marie | coauthors=Barbara Dianne Savage | title=Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0801883709}}
* {{cite book | last=Hedayetullah | first=Muhammad | title=Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition | publisher=Trafford Publishing | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-1553698425}}
* {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1 | year=1977a | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291364}}
* {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | coauthors=Ann K. S. Lambton, ] | title=Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2 | year=1977b | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 0521291372}}
* {{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani | coauthor=] | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | id=ISBN 978-0674010178}}
* {{cite book | last=Kobeisy | first=Ahmed Nezar | title=Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People | publisher=Praeger Publishers | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0313324727}}
* {{cite book | last=Koprulu | first=Mehmed Fuad | coauthors=Leiser, Gary | title=The Origins of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=SUNY Press | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0791408191}}
* {{cite book | last=Kramer | first=Martin | title=Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution | publisher=Westview Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0813304533}}
* {{cite book | last=Kugle | first=Scott Alan | title=Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam | publisher=Indiana University Press| year=2006 | id=ISBN 0253347114}}
* {{cite book | last=Lapidus| first=Ira | title=A History of Islamic Societies | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2002 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0521779333}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-7102-0462-0}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-1928-5258-2}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Middle East | publisher=Scribner | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-0684832807}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | edition=2nd | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-0812695182}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East | publisher=Harper Perennial | edition=Reprint | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0060516055}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror | publisher=Random House, Inc., New York | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0812967852}}
* {{cite book | last=Madelung | first=Wilferd | authorlink=Wilferd Madelung | title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate | publisher=Cambridge University
Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521646960}}
* {{cite book | last=Malik| first=Jamal| coauthors=John R Hinnells, Inc NetLibrary | title=Sufism in the West | publisher= Routledge | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0415274087}}
* {{cite book | last=Menski | first=Werner F. | title=Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 0521858593}}
* {{cite journal | last=Mohammad | first=Noor | title=The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction | journal=Journal of Law and Religion | volume=3 | issue=2 | date=1985}}
* {{cite book | last=Momen | first=Moojan | title=An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 978-0300035315}}
* {{cite book | last=Nasr | first=Seyed Muhammad | title=Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7) | publisher=HarperCollins | year=1994| id=ISBN 0-06067-700-7}}
* {{cite journal | last=Novak | first=David | title=The Mind of Maimonides | journal=] |date=February 1999}}
* {{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0-87196-129-6}}
* {{cite journal | last=Patton | first=Walter M. | title=The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |date=April 1900 | volume=16 | issue=3 | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147}}
* {{cite journal | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies | date=1991}}
* {{cite book | last=Peters | first=F. E. | authorlink=F. E. Peters | title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-691-11553-2}}
* {{cite book | last=Peters | first=Rudolph | authorlink=Rudolph Peters | title=Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1977 | id = ISBN 90-04-04854-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Ruthven | first=Malise | title=Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning | publisher= Oxford University Press | year=2005 | id = ISBN 01-92-80606-8}}
* {{cite book | last=Sahas | first=Daniel J. | title=John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1997 | id=ISBN 978-9004034952}}
* {{cite journal | last=Seibert | first=Robert F. | title=Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)| journal=Review of Religious Research | date=1994 | volume=36 | issue=1}}
* {{cite book | last=Sells | first=Michael Anthony | authorlink=Michael Anthony Sells | coauthors=Emran Qureshi | title=The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0231126670}}
* {{cite book | last=Smith | first=Jane I. | title=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | id=ISBN 978-0195156492}}
* {{cite book | last=Spencer | first=Robert | title=The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-1591022497}}
* {{cite book | last=Stillman | first=Norman | authorlink=Norman Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979 | id=ISBN 1-82760-198-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=Seyyed Hossein Nasr (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Shi'ite Islam
| publisher=Suny press| year=1979 | id=ISBN 0-87395-272-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Tabatabae | first=Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | coauthors=R. Campbell (translator) | authorlink=Allameh Tabatabaei | title= Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam | publisher=Green Gold | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-922817-00-6}}
* {{cite book | last=Teece | first=Geoff | title=Religion in Focus: Islam | publisher=Franklin Watts Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0749647964}}
* {{cite book | last=Trimingham| first=John Spencer | title=The Sufi Orders in Islam | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998| id=ISBN 0195120582}}
* {{cite book | last=Tritton | first=Arthur S. | authorlink=Arthur Stanley Tritton| title=The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 | id=ISBN 0-7146-1996-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Colin | title=Islam: the Basics | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=2006 | id=ISBN 041534106X}}
* {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Bryan S. | title=Weber and Islam | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0415174589}}
* {{cite book | last=Waines | first=David | title=An Introduction to Islam | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0521539064}}
* {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=The Quest for Historical Muhammad | publisher=Prometheus | year=2000 | id=ISBN 978-1573927871}}
* {{cite book | last=Warraq | first=Ibn | title=Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out | publisher=Prometheus | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-59102-068-9}}
* {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=The Formative Period of Islamic Thought | publisher=University Press Edinburgh| year=1973 | id=ISBN 0-85-224254-X}}
* {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | publisher=Oxford University Press | edition=New | year=1974 | id=ISBN 0-19-881078-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Weiss | first=Bernard G. | title=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | year=2002 | location=Boston | publisher=Brill Academic publishers | id=ISBN 9004120661}}
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=John Alden | title=The Word of Islam | year=1994 | publisher=University of Texas Press | id=ISBN 0-292-79076-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Mary E. | title=The Middle East | year=2000 | publisher=Greenhaven Pr | id=ISBN 0737701331}}
</div>
;Encyclopedias
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-0974309101}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Gabriel Oussani | encyclopedia=] | year=1910}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton | encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia | publisher=Gale Group | year=2000 | edition=6th | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill| year=2001 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 0-8028-2414-5}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=John Bowden | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2005 | edition=1st | id=ISBN 0-19-522393-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Future | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=1995 | id=ISBN 978-0028972053}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISSN 1573-3912}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 978-0028656038}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2005 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0028657332}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Salamone Frank | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals | publisher=Routledge | edition=1st | year=2004 | id=ISBN 978-0415941808}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Peter N. Stearns | edition=6th | year=2000 | encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of World History Online | publisher=Bartleby}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Glasse Cyril | encyclopedia=New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam | | publisher=AltaMira Press | year=2003 | id=ISSN 978-0759101906}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Edward Craig | encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | edition=1st| id=ISBN 978-0415073103}}
</div>

==Further reading==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book | last=Arberry | first=A. J. | authorlink=A. J. Arberry | title=The Koran Interpreted: A Translation | publisher=Touchstone | edition=1st | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0684825076}}
* {{cite book | last=Hawting | first=Gerald R. | authorlink=Gerald R. Hawting | title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0415240727}}
* {{cite book | last=Khan | first=Muhammad Muhsin | authorlink=Muhammad Muhsin Khan | coauthors=Al-Hilali Khan, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din | title=Noble Quran | year=1999 | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | edition=1st | id=ISBN 978-9960740799}}
* {{cite book | last=Kramer (ed.) | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Kramer | title=The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis | publisher=Syracuse University | year=1999 | id=ISBN 978-9652240408}}
* {{cite book | last=Kuban | first=Dogan | title=Muslim Religious Architecture | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=1974 | id=ISBN 9004038132}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East | publisher=Open Court | year=1993 | id=ISBN 978-0812692174}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Islam and the West | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1994 | id=ISBN 978-0195090611}}
* {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 978-0195102833}}
* {{cite book | last=Mubarkpuri | first=Saifur-Rahman | title=]: Biography of the Prophet | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 978-1591440710}}
* {{cite book | last=Najeebabadi | first=Akbar Shah | title=History of Islam | publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications | year=2001 | id=ISBN 978-1591440345}}
* {{cite book | last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | edition=New Edition | id=ISBN 978-0253216274}}
* {{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | title=Islam | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1979 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 0-226-70281-2}}
* {{cite book | last=Walker | first=Benjamin | authorlink=Benjamin Walker | title=Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith | publisher=Peter Owen Publishers | year=1998 | id=ISBN 978-0720610383}}
</div>
==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
;Academic resources
<div class="references-small">
*
*
* from the ] Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource
* , article at ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online''
</div>
;Directories
<div class="references-small">
* Islam in , , and
* {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/}}
* at ]
*
;Islam - audio and video
<div class="references-small">
*
</div>
;Islam and the arts
<div class="references-small">
*
*
* (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
* illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.
*
</div>

{{featured article}}
]
]
]
]

{{Link FA|id}}
{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|ru}}

]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

Revision as of 08:12, 15 June 2007

this is gay