| Revision as of 16:26, 6 September 2007 view source86.142.166.234 (talk) Removed the words "by Anne Frank" at the start of the second paragraph. Appears to be a stupid/malicious addition.← Previous edit | Revision as of 17:37, 6 September 2007 view source 137.85.253.2 (talk) ←Replaced page with 'GAY'Next edit → | ||
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| ] (]) and ] (c.] or perhaps earlier).]] | |||
| '''Ancient Egypt''' was a long-standing ] in ]] ]. It was concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the ], reaching its greatest extent in the ], during the ]. It reached from the ] in the north, as far south as ] at the ] of the Nile. Extensions to the geographic range of ancient Egyptian civilization included, at different times, areas of the southern ], the Eastern Desert and the ] coastline, the ], and the Western body (focused on the several ]). | |||
| Ancient Egypt developed over three and a half millennia. It began with the incipient unification of Nile Valley polities around ], and is conventionally thought to have ended in ] when the early ] conquered and absorbed ] as a state. This last event did not represent the first period of foreign domination; the Roman period was, however, to witness a marked, if gradual transformation in the political and religious life of the Nile Valley, effectively marking the end of independent civilizational development. | |||
| The civilization of ancient Egypt was based on balanced control of natural and human resources, characterised primarily by controlled ] of the fertile Nile Valley; the mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions; the early development of an independent ] and ]; the organization of collective projects; ] with surrounding regions in east / central Africa and the eastern ]; and finally, ] ventures that exhibited strong characteristics of imperial hegemony and territorial domination of neighbouring cultures at different periods. Motivating and organising these activities were a socio-political and economic ] that achieved social consensus by means of an elaborate system of ] under the figure of a semi-divine ruler (usually male) from a succession of ruling ], and related to the larger world by means of ]. | |||
| {{Egyptian Dynasty list}} | |||
| == History == | |||
| {{main|History of ancient Egypt}} | |||
| {{see also|History of Egypt}} | |||
| ] evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian ] extended far beyond the borders into ] (see ]). The ] River, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile during the ]. Traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. | |||
| Egypt has a unique combination of geographical features. Egypt is in northeast Africa bordered by Libya, Sudan, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. At one time, it was divided into ] and ]. Upper Egypt was the southern half nearer the rest of Africa. The Nile was the key factor in the success of ancient Egyptian civilization. The fertile silt deposited along the banks of the Nile after the annual floods meant the Egyptians were able to practise a less labor-intensive form of agriculture. This freed up the population to devote more time and resources for cultural, technological and artistic pursuits. | |||
| Farming in Egypt was dependent upon the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians distinguished between three seasons: Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet, the season of the flooding of the Nile, lasted from June to September. After the flooding, a layer of silt was left on the banks, perfect for growing crops. Peret, the growing season, was between October and February. The farmers waited until the water drained away, around November, to plow and plant the rich soil. When that was done, they would irrigate the crops with dikes or canals. Shemu, the harvesting season, followed in March, April, and May. Reapers would then cut off the ripe ears with sickles. Women and children followed close behind collecting fallen ears. The cycle kept going as long as the Nile kept providing the soil nutrients which in turn supported the ancient Egyptian civilization. ] plants were grown, uprooted before they started flowering, and the fibres of their stems extracted. These fibres were split along their length, spun into thread which was used to weave sheets of ] to make into clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruit were grown in garden plots close to their habitations on higher ground and had to be watered by hand. | |||
| Along the ], in the ], a ]-] ] using the earliest type of ] blades had been replaced by another culture of ], ], and ] peoples using ]s. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the ] border, before ]. Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies suggest that natural climate changes around ] began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa, eventually forming the ] (c.]). Early tribes in the region naturally tended to aggregate close to the Nile River where they developed a settled ] ] and more centralized ]. There is evidence of ] and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the ]. | |||
| By about ], organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. At this time, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were ] cattle and also ] large buildings. ] was in use by ]. The ] continues through this time, variously held to begin with the ] culture. Some authorities however place the start of the Predynastic Period earlier, in the ]. | |||
| Between 5500 and 3100 BC, during Egypt's Predynastic Period, small settlements flourished along the Nile. By ], just before the first Egyptian dynasty, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as ] (''Ta Shemau'') and ] (''Ta Mehu'').<ref name = "Adkinsp155">Adkins, L. and Adkins, R. (2001) ''The Little Book of Egyptian Hieroglyphics'', p155. London: Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN .</ref> The dividing line was drawn roughly in the area of modern Cairo. | |||
