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Imád-uddín Muhammad bin Qasim bin Ukail Sakifi
Muhammad Bin Qasim leading his troops in battle
Allegiance	Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, Governor to the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I
Rank	Emir
Battles / wars	Muhammad bin Qasim is famous for his conquest of Sindh for the Umayyads.

Muhammad bin Qasim Al-Thaqafi (Arabic: محمد بن قاسم) (c. 695–715), born Muhammad bin Qasim bin Ukail Sakifi, was a Syrian Arab general who conquered the Sindh and Punjab regions along the Indus river (now a part of Pakistan). The conquest of Sindh and Punjab began the Islamic era in South Asia.

Life and Career

Qasim's father died when he was young, leaving his mother in charge of his education. Umayyad governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, one of Qasim's close relatives, was instrumental in teaching Qasim about warfare and governing. Under Hajjaj's patronage, Qasim was made governor of Persia, where he succeeded in putting down a rebellion. At the age of seventeen, he was sent by Caliph Al-Walid I to lead an army towards India into what are today the Sindh and Punjab regions of Pakistan.

Umayyad Interest in Sindh

The Umayyad interest in the region was galvanized by the operation of the Mids and others who had preyed upon Sassanid and now Arab shipping from the mouth of the Tigris to the Sri Lankan coast, in their bawarij from Kutch, Debal and Kathiawar. The Umayyad decided that these cities had to be subjugated in order to safeguard these increasingly important Indian trade routes from piracy. At the time, Sindh was the wild frontier region of al-Hind inhabited largely by semi-nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the Western Indian Ocean. Muslim sources insist that it was this persistent insolence by the Debal pirates and others which forced the Arabs to subjugate the area, in order to control the seaports and maritime routes of which Sindh was the hinge as well the overland passage. During Hajjaj's governorship, the Mids of Debal kidnapped Muslim women travelling from Sri Lanka to Arabia, providing a casus belli for the rising power of the Umayyad Caliphate. They were given a chance to gain a foothold in the Makran, Balochistan and Sindh regions and put and end to all pirate activity.Through conquest, the caliphate intended to protect its maritime interest, while also cutting off fleeing rebel chieftains and Sindhi military support to the Sassanids rump akin to those received at several prior major battles such as those at Salasal and Qādisiyyah.

Political setting

The campaign for the conquest of Sindh was launched under the leadership of Qasim, in the same period as the Umayyad conquest of Hispania and the launch of an offensive against the king of Kabul; it was a period of great expansion of the Umayyads under the governorship of Hajjaj, the first governor of both the Arabi and Ajami halves of the ex-Sassanid domains. The period also experienced an intensification of the rivalry between Arab conquerors and the mawali, new non-arab converts, who were usually allied with Hajjaj's political opponents and thus frequently forced to participate in Jihads on the frontier such as Kabul, Sind and Transoxania. Conflict was endemic among the frontier Muslims, with a considerable number seeking refuge with the king of Sindh.

The Campaign

Qasim's expedition was actually the second attempt, the first having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat, exhaustion and scurvy.

Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first campaign under Badil bin Tuhfa. Qasim was supported by Abdulla bin Nahban. When Qasim passed through Makran, while raising forces, he had to re-subdue the restive Umayyad towns of Fannazbur and Arman Belah (Lasbela) In 711, Qasim first established his base at the Arman Belah and from there proceeded to assault Debal. Upon the orders of Al-Hajjaj, he exacted a bloody retribution on Debal in the process of freeing the kidnapped pilgrims as well as prisoners from the earlier failed campaign. The campaign was successful, rapidly taking all of Sindh from Raja Dahir and moving into southern Punjab up to Multan with a regiment of 6,000 Syrian soldiers.

