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: ''For the 1960s band, see ]. The term is also used in ]. ''
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], a frequent modern symbol of love]]
{{otheruses}}

{|class="Infobox" align="right"
'''Love''' has many different meanings in ], from something that gives a little pleasure ("I loved that meal") to something one would die for (], pairbonding). It can describe an intense feeling of ], an ] or an emotional state. In ordinary use, it usually refers to interpersonal love. Probably due to its psychological relevance, love is one of the most common themes in art.
|{{Love table}}
{{emotion}}
Just as there are many types of lovers, there are many kinds of love. Love is inherent in all human cultures. It is precisely these cultural differences that make any universal definition of love difficult to establish. See the ].

Expressions of love may include the love for a "soul" or mind, the love of laws and organizations, love for a body, love for nature, love of food, love of money, love for learning, love of power, love of fame, love for the respect of others, et cetera. Different people place varying degrees of importance on the kinds of love they receive. Love is essentially an abstract concept, easier to experience than to explain.

===Interpersonal love===
Interpersonal love refers to the love between human beings. It is a more potent sentiment than a simple ''liking'' for another. ] refers to those feelings of love which are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with ]. Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as ].

Some elements that are often present in interpersonal love:
*]: appreciation of another
*]: satisfying basic emotional needs
*]: selfless or unselfish concern for another
*]: if love is mutual
*]: a desire to maintain love
*]: sharing emotions and feelings
*]: the spirit between friends
*]: family bonds
*]: whole-hearted desire
*]: sharing of intimate personal space
*]: desiring rewards
*]: desire to help

Sexual energy can be the most important element in determining the shape of a relationship. While sexual attraction often establishes a new bond, sexual intention is considered undesirable or inappropriate in certain love bonds. In many religions and systems of ethics it is considered wrong to act on sexual desire for immediate family, for children, or outside of a committed relationship. However, there are many ways to express passionate love without sex. Affection, emotional intimacy and shared interests are common in friendships and kinships of all human beings.

===Impersonal love===
A person can be said to love a country, principle, or goal if they value it greatly and are deeply committed to it. Similarly, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers 'love' of their cause may be borne not of ], but impersonal love coupled with ] and strong political convictions. People can also 'love' material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding their identity with that item. In these cases, if sexual passion is actually felt, it is typically considered abnormal or unhealthy, and called ].

===Religious love===
Whether religious love can be expressed in similar terms to ] is a matter for philosophical debate. Religious 'love' might be considered a euphemistic term, more closely describing feelings of ] or ]. Most religions use the term love to express the ] the follower has to their deity, who may be a living ] or religious teacher. This love can be expressed by ], service, good deeds, and personal ]. Reciprocally, the followers may believe that the deity loves the followers and all of creation. Some traditions encourage the development of passionate love in the believer for the deity. Refer to '']'' below.

== Scientific models ==
]Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, just like ] or ]. Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. There are probably elements of truth in both views — certainly love is influenced by ]s (such as ]) and ]s, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love.

===Attraction and attachment===
The conventional view in ] is that there are two major drives in love — ] and ]. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother.

=== Companionate vs. passionate ===
The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of ] and ]. ] is intense longing, and is often accompanied by ] (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate). ] is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.

=== Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love ===
{{mergefrom|triangular theory of love}}

In the ], love is characterized by three elements: ], ] and ]. Each of these elements can be present in a relationship, producing the following combinations:
{| border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|+'''Combinations of intimacy, passion, and commitment'''
|-
|''']''' or ''']'''
|intimacy
| 
| 
|-
|]
| 
|passion
| 
|-
|'''Empty love'''
| 
| 
|commitment
|-
|''']'''
|intimacy
|passion
| 
|-
|'''Companionate love'''
|intimacy
| 
|commitment
|-
|'''Fatuous love'''
| 
|passion
|commitment
|- |-
|'''Consummate love'''
|{{Close Relationships}}
|intimacy
|passion
|commitment
|} |}