| The ] proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around ]. According to Egyptian tradition ], thought to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first king. Egyptian culture, including religion, customs, art expression, architecture and social structure, was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. | |||
| ], which involves ]s, began around this time. The ] is the chronology accepted during the 20th century, but it does not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archaeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. There are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by ]'s ''Aegyptiaca'' (History of Egypt). | |||
| ].]] | |||
| *''']''': The time of the Pharaohs stretches from before ] to about ]. | |||
| *'''Dynasties''' (see also: ]): | |||
| ** ] (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. ]) | |||
| ** ] (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries ]) | |||
| ** ] (7th to 11th Dynasties) | |||
| ** ] (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th to 17th centuries BC) | |||
| ** ] (14th to 17th Dynasties) | |||
| *** ] (15th to 16th Dynasties, c. 1674 BC to 1548 BC) | |||
| ** ] (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC) | |||
| ** ] (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC) | |||
| ** ] (26th to 31st Dynasties; ] to ]) | |||
| *** ] | |||
| ** ] (] to AD ]) | |||
| ***] (] to ]) | |||
| *** ] (] to ]) | |||
| *** ] (] to 639 AD) | |||
| * ''']''' (639 AD) | |||
| ==Administration and taxation== | |||
| ], flanking the entrance to his mortuary temple in Western ] - erroneously identified as the ] by Greek travelers in antiquity]] | |||
| For administrative purposes, ancient Egypt was divided into districts, referred to by Egyptologists by the Greek term ]; they were called ''sepat'' in ancient Egyptian. The division into nomes can be traced back to the Predynastic Period (before 3100 BC), when the nomes originally existed as autonomous city-states. The nomes remained in place for more than three millennia, with the area of the individual nomes and their order of numbering remaining remarkably stable. Under the system that prevailed for most of pharaonic Egypt's history, the country was divided into 42 nomes: 20 comprising ], whilst Upper Egypt was divided into 22. Each nome was governed by a ] (Greek for "ruler of the nome",) a provincial governor who held regional authority. The position of the nomarch was at times ], at times appointed by the pharaoh. | |||
| The ancient Egyptian government imposed a number of different ] upon its people. As there was no known form of ] until the latter half of the first millennium BC, taxes were paid for "in kind" (with produce or work). The ] (ancient Egyptian: ''tjaty'') controlled the taxation system through the departments of state. The departments had to report daily on the amount of stock available, and how much was expected in the future. Taxes were paid for depending on a person's craft or duty. Landowners paid their taxes in ] and other produce grown on their ]. ] paid their taxes with goods they produced. Hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river, marshes, and desert. One person from every household was required to pay a '']'' or labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year, such as digging canals or mining. However, a richer ] could hire a poorer man to fulfill his labor tax. | |||
| ==Language== | |||
| {{main|Egyptian language}} | |||
| ] constitutes an independent part of the ] language ]. Its closest relatives are the ], ], and ] groups of languages. Written records of the Egyptian language have been dated from about ], making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. Scholars group Egyptian into six major chronological divisions: | |||
| *'''Archaic Egyptian''' (before 3000 BC) <br/> Consists of inscriptions from the late ] and ] period. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian ] writing appears on ] II pottery vessels. | |||
| *''']''' (3000–2000 BC) <br/> The language of the ] and ]. The ] are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. Tomb walls of elite Egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing Old Egyptian. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ]s, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from the next stage. | |||
| *''']''' (2000–1300 BC) <br/> Often dubbed '''Classical Egyptian''', this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in ] and ] scripts dated from about the ]. It includes funerary texts inscribed on ] such as the ]; wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient Egyptian philosophical worldview (see the ]); tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual, for example the ]; medical and scientific texts such as the ] and the ]; and poetic texts praising a god or a ], such as the Hymn to the Nile. The Egyptian ] had already begun to change from the written language as evidenced by some Middle Kingdom hieratic texts, but classical Middle Egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the Late Dynastic period (sometimes referred to as Late Middle Egyptian). | |||
| *''']''' (1300–700 BC) <br/> Records of this stage appear in the second part of the ]. It contains a rich body of religious and secular literature, comprising such famous examples as the ] and the Instructions of Ani. It was also the language of ] administration. Late Egyptian is not totally distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than that between Middle and Old Egyptian. It's also a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond. Hieroglyphic ] saw an enormous expansion of its ] inventory between the Late Dynastic and ] periods. | |||