From Debal, the Arab army marched north, taking towns such as Nerun and Sadusan (Sehwan) peacefully. A mosque was built to replace the main idolhouses, and one-fifth of the booty and slaves was dispatched to Hajjaj and the Caliph. The conquest of these towns was accomplished easily; however, Dahir's armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus had not yet been faced. To meet them Qasim moved back to Nerun to resupply and receive reinforcements sent by Hajjaj. Camped on the east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river Jats and boatmen. Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, "the King of the island of Bet", Qasim crossed over the river where he was joined by the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta and the western Jats who paid homage to him.

At Ar-rur (Nawabshah) he was met by Dahir forces and the eastern Jats in battle. Qasim was triumphant and Dahir died in the battle leaving Qasim in control of Sind. In the wake of the battle the enemy soldiers were put to death but not artisans, merchants or farmers while Dahir's head along side those of his chiefs, the "daughters of princes" and the usual fifth of the booty and slaves was sent on to Hajjaj. Soon the capitals of the other provinces, Brahmanabad, Alor (Aror) and Multan, were captured alongside other in-between towns with light Muslim casualties. Usually after a siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention of heads of mercantile houses with whom treaties and agreements would be settled. After battles all "fighting men (ahl-i harb)" were executed and their wives and children were enslaved in considerable numbers and the usual fifth of slaves and booty was sent to Hajjaj. The general populace were granted safety (aman) and encouraged to carry on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.

Qasim was preparing to march upon Kanauj when he received a summons from the Khalifa, thereby ending his campaign.

Military and Political Strategy

The military strategy was outlined by Hajjaj to Qasim in a letter:

My ruling is given:Kill anyone belonging to the combatants (ahl-i-harb); arrest their sons and daughters for hostages and imprison them. Whoever does not fight against us..grant them aman (safety) and settle their tribute(amwal) as dhimmah..

The Arabs' first concern was to facilitate the conquest of Sindh with the fewest casualties while also trying to preserve the economic infrastructure. Towns were given two options: submit to Arab authority peacefully or be attacked by force (anwattan), with the choice governing their treatment upon capture. The capture of towns was usually accomplished by means of a treaty with a party from among the enemy, who were then extended special privileges and material rewards. There were two types of such treaties, "Sulh" or "ahd-e-wasiq (capitulation)" and "aman (surrender/ peace)". Upon the capture of towns and fortresses, Qasim performed executions as part of his military strategy, but they were limited to the ahl-i-harb (fighting men), whose surviving dependents were also enslaved.

Where resistance was strong, prolonged and intensive, often resulting in considerable Arab casualties, Qasim's response was dramatic, inflicting 6,000 deaths at Rawar, between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad, 4,000 at Iskalandah and 6,000 at Multan. Conversely, in areas taken by sulh, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few casualties occurred. Sulh appeared to be Qasim's preferred mode of conquest, the method used for more than 60% of the towns and tribes recorded by Baladhuri or the Chachnama. At one point, he was actually berated by Hajjaj for being too lenient. Meanwhile, the common folk were often pardoned and encouraged to coutinue working; Hajajj ordered that this option not be granted to any inhabitant of Daybul, yet Qasim still bestowed it upon certain groups and individuals.

After each major phase of his conquest, Qasim attempted to establish law and order in the newly-conquered territory by showing religious tolerance and incorporating the ruling class – the Brahmins and Shramanas – into his administration.

Reasons for Success

Qasim succeeded partly because Raja Dahir was an unpopular Hindu king ruling over a Buddhist majority. His campaign's success is ascribed to the support given by Buddhists and the Jat, Meds and Bhutto tribes. Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the Rai Dynasty), and rebel soldiers served as valuable infantry in the cavalry-heavy force that first arrived at Arman Belah. His army at Multan was reported in the Tarikh Masumi as numbering 50,000, of which only 6,000 had originally come with Qasim.

Along with this were:

1. Superior military equipment (including siege engines and the Mongol bow)
2. Troop discipline and leadership
3. The concept of Jihad as morale booster
4. Religion; the dissatisfaction of the Buddhist populace, the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success, as well as Dahir's marriage to his sister which alienated him from others.