# ''Liking'' includes only one of the love components - intimacy. In this case, liking is not used in a trivial sense. Sternberg says that this intimate liking characterizes true friendships, in which a person feels a bondedness, a warmth, and a closeness with another but not intense passion or long-term commitment.
'''Love''' is an intense feeling of affection related to a sense of strong loyalty or profound ].<ref name="oxford"/> The meaning of ''love'' varies relative to context. ] is seen as an ] ] of intense attraction shared in ]ate or intimate ] and ] ] and ] relationships.<ref name="dic">http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/love</ref> Though often linked to personal relations, love is often given a broader ], a love of ], of ], with ] itself, or a oneness with the ], a universal love. Love can also be construed as ],<ref name="PlatonicSchool">{{cite book |last=Kristeller |first=Paul Oskar |title=Renaissance Thought and the Arts: collected essays |publisher=Princeton University |year=1980 |id=ISBN 0691020108}}</ref> ],<ref name="Gita">{{cite book |last= Mascaró |first=Juan |title=The Bhagavad Gita |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=2003 |id= ISBN 0140449183}}(J. Mascaró translator)</ref> ], and, more casually, great affection for anything considered strongly pleasurable, desirable, or preferred, to include activities and foods.<ref name="IdiomNote">Casual application of the word ''love'' also includes ]atic expressions and uses with differing connotations. For example, as a sardonic expression of disapproval: "I just love how politicians always make empty promises."</ref><ref name="dic"/> This diverse range of meanings in the singular word ''love'' is often contrasted with the plurality of ], reflecting the concept's depth, versatility, and complexity.
# ''Infatuated love'' consists solely of passion and is often what is felt as "love at first sight." But without the intimacy and the commitment components of love, infatuated love may disappear suddenly.
# ''Empty love'' consists of the commitment component without intimacy or passion. Sometimes, a stronger love deteriorates into empty love, in which the commitment remains, but the intimacy and passion have died. In cultures in which arranged marriages are common, relationships often begin as empty love.
# ''Romantic love'' is a combination of intimacy and passion. Romantic lovers are bonded emotionally (as in liking) and physically through passionate arousal.
# ''Companionate love'' consists of intimacy and commitment. This type of love is often found in marriages in which the passion has gone out of the relationship, but a deep affection and commitment remain.
# ''Fatuous love'' has the passion and the commitment components but not the intimacy component. This type of love can be exemplified by a whirlwind courtship and marriage in which a commitment is motivated largely by passion, without the stabilizing influence of intimacy.
# ''Consummate love'' is the only type of love that includes all three components--intimacy, passion and commitment. ''Consummate love'' is the most complete form of love, and it represents the ideal love relationship for which many people strive but which apparently few achieve. Sternberg cautions that maintaining a consummate love may be even harder than achieving it. He stresses the importance of translating the components of love into action. "Without expression," he warns, "even the greatest of loves can die" (1987, p.341).


==Definitions== ===Love styles===
] and Clyde Hendrick developed a Loves Attitude Scale based on John Alan Lee's theory called ]. Lee identified six basic theories that people use in their interpersonal relationships:
*] &mdash; a passionate physical love based on physical appearance
*] &mdash; love is played as a game; love is playful
*] &mdash; an affectionate love that slowly develops, based on ]
*] &mdash; pragmatic love
*] &mdash; highly emotional love; unstable; the stereotype of ]
*] &mdash; selfless altruistic love; spiritual


Hendrick and Hendrick found men tend to be more ludic and manic, whereas women tend to be storgic and pragmatic. Relationships based on similar love styles were found to last longer.
The definition of ''love'' is the subject of considerable debate, enduring speculation and thoughtful introspection. The difficulty of finding a universal definition for love is typically tackled by classifying it into types, such as passionate love, romantic love, and committed love. These types of love can often be generalized into a level of sexual attraction. In common use, ''love'' has two primary meanings, the first being an indication of adoration for another person or thing, and the second being a state of relational status. Love is an act of identifying with a person or thing, capable of even including oneself (cf. ]; ]). Dictionaries tend to define ''love'' as deep affection or fondness.<ref name="oxford">''Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary'' (1998) + ''Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary'' (2000).</ref> In colloquial use, according to polled opinion, the most favored definitions of ''love'' involve ], selflessness, friendship, union, family, and bonding or connecting with another.