| *''']''' (7th century BC–4th century AD) | |||
| *''']''' (3rd–17th century AD) | |||
| ===Writing=== | |||
| ] with Egyptian writing.]] | |||
| ] | |||
| For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the ], found during excavations at ] (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the ], which has been dated to c.]. However, recent ] findings reveal that symbols on ] pottery, ''c.'' 3250 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms.<ref name="LHGerzean">{{cite web | url = http://www.learninghaven.com/ancient_egypt.htm | title = Ancient Egypt | accessdate = }}</ref> Also in 1998 a German archaeological team under ] excavating at ] (modern ]) uncovered tomb ], which belonged to a ] ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with ] dating to the ] period, circa ].<ref name="www.exn.ca.357" /><ref name="www.findarticles.com.358" /> | |||
| Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as ''']s''', today standing as the world's earliest known ]. The hieroglyphic script was partly ], partly ]. ''']''' is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC – c. 2775 BC). The term ''']''', in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the ] until its marginalization by Greek ] in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of ] in the 7th century AD, the ] survived as a spoken language into the ]. Today, it continues to be the liturgical language of the ] minority. | |||
| Beginning from around ], Egyptians used ]s to represent ] — ignoring ]s and representing only ] vocalizations (see ]). By ], 26 ]s were mainly being used to represent 24 (known) ], but hundreds of further signs were also being employed. The world's ] (c. ]) is only an ] system and was derived from these ] as well as other ]s. | |||
| The hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the ] AD. Attempts to decipher it in the ] began after the ], though earlier attempts by ] scholars are attested (see '']''). | |||
| ===Literature=== | |||
| *c. ]: ] and ] | |||
| *c. ]: ] | |||
| *c. ]: ] | |||
| *c. ]: ] | |||
| *c. ]: ] | |||
| *c. ]: ] | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| {{see also|Ancient Egyptian architecture}} | |||
| The Egyptian religion, embodied in ], is a succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, as early as ] times and all the way until the coming of ] and ] in the ] and ] eras. These were conducted by Egyptian ]s or ], but the use of ] and ]s is questioned. | |||
| Every animal portrayed and worshiped in ancient Egyptian art, writing and religion is indigenous to ], all the way from the ] until the Graeco-Roman eras, over 3000 years. The ], ] first in ], first appears in Egypt (and North Africa) beginning in the 2nd millennium BC. | |||
| The inner reaches of the temples were sacred places where only priests and priestesses were allowed. On special occasions people were allowed into the temple courtyards. | |||
| The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the ]. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. ] in general is characterized by the idea of order. | |||
| Evidence of ] and ] indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other ] cultures, transmitted in one way over the ]. Ancient Egypt's ] included ] and ] to the south, the ] and ] to the north, the ] and other regions in the ] to the east, and also ] to the west. | |||
| Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian ] from the Late ] has revealed evidence of a stable diet,<ref>{{cite journal | author=Macko S, Engel M, Andrusevich V, Lubec G, O'Connell T, Hedges R | title=Documenting the diet in ancient human populations through stable isotope analysis of hair. | journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci | volume=354 | issue=1379 | pages=65-75; discussion 75-6 | year=1999|id=PMID }}</ref> mummies from circa ] show signs of severe ] and ].<ref name="www.exn.ca.357">{{cite web | title=:: Discovery Channel CA :: | url=http://www.exn.ca/egypt/story.asp?st=Lifestyles | accessmonthday=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref><ref name="www.findarticles.com.358">{{cite web | title=Accounting Historians Journal, The: oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt, The | url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_/ai_n | accessmonthday=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Marin A, Cerutti N, Massa E | title=Use of the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) in the study of HbS in predynastic Egyptian remains. | journal=Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper | volume=75 | issue=5-6 | pages=27-30|id=PMID }}</ref> This is symptomatic of metal poisoning. Compounds of copper, lead, mercury, and arsenic, which were used in pigments, dyes, and makeup of the era may have caused ], especially among the wealthy.<ref name="Heavy metal poisoning">{{cite web | title=HEAVY METAL TOXICOLOGY | url=http://www.hbci.com/~wenonah/hydro/heavmet.htm | accessmonthday=May 12 | accessyear=2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title="Pigments: Historical, chemical, and artistic importance" | url=http://www.jcsparks.com/painted/pigment-chem.html | accessmonthday=May 12 | accessyear=2007 }}</ref> | |||
| ==Ancient achievements and unsolved problems==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | |||
| ===Achievements=== | |||
| {{see also|Ancient Egyptian technology|Egyptian mathematics}} | |||
| :''See ] for inventions and other significant achievements in the ] before the ]''. | |||
| ] antiquity]] | |||
| The achievements of ancient Egypt are well known, and the civilization achieved a very high standard of productivity and sophistication. The art and science of ] was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as ]). These skills were used to outline ] bases. The ] took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex. ] was first invented by the Egyptians. The ] ] (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian Pharaohs of the ] using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the ] or before, the Egyptians ] ] in the ]. | |||
| The earliest evidence (circa ]) of traditional ] is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the ] and ]. The roots of the ] may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians created their own alphabet (however, it is debated as to whether they were the first to do this because of the margin of error on carbon dated tests), ]<ref>{{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html|accessmonthday=December 5 |accessyear=2005 }}</ref> and complex ], in the form of the ] and ]. The ] seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the ],<ref name=phi>{{cite web|url=http://mtcs.truman.edu/~thammond/history/EgyptianPyramids.html|title=The Egyptian Pyramids - Mathematics and the Liberal Arts|publisher=Truman State University|year=|accessmonthday=May 30 |accessyear=2006}}</ref> however this may be the consequence of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Barry J.|year=1989|title=Ancient Egypt|publisher=Routledge|id=ISBN |pages=p. 138}}</ref> | |||
| Glass making was highly developed in ancient Egypt, as is evident from the glass beads, jars, figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realscience.breckschool.org/upper/fruen/files/Enrichmentarticles/files/AncientGlass/AncientGlass.html||title=Ancient Glass|last=Fruen|first=Lois|year=2002|accessmonthday=June 1 |accessyear=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dcmt.cranfield.ac.uk/dmas/cmse/forensicinstitute/archaelogical/research/egypt_glass|title=Ancient Egyptian Glass|last=Shortland|first=A.J.|publisher=Cranfield University|accessmonthday=March 24 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> Recent archeology has uncovered the remains of an ancient Egyptian glass factory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000DEA36-606E-12B3-A06E83414B7F0000|title=Ancient Egyptian Glass Factory Found|last=Graham|first=Sarah|date=|accessmonthday=June 1 |accessyear=2006|publisher=Scientific American}}</ref> | |||
| ===Open problems and scientific inquiry=== | |||
| Ancient Egypt was a fertile field for scientific inquiry, scholarly study, religious inspiration, and open speculation. Speculation and inquiry includes the degree of sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several ]s concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. | |||
| It is not known why there seems to be no neat progression to an Egyptian ] nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians possibly taking a long time to begin using ]. A study of the rest of Africa could point to the reasons: Sub-Saharan Africa confined their use of the metal to agricultural purposes for many centuries. The ancient Egyptians had a much easier form of agriculture with the annual Nile floods and fertile sediment delivery. They thus had little impetus for the development of agricultural implements that would have spurred the adoption of iron.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} It should be stressed that while steel is derived from iron, it is by no means an intuitive leap. Small percentages of impurities can ruin a batch of molten ], preventing it from becoming ]. ] ] are much more metallurgically robust and naturally plentiful. Several naturally occurring proportions of ], ], ], ] will combine with copper and <i>improve</i> the properties of ]. Bronze is actually stronger than ], and doesn't ]. To prefer bronze in this context is entirely rational. Given iron's greater abundance, it is likely that the iron age began when demand for 'any metal' outstripped supply of 'quality metal' - bronze. | |||
| It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked ]. A clue is found in the exquisite granite carvings of the Yoruba in West Africa. For years researchers could not fathom how they were carved so smoothly until contemporary workmen demonstrated the simple system of rubbing the quartz with sand and water. | |||
| The exact date the Egyptians started producing ] is debated. There is some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance ] in their ]s and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is also contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of ]{{Fact|date=June 2007}} and if the Egyptians used ]s{{Fact|date=June 2007}} or ]. The topic of the ] is controversial{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of ]. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had ]s or ]s{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. | |||
| ] is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several ] writers — ], ], ] and ]. It is unknown whether Egyptian ] developed independently or as an import from ]. | |||
| ==Timeline== | |||
| ''(All dates are approximate; see ] for a detailed discussion.)'' | |||
| ===Predynastic=== | |||
| ''See main article and timeline: ].'' | |||
| *]: ], possibly the world's oldest ] | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known earthenware | |||
| ===Dynastic=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| ] | |||
| *]: ] works (see ]) | |||
| *]: ]s fully developed (see ]) | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known ] | |||
| *]: ],<ref> {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html | accessmonthday=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> world's earliest (confirmed) use | |||
| *]: ]s, world's earliest known<ref name"Hate_WineCellar">{{cite web | url = http://www.hartifacts.com/phoenix/festival/winetour/WT_wine01.htm | title = Wine in Ancient Egypt | accessdate = | last = Hatshepsut | first = Hilarity }}</ref> | |||
| *]: ] in ]<ref> {{cite web | title=Francesco Raffaele Egyptology News | url=http://www.abc.se/~pa/mar/abydos.htm | accessmonthday=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> | |||
| *]: ]s from ] to ] and ]: ] (see ]) | |||
| *]: ] ] (see ]) | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known ] | |||
| *]: ] | |||
| *]: possible ]: ]-containing ]<ref name="Catch_Iron">{{cite web | url = http://www.catchpenny.org/iron.html | title = The Iron Plate in the Great Pyramid | accessdate = | last = Orcutt | first = Larry | year = 2000 }}</ref> | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known | |||
| *]: precision ] | |||
| *]: ], forming basis of world's ] | |||
| *]: ], still today the world's largest single-stone ] | |||
| *]–]: ] expeditions: ] and ]. See also,<ref>{{cite web | title=MSIChicago : Exhibits : Ships Through the Ages | url=http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/ships/ | accessmonthday=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> | |||
| *]: ] transportation, stone blocks (see ]) | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known large-scale stone building | |||
| *]: ] & ], world's earliest known works of carved ] | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known "true" smooth-sided pyramid; solid ] work | |||
| *]: ], the ] until ] | |||
| *]: ]<ref> {{cite web | title=apiary2 | url=http://www.vftn.org/projects/bryant/navbar_pages/apiary_2.htm | accessmonthday=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> | |||
| *]: ], used even in the ] for its ] regularity | |||
| *]: ] {{cite web | url = http://www.belgianbeers.info/lambic_beer_focus.php | title = Lambic Beer Focus | accessdate = | last = Simon | first = Robinson | year = 2006 | month = September }} | |||
| *]: possible ] (]) | |||
| *]: ], world's oldest known | |||
| *]: ], generalized formula for volume of ] | |||
| *]: ]: ], ] analogue, ], ], ] | |||
| *]: ], medical tradition traces as far back as c. ] | |||
| *]: ], traditional ]; world's earliest known documented ] (see ]) | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known | |||
| *]: ],<ref>Richard J. Gillings, Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs, 1972, Dover, New York, ISBN -X</ref> 19th dynasty - 2nd order ] | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known (see ]){{cite web | url = http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Arts&Culture/Monuments/ramses2/RamsesII/.htm | title = Ramses II | accessdate = }} | |||
| *]: ], world's earliest known ] and ] map | |||
| *]: ] used in ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geotimes.org/feb05/NN_mummytar.html|title=Geotimes, February 2005: Mummy tar in ancient Egypt|last=Sever|first=Megan|accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
| *]–] (or perhaps earlier): battle games ''petteia'' and ''seega''; possible precursors to ] (see ]) | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{commonscat|Ancient Egypt}}{{portal}} | |||
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| ==References== | |||
| <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> | |||
| <references/> | |||
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| ==Further reading== | |||
| Ancient Egypt has inspired a vast number of English-language publications, ranging from scholarly works to generalised accounts (in addition to a large number of speculative, supernatural or pseudo-scientific explorations). A selection of generally reliable survey treatments, published within the last two decades, includes: | |||
| *] and ] (2000), ''The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt'', revised edition, Facts on File, 2000. ISBN | |||
| *] (1991), ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization'', Routledge, 1991. ISBN | |||
| *] (1997), ''The Complete Pyramids'', London: Thames & Hudson, 1997. ISBN . | |||
| *Shaw, Ian (2003), ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN | |||
| *Wilkinson, R. H. (2000), ''The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt'', London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN | |||
| *Wilkinson, R.H. (2003), ''The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt'', London: Thames and Hudson, 2003. ISBN | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * An openlearn course on Egyptian mathematics. Openlearn is part of The Open University. | |||
| * — maintained by the ], this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents | |||
| * articles and resources from About Archaeology | |||
| * — provides a reliable general overview and further links | |||
| * — A comprehensive & concise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt | |||
| * — provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt | |||
| * — a wiki for the research and documentation of Ancient Egypt and the Near East | |||
| * — maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt | |||
| * — although focusing on the Theban region (modern ]), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt | |||
| *Ancient records of Egypt; historical documents from the earliest times to the Persian conquest. , , , , , by James Henry Breasted (1906) — A reference work on Egyptology. | |||
| * — Active Egyptology web interactive community, many articles and pics. | |||
| * Brugsch, as a teenager, translated the Rosetta Stone demotic section, became leading 19th century German Egyptologist | |||
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Revision as of 17:37, 6 September 2007
GAY