Administration by Qasim

After the conquest, Qasim's task was to set up an administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly conquered alien land, inhabited by non-Muslims. He adopted a conciliatory policy, asking for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for non-interference in their religious practice, so long as the natives paid their taxes and tribute. He established Islamic Sharia law over the people of the region; however, Hindus were allowed to rule their villages and settle their disputes according to their own laws, and traditional hierarchical institutions, including the Village Headmen (Rais) and Chieftains (dihqans) were maintained. A Muslim officer called an amil was stationed with a troop of cavalry to manage each town on a hereditary basis

Everywhere taxes (mal) and tribute (kharaj) were settled and hostages taken - occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples. Natives were excused from military service and payment of the tax paid by Muslim subjects - Zakat. The tax enforced on the natives was the jizya - it was a progressive tax, being heavier on the upper classes and light for the poor. "/> In addition, three percent of government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins.

The Chachnama notes the following as some of the other highlights of Qasim’s rule:

• Hindus were included in the Ahl al Kitab
• The status of Dhimmi (protected people) was conferred upon Hindus and Buddhists

Incorporation of ruling elite into administration

During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the administration as trusted advisors and governors. A Hindu, Kaksa, was at one point the second most important member of his administration. Dahir's prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the administration.

Religion

No mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of temples such as the Sun Temple at Multan was forbidden. However, Qasim was not entirely deferential to the native religions. Many town idolhouses were converted into mosques. At Multan, 6000 custodians of the Sun-temple were made captive and their wealth confiscated. The temple housing the great idol (sanam) was a source of great wealth for the town, receiving pilgrims from across the region. Qasim left the idol where it was, but he hung a piece of cow flesh on its neck by way of mockery; he then built a mosque in the same bazaar at the center of the town. A small minority who converted to Islam were granted exemption from slavery and taxes.

An eccelastical office, "sadru-I-Islam al affal", was created to oversee the secular governors. While some proselytism did occur, the social dynamics of Sindh were not too different from other Muslim regions such as Egypt, where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries, and generally came from among the ranks of Buddhists.

Death

Qasim had begun preparations for further expansions when Hajjaj died, as did Caliph Al-Walid I, who was succeeded by Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik. After Hajjaj's death, the new governor took revenge against all who were close to Hajjaj. Sulayman owed political support to opponents of Hajjaj and so recalled both of Hajjaj's successful generals Qutaibah bin Muslim and Qasim. He also appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, once tortured by Hajjaj and a son of Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, as the governor of Fars, Kirman, Makran and Sindh; he immediately placed Qasim in chains.

There are two accounts regarding the details of Qasim's fate:

1. The account from the Chach Nama narrates a tale in which the Khalifa had been tricked into ordering Qasim's recall by Raja Dahir's daughters. Upon taking them captive, the women were sent on as presents to the Khalifa, whom they convinced that Qasim had violated them before sending them on. As a result of this subterfuge, Qasim was wrapped in oxen hides and returned to Syria, resulting in his death en route from suffocation. This narrative attributes the motive for this subterfuge to securing vengeance for their father's death. Upon discovering this subterfuge, the Khalifa is recorded to have been filled with remorse and ordered the sisters buried alive in a wall.
2. The Persian historian Baladhuri's account states that the Khalifa was a political enemy of Hajjaj and recalled Qasim after Hajjaj's death and imprisoned him; Qasim is reported to have died under torture.

Controversy

There is controversy regarding the conquest and subsequent conversion of Sindh. This is usually voiced in two antagonistic perspectives viewing Qasim's actions:

1. Coercive conversion has been attributed to early historians such as Elliot, Cousens, Majumdar and Vaidya. They hold the view that the conversion of Sindh was necessitated as a direct consequence of the violent nature of Islam. Qasim's numerical inferiority is said to explain any instances of apparent religious toleration, with the destruction of temples seen as a reflection of the more basic, religiously motivated intolerance.
2. Voluntary conversion has been attributed to Thomas W. Arnold and modern Muslim historians such as Habib and Qureishi. They believe that the conquest was largely peaceful, and the conversion entirely so, and that the Arab forces enacted liberal, generous and tolerant policies. These historians mention the "praiseworthy conduct of Arab Muslims" and attribute their actions to a "superior civilizational complex".

Various polemical perceptions of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism are also reflected in this debate. Elliot perceived Islam as a religion of "terror, devastation, murder and rapine" where the conquering Arabs were characterized as "ruthless bigots" and "furious zealots" motivated by "plunder and proselytism". The period of Qasim's rule has been called by U.T. Thakkur "the darkest period in Sind history", with the records speaking of massive forced conversions, temple destruction, slaughters and genocides; the people of Sindh, described as inherently pacifist due to their Hindu/Buddhist religious inclinations, had to adjust to the conditions of "barbarian inroad". On one extreme, the Arab Muslims are seen as being compelled by religious stricture to conquer and forcibly convert Sindh, but on the other hand, they can be seen as being respectful and tolerant of non-Muslims as part of their religious duty, with conversion being facilitated by the vitality, equality and morals of the Islamic religion. Citations of towns taken either violently or bloodlessly, reading back into Arab Sindh information belonging to a later date and dubious accounts such as those of the forcible circumcision of Brahmins at Deybul or Qasims consideration of Hindu sentiment in forbidding the slaughter of cows are used as examples for one particular view or the other.

Some historians strike a middle ground, saying that Qasim was torn between the political expediency of making peace with the Hindus and Buddhists; having to call upon non-Muslims to serve under him as part of his mandate to administer newly conquered land; and orthodoxy by refraining from seeking the co-operation of "infidels". It is contended that Qasim may have struck a middle ground, conferring the status of Dhimmi upon the native Sindhis and permitting them to participate in his administration, but treating them as "noncitizens" (i.e. in the Khilafat, but not of it)..

Legacy

• Qasim's presence and rule was very brief. His conquest for the Umayyads brought Sindh into the gambit of the Muslim world

• The next Arab governor died on arrival. Dahir’s son Jaisimha recaptured Brahmanabad and c. 720, he was granted pardon and included in the administration in return for converting to Islam. Soon, however, he recanted and split off when the Umayyads were embroiled in a succession crisis. Later, Junaid Ibn Abdur Rahman al-Marri killed Jaisimha and recaptured the territory before his successors once again struggled to hold and keep it. During the Abassid period, c. 870, the local emirs shook off all allegiance to the caliphs and by the 10th century the region was split into two weak states, Mansurah on the lower Indus and Multan on the upper Indus, which were soon captured by Ismailis who set up an independent Fatimid state. These successor states did not achieve much and shrank in size. The Arab conquest remained checked in what is now the south of Pakistan for three centuries by powerful Hindu monarchs to the north and east until the arrival of Mahmud of Ghazni.

• Coastal trade and a Muslim colony in Sindh allowed for cultural exchanges and the arrival of Sufi missionaries to expand Muslim influence. From Debal, which remained an important port until the 12th century, commercial links with the Persian Gulf and the Middle East intensified as Sindh became the "hinge of the Indian Ocean Trade and overland passway."

• Port Qasim, Pakistan's second major port is named in honor of Muhammad bin Qasim.

• Muhammad bin Qasim is sometimes called the "the first Pakistani citizen".

• Youm-e-Babul Islam is observed in Pakistan, in honor of Muhammad bin Qasim.

See also

• Battle of Rajasthan
• Qutaibah bin Muslim
• Muslim conquests

External links

• Alexander Berzin, "Part I: The Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750 CE), The First Muslim Incursion into the Indian Subcontinent", The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire
• Online Version of the Chach Nama, Last accessed 3 September 2007

Footnotes

1. ^ Wink (2002), pg.164
2. Wink (2002), 51-52
3. ^ Nicholas F. Gier, FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006 Cite error: The named reference "Gier" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
4. ^ Wink (2004) pg 201-205
5. Wink (2004) pg 131
6. The Indus River during this time used to flow to the east of Nerun. An earthquake at in the 10th century caused it to change course to what it is currently.
7. ^ Derryl pg. 37-39
8. ^ Wink (2002) pg. 204-206
9. ^ Derryl pg.22-29
10. "The fall of Multan laid the Indus valley at the feet of the conqueror. The tribes came in, 'ringing bells and beating drums and dancing,' in token of welcome. The Hindu rulers had oppressed them heavily, and the Jats and Meds and other tribes were on the side of the invaders. The work of conquest, as often happened in India, was thus aided by the disunion of the inhabitants, and jealousies of race and creed conspired to help the Muslims. To such suppliants Mohammad Kasim gave the liberal terms that the Arabs usually offered to all but inveterate foes. He imposed the customary poll-tax, took hostages for good conduct, and spared the people's lands and lives. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples,' he proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the synagogues of the Jews, and the altars of the Magians.'" Stanley Lane-Poole, Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule, 712-1764, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970. p. 9-10
11. The Chach-nama make special reference to one particular catapult called "(trans.) the small bride" which required 500 men to operate.
12. The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979 Online Version last accessed 30 September 2006
13. ^ Appleby. pg. 291-292
14. H. M. Elliot and John Dowson, The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians, (London, 1867-1877), vol. 1, p. 203. "Kaksa took precedence in the army before all the nobles and commanders. He collected the revenue of the country and the treasury was placed under his seal. He assisted Muhammad ibn Qasim in all of his undertakings..."
15. The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979. Online Version last accessed 3 October 2006
16. Schimmel pg.4
17. Wink (2002) pg 187-188
18. Wink (2002) pg. 53
19. The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979.Online Version Last accessed 15 May 2007
20. ^ Keay, pg. 185
21. ^ Derryl pg.31-33
22. Sindhi Culture by U.T. Thakkur, University of Bombay 1959
23. ^ Markovits, Claude The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750-1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama, Cambridge University Press, Jun 22, 2000, ISBN 0-521-62285-9, pg. 34.
24. Keay, pg 186-187
25. Akbar, M.J, "The Shade of Swords", Routledge (UK), Dec 1, 2003, ISBN 0-415-32814-4 pg.102.
26. Federal Research Division. "Pakistan a Country Study", Kessinger Publishing, Jun 1, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-3994-0 pg.45.
27. Cheesman, David Landlord Power and Rural Indebtedness in Colonial Sind, Routledge (UK), Feb 1, 1997, ISBN 0-7007-0470-1
28. "History books contain major distortions". Daily Times.
29. "KARACHI: Babul Islam day observed". Dawn.

References

• The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979.

• Nicholas F. Gier, FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006

• Stanley Lane-Poole, Medieval India under Mohammedan Rule, 712-1764, G.P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1970

• Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen - Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, Jan 1, 1980, ISBN 90-04-06117-7

• Appleby, R Scott & Martin E Marty, Fundamentalisms Comprehended, University of Chicago Press, May 1, 2004, ISBN 0-226-50888-9

• Wink, Andre, "Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World", Brill Academic Publishers, Aug 1, 2002, ISBN 0-391-04173-8

• Wink, Andre, "Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World", Brill Academic Publishers, 2004, ISBN 9-004-09249-8

• Keay, John, "India: A History", Grove Press, May 1, 2001, ISBN 0-8021-3797-0

• Maclean, Derryl N. "Religion and Society in Arab Sind", Brill Academic Publishers, 1989 ISBN 9-004-08551-3

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