===Phases===
] has defined love in various scholarly publications as acting intentionally, in sympathetic response to others (including God), to promote overall well-being. Oord means for his definition to be sufficient for research in ethics, religion, and science.
] suggests three main phases of love: ], ], and attachment. Generally love will start off in the ''lust'' phase, strong in passion but weak in the other elements. The primary motivator at this stage is the basic sexual instinct. Appearance, smells, and other similar factors play a decisive role in screening potential mates. However, as time passes, the other elements may grow and passion may shrink &mdash; this depends upon the individual. So what starts as infatuation or empty love may well develop into one of the fuller types of love. At the ''attraction'' stage the person concentrates their affection on a single mate and fidelity becomes important.


Likewise, when a person has known a loved one for a long time, they develop a deeper attachment to their partner. According to current scientific understanding of love, this transition from the attraction to the ''attachment'' phase usually happens in about 30 months. After that time, the passion fades, changing love from consummate to companionate, or from romantic love to liking.
The different aspects of ''love'' can be roughly illustrated by comparing their corollaries and opposites. As a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of ''like''), love is commonly contrasted with ] (or neutral ]). As a less sexual and more mutual and "pure" form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with ], and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is commonly contrasted with ]. Other connotations of ''love'' may be applied to close friendships as well.


===Love vs. Insanity?===
The very existence of love is sometimes subject to debate. Some categorically reject the notion as false or meaningless.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Others call it a recently-invented ], sometimes dating the "invention" to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Others maintain that love really exists, and is not an abstraction, but is undefinable, being essentially ] or ] in nature.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Some psychologists maintain that love is the action of lending one's "boundary" or "]" to another.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Others attempt to define love by applying the definition to everyday life.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Studies have shown that mental scans of those in love show a striking resemblance to those with a mental illness. Love creates activity in the same area of the brain that hunger, thirst, and drug cravings create activity in. New love, therefore, could possibly be more physical than emotional (though drawing a clear line between ''physical'' and ''emotional'' is difficult when discussing the brain).


Over time, this reaction to love mellows, & different areas of the brain are activated, primarily ones involving long-term commitments.
Cultural differences make any universal definition of love difficult to establish. Expressions of love may include the love for a ] or ], the love of laws and organizations, love for a body, love for nature, love of food, love of money, love for learning, love of power, love of fame, love for the respect of others, etc. Different people place varying degrees of importance on the kinds of love they receive. Love is essentially an abstract concept,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} easier to experience than to explain. Because of the complex and abstract nature of love, discourse on love is commonly reduced to a ], and there are a number of common ]s regarding love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to ]' "]".


], a neuroscientist, suggests that this reaction to love is so similar to that of drugs because without love, humanity would die out.
{{weasel}}


]
==Scientific views==
{{main|Love (scientific views)}}
Throughout history, ] and ] have done the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. In the last century, the science of ] has written a great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences of ], ], ], ], and ] have added to the understanding of the nature and function of love.


===Chemistry of love=== ==Cultural views==
Biological models of sex tend to view love as a ]ian drive, much like ] or ].<ref>{{cite book | last = Lewis | first = Thomas | coauthors = Amini, F., & Lannon, R. | title = A General Theory of Love | publisher = Random House | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-375-70922-3}}</ref> ], a leading expert in the topic of love, divides the experience of love into three partly-overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust exposes people to others, romantic attraction encourages people to focus their energy on mating, and attachment involves tolerating the spouse long enough to rear a child into infancy.


===Chinese===
] is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes ], and involves the increased release of chemicals such as ] and ]. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. ] is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in ] have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including ], ], ], and ], which act similar to ]s, stimulating the brain's ] and leading to side-effects such as an increased ], loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.<ref name="human">Winston, Robert (2004). ''Human''. ].</ref>
In contemporary {{ll|Chinese}} language and ], several terms or root words are used for the concept of "love":


*''Ai'' (愛) is used as a verb (e.g. ''Wo ai ni'', "I love you") or as a noun, especially in ''aiqing'' (愛情), "love" or "romance." In ] since ], '']'' (愛人, originally "lover," or more literally, "love person") is the dominant word for "spouse" (with separate terms for "wife" and "husband" originally being de-emphasized); the word once had a negative connotation, which it retains among many on ].
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. ] is the ] which promotes relationships that last for many years, and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as ] and ], or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals ] and ] than short-term relationships have.<ref name="human"/>


*'']'' (戀) is not generally used alone, but instead as part of such terms as "being in love" (談戀愛, ''tan lian'ai''—also containing ''ai''), "lover" (戀人, ''lianren'') or "homosexuality" (同性戀, ''tongxinglian'').
In 2005, Italian scientists at ] found that a protein molecule known as the ] (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these levels return to as they were after one year. Specifically, four ] levels, i.e. NGF, ], ], and ], of 58 subjects who had recently fallen in love were compared with levels in a control group who were either single or already engaged in a long-term relationship. The results showed that NGF levels were significantly higher in the subjects in love than as compared to either of the control groups.<ref>Emanuele, E. Polliti, P, Bianchi, M. Minoretti, P. Bertona, M., & Geroldi, D. (2005). “Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love.” . Psychoneuroendocrinology, Nov. 09.</ref>


*''Qing'' (情), commonly meaning "feeling" or "emotion," often indicates "love" in several terms. It is contained in the word ''aiqing'' (愛情); ''qingren'' (情人) is a term for "lover".
===Psychology of love===
{{further|]}}


In ], '']'' is a virtuous benevolent love. Lian should be pursued by all human beings, and reflects a moral life. The Chinese philosopher ] developed the concept of ''ai'' (愛) in reaction to Confucian '']''. ''Ai'', in ], is universal love towards all beings, not just towards friends or family, without regard to reciprocation. Extravagance and offensive war are inimical to ''ai''. Although Mozi's thought was influential, the Confucian ''lian'' is how most Chinese conceive of love.
Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. ] ] formulated a ] and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. ''Intimacy'' is a form by which two people can share secrets and various details of their personal lives. Intimacy is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is going to last forever. The last and most common form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. This led researchers such as Yela{{Fact|date=February 2007}} to further refine the model by separating passion into two independents components: erotic passion and romantic passion.


''G&#259;nqíng'' (感情), the feeling of a relationship. A person will express love by building good g&#259;nqíng, accomplished through helping or working for another. Emotional attachment toward another person or anything.
Following developments in electrical theories, such as ], which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as "opposites attract". Over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality; people tend to like people like themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g. with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby which has the best of both worlds.<ref>{{cite book | last = Berscheid | first = Ellen | coauthors = Walster, Elaine, H.| title = Interpersonal Attraction | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. | year = 1969 | id = CCCN 69-17443 }}</ref> In recent years, various ] theories have been developed described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.


'']'' (緣份) is a connection of bound destinies. A meaningful relationship is often conceived of as dependent strong yuanfen. It is very similar to serendipity. A similar conceptualization in English is, "They were made for each other," "fate," or "destiny".
Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of ], whose works in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another", and simple narcissism.<ref name="peck">{{cite book | title=The Road Less Traveled | id=ISBN 0-671-25067-1 | last=Peck | first=Scott | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1978 | page=169}}</ref> In combination, love is an ''activity'', not simply a feeling.


''Zaolian'' (]: 早恋, ]: 早戀, ]: ''zǎoliàn''), literally, "early love," is a contemporary term in frequent use for romantic feelings or attachments among children or adolescents. ''Zaolian'' describes both relationships among a teenaged boyfriend and girlfriend, as well as the "]es" of early adolescence or childhood. The concept essentially indicates a prevalent belief in contemporary Chinese culture that due to the demands of their studies (especially true in the highly competitive educational system of China), youth should not form romantic attachments lest their jeopardize their chances for success in the future. Reports have appeared in Chinese newspapers and other media detailing the prevalence of the phenomenon and its perceived dangers to students and the fears of parents.
==Philosophical views==
]
People, throughout history, have often considered phenomena such as "]" or "instant friendships" to be the result of an uncontrollable ] of attraction or affinity.<ref>{{cite book | last = Fisher | first = Helen | title = Why We Love – the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love | publisher = Henry Holt and Company | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-8050-6913-5}}</ref> One of the first to theorize in this direction was the Greek philosopher ], who in the 4th century BC argued for the existence of two forces, love (''philia'') and strife (''neikos''), which were used to account for the causes of motion in the universe. These two forces were said to intermingle with the ]s, i.e., earth, water, air, and fire, in such a manner that love served as the binding power linking the various parts of existence harmoniously together.


===Japanese===
Later, ] interpreted Empedocles' two agents as ''attraction'' and ''repulsion'', stating that their operation is conceived in an alternate sequence.<ref>{{cite book | last = Jammer | first = Max | title = Concepts of Force | publisher = Dover Publications, Inc. | year = 1956 | id = ISBN 0-486-40689-X}}</ref> From these arguments, Plato originated the concept of "likes attract", e.g., earth is attracted to earth, water to water, and fire to fire. In modern terms this is often phrased in terms of "birds of a feather flock together".
In ], '']'' (&#24859;) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental desire. It can develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and enlightenment.


'']'' (&#29976;&#12360;), a Japanese word meaning "indulgent dependence", is part of the child-rearing culture of Japan. Japanese mothers are expected to hug and indulge their children, and children are expected to reward their mothers by clinging and serving. Some ]s have suggested that Japanese social interactions in later life are modeled on the mother-child amae.
] describes love as a condition of "absolute value", as opposed to ]. ] defines love as acting intentionally, in sympathetic response to others (including God), to promote overall well-being. Oord means for his definition to be adequate for religion, philosophy, and the sciences. ], one of the most prolific science fiction writers of the 20th century, defined love in his novel '']'' as the point of emotional connection which leads to the happiness of another being essential to one's own well being. This definition ignores the ideas of religion and science and instead focuses on the meaning of love as it relates to the individual.


===Ancient Greek===
Also, an ancient proverb states that love is a high form of tolerance. This view is one that many philosophers and scholars have researched, and is widely accepted.
] distinguishes several different senses in which the word ''love'' is used. For example, ancient Greek has the words ''philia'', ''eros'', ''agape'', ''storge'' and ''xenia''. However, with Greek as with many other languages, it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time the ancient Greek text of the ] has examples of the ] ''agapo'' being used with the same meaning as ''phileo''.

'']'' ({{polytonic|&#x1f00;&#x03b3;&#x1f71;&#x03c0;&#x03b7;}} ''&#x61;&#x67;&#x00e1;&#x70;&#x0113;'') means ''love'' in modern day Greek. The term ''s'agapo'' means ''I love you'' in Greek. The word ''agapo'' is the verb ''I love''. It generally refers to a "pure", ideal type of love rather than the physical attraction suggested by ''eros''. However, there are some examples of ''agape'' used to mean the same as ''eros''. It has also been translated as "love of the soul".

'']'' ({{polytonic|&#x1f14;&#x03c1;&#x03c9;&#x03c2;}} ''&#x00e9;&#x72;&#x014d;&#x73;'') is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word ''erota'' means ''in love''. ] refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty, and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body".

'']'' ({{polytonic|&#x03c6;&#x03b9;&#x03bb;&#x1f77;&#x03b1;}} ''&#x70;&#x68;&#x69;&#x6c;&#x00ed;&#x61;''), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by ]. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. Can also mean "love of the mind".

'']'' ({{polytonic|&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#947;&#942;}} ''storg&#275;'') is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.

'']'' (&#958;&#949;&#957;&#943;&#945; ''xenía''), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and their guest, who could previously be strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was only expected to repay with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology, in particular Homer's '']'' and '']''.

===Ancient Roman (Latin)===

The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word 'love'.

'']'' is the basic word for ''to love'', as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense, as well as in a Romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come ''amans'', a lover, amator, 'professional lover', often with the accessory notion of lechery, and ''amica'', 'girlfriend' in the English sense, often as well being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is ''amor'', which is also used in the plural form to indicate 'love affairs' or 'sexual adventures'. This same root also produces ''amicus'', 'friend', and ''amicitia'', 'friendship' (often based on mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to 'indebtedness' or 'influence'). Cicero wrote a treatise called ''On Friendship'' (''de Amicitia'') which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called ''Ars Amatoria'' (''The Art of Lovers''), which addresses in depth everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents.

Complicating the picture somewhat, Latin sometimes uses ''amare'' where English would simply say ''to like''; this notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by ''placere'' or ''delectare'', which are used more colloquially, and the latter of which is used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus.

'']'' often has the notion 'to be affectionate for', 'to esteem', and rarely if ever is used of romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun ''diligentia'', however, has the meaning 'diligence' 'carefulness' and has little semantic overlap with the verb.

'']'' is a synonym for 'diligere'; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun 'observantia' often denote 'esteem' or 'affection'.

'']'' is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean 'charitable love'. This meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.


==Religious views== ==Religious views==
===Christian===
{{tone}}
There are several Greek words for Love that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
{{worldwide}}
* Agape - In the ], '']'' is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love seen as creating goodness in the world, it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
{{POV-section}}
* Phileo - Also used in the ], '']'' is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love".
{{main|Love (religious views)}}
* Two other words for love in the Greek language -- ] (sexual love) and ] (needy child-to parent love) were never used in the ].


] , influential Christians ] wrote a book called ].
The ] speaks of love as a set of attitudes and actions that are far broader than the concept of love as an emotional attachment. Love is seen as a set of behaviors that humankind is encouraged to act out. One is encouraged not just to love one's partner, or even one's friends but also to love one's enemies. The Bible describes this type of active love in 1 Corinthians 13:4-8:


{{cquote|Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails.}} ] believe that to '''love of God with all your heart, mind, and strength''' and '''Love your ] as yourself''' are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of God, according to ]). See The ] chapter 12, verses 28-34). ] summarised this when he wrote "'''Love''' God, and do as thou wilt". ] glorified '''agape love''' as the most important virtue of all in ], chapter 13. Attempting to define it he wrote, "'''Love''' is patient, '''love''' is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. '''Love''' does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." (] 13:4-7)


Christians also believe that ] felt so much '''agape love''' for man that he sacrificed his son for them. John the Apostle wrote, "For God so '''loved''' the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but the save the world through him." (] John 3:16-18)
Romantic love is also present in the Bible, particularly the ]. Traditionally, this book has been interpreted allegorically as a picture of God's love for Israel and the Church. When taken naturally, we see a picture of ideal human marriage:<ref>], 8:6-7, ].</ref>


Many Christians ] see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their relationships.
{{cquote|Place me like a seal over your heart, like a seal on your arm; for love is as strong as death, its jealously unyielding as the grave. It burns like a blazing fire, like a mighty flame. Many waters cannot quench love; rivers cannot wash it away. If one were to give all the wealth of his house for love, it would be utterly scorned.}}


===Buddhist===
The passage ''dodi li v'ani lo'' (]: דודי לי ואני לו), i.e. "my beloved is mine and I am my beloved", from ] 2:16, is an example of a biblical quote commonly engraved on wedding bands.
In ], '']'' is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to ], since it is selfish.


'']'' is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom, and is necessary for enlightenment.
The Bible states love is a characteristic of God. ] 4:8 states "God is Love". In essence, God is the epitomy of love - in action and relation. It is God that first loved mankind and desired a relationship. (John 3:16-17) Love is the underlying drive in most people.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The search for love seems endless within the human race, throughout the ages.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The Bible defines God as being the completeness of love. Love, as being defined by Him, is demonstrated in his character and personality. Another way of defining this type of love is "godly love", a love shown through the example of Christ's sacrifice on the cross. However, this "sacrificial" love can also be expressed by humans, although imperfectly. For example, the love of a mother for her child. Many mothers would sacrifice anything for their children. It is this type of love that the Bible teaches us to follow and to share with one another. Love, in the end, is truly a sacrifice, ultimately expressed in the ] of ] as described in the ]. C.S. Lewis discusses Christian ideas about love in his book ]


'']'' and '']'' are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from the ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex, which rarely occur without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare.
], the founder of ], defines Love as one of 7 synonyms for God. This indicates that Deity is more than a being that has benevolent concerns for mankind, but rather that God is Love itself. Love is also synonymous with Principle, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Life, and Truth and indicate the depth and wholeness of Love.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}


The Bodhisattva ideal in Tibetan Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish love for others.
In ], the language that ] spoke, there are six words for Unconditional Love (Kenoota, Khooba, Makikh, Abilii, Rukha and Dadcean Libhoun) which are untranslatable and are all translated as the one word “Love” in the English Bible. They are explained


===Hindu===
The ], a Hindu scripture, helps devotees to see that love conquers all. It says, "Sattva—pure, luminous, and free from sorrow—binds us to happiness and wisdom" (Number 6). ], translated as purity, helps one to see that love evolves from selflessness.
In Hinduism '']'' is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god ]. For many Hindu schools it is the third end in life ('']'').


In contrast to ''k&#257;ma'', '']'' or ''prem'' refers to elevated love.
==Cultural views==
{{main|Love (cultural views)}}


'']'' is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others.
], a frequent modern symbol of love]]

Although there exist numerous cross-cultural unified similarities as to the nature and definition of love, as in there being a thread of commitment, tenderness, and passion common to all human existence, there are differences.
''Bhakti'' is a Sanskrit term from Hinduism meaning 'loving devotion to the supreme God'. A person who practices bhakti is called ''bhakta''. ] writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of devotion that they call ], for example in the ] and according to ]. The booklet ''Narada bhakti sutra'' written by an unknown author distinguishes eleven forms of love.
Throughout history, predominantly, ] and ] have speculated the most into the phenomena of ]. The sciences of ], ], ], ], and ] have begun to take center stage in discussion as to the nature and function of love. The general consensus supposes that the phenomenon and process of love is subject to the ] just as is anything in the universe.

===Islamic===
In a sense, love does encompass the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood which applies to all who hold the faith. There are no direct references stating that God is love, but amongst the 99 names of God (]), there is the name ''Al-Wadud'' or 'the Loving One', which is found in Surah 11:90 as well as Surah 85:14. It refers to God as being "full of loving kindness". In Islam, love is more often than not used as an incentive for sinners to aspire to be as worthy of God's love as they may. One still has God's love, but how the person evaluates his own worth is to his own and God's own counsel. All who hold the faith have God's love, but to what degree or effort he has pleased God depends on the individual itself. <!--rechecking recommended for further accuracy-->

'']'', or divine love, is the emphasis of ]. Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is oftentimes referred to as the religion of Love. God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through Love humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their Love of God hence the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.

===Jewish===
In ] '']'' is the most commonly-used term for both interpersonal love and love of God. Other related but dissimilar terms are '']'' (grace) and '']'', which basically combines the meaning of "affection" and "compassion" and is sometimes rendered in English as "loving-kindness".

] employs a wide definition of love, both between people and between man and the Deity. As for the former, the ] states: "Love your neighbor like yourself" (] 19:18). As for the latter, one is commanded to love God "with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (] 6:5), taken by the ] (a central text of the Jewish ]) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all one's possessions and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). ] differs how this love can be developed, e.g. by contemplating Divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature.

As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (] 9:9). The Biblical book ] is a considered a romantically-phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading reads like a love song.

The 20th century Rabbi ] is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point-of-view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his ''Michtav me-Eliyahu'', vol. 1). Romantic love ''per se'' has few echoes in Jewish literature, although the Medieval Rabbi ] wrote romantic poetry in Arabic in his younger years (he appears to have regretted this later).

===Mythological===
Different cultures have deified love, typically in both male and female form. Here is a list of the gods and goddesses of love in different mythologies.
* ]; goddess of fertility and passionate love in ]
* ] or ] &mdash; god of passionate love in ]
* ] or ''Aengus''; god of beauty, youth, and sensual love in ]
* ] &mdash; goddess of beauty and passionate love in ]
* ] &mdash; god of passionate love in ]
* ] &mdash; goddess in ]
* ] &mdash; god of sensual love in ]
* ] &mdash; goddess of passionate love in ]
* ] &mdash; goddess of beauty and passionate love in ]
* ] &mdash; god in ]


==See also== ==See also==
===Human love===
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===Other types of love (philias)===
==References==
* ] &mdash; list of words with ''philia'' or ''phile'' suffix
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==Further reading== ==References==
* R. J. Sternberg. ''A triangular theory of love''. 1986. Psychological Review, 93, 119&ndash;135
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<div class="references-small">
* Roger Allen, Hillar Kilpatrick, and Ed de Moor, eds. ''Love and Sexuality in Modern Arabic Literature''. London: Saqi Books, 1995.
* Shadi Bartsch and Thomas Bartscherer, eds. ''Erotikon: Essays on Eros, Ancient and Modern''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
* ], "Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. 2006
* Helen Fisher. ''Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love''
* Gabriele Froböse, Rolf Froböse, Michael Gross (Translator): ''Lust and Love: Is it more than Chemistry?'' Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry, ISBN 0-85404-867-7, (2006).
* ], ']'. New York: Harper Perennial, 2000.
* Johnson, P (2005) 'Love, Heterosexuality and Society'. Routledge: London.
* Thomas Jay Oord, Science of Love: The Wisdom of Well-Being. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2004.
*R. J. Sternberg. ''A triangular theory of love''. 1986. Psychological Review, 93, 119&ndash;135
* R. J. Sternberg. ''Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories''. 1987. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 331&ndash;345 * R. J. Sternberg. ''Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories''. 1987. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 331&ndash;345
* Dorothy Tennov. ''Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love''. New York: Stein and Day, 1979. ISBN 0812861345
*{{cite book|author=Sternberg, Robert |title=Cupid's Arrow - the Course of Love through Time|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|id=ISBN 0-521-47893-6}}
* Helen Fisher. ''Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love''
* Dorothy Tennov. ''Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love''. New York: Stein and Day, 1979. ISBN 0-8128-6134-5
* Dorothy Tennov. ''A Scientist Looks at Romantic Love and Calls It "Limerence": The Collected Works of Dorothy Tennov''. Greenwich, CT: The Great American Publishing Society (GRAMPS),
* Wood, Wood and Boyd. ''The World of Psychology''. 5th edition. 2005. Pearson Education, 402&ndash;403 * Wood, Wood and Boyd. ''The World of Psychology''. 5th edition. 2005. Pearson Education, 402&ndash;403
* Jones, Del. "One of USA's Exports: Love, American Style" ''USA Today'': February, 14, 2006.
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==External links== ==External links==
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Revision as of 03:01, 26 October 2007

For the 1960s band, see Love. The term is also used in tennis.
The heart, a frequent modern symbol of love

Love has many different meanings in English, from something that gives a little pleasure ("I loved that meal") to something one would die for (patriotism, pairbonding). It can describe an intense feeling of affection, an emotion or an emotional state. In ordinary use, it usually refers to interpersonal love. Probably due to its psychological relevance, love is one of the most common themes in art.

Part of a series on
Emotions
Emotions

Just as there are many types of lovers, there are many kinds of love. Love is inherent in all human cultures. It is precisely these cultural differences that make any universal definition of love difficult to establish. See the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Expressions of love may include the love for a "soul" or mind, the love of laws and organizations, love for a body, love for nature, love of food, love of money, love for learning, love of power, love of fame, love for the respect of others, et cetera. Different people place varying degrees of importance on the kinds of love they receive. Love is essentially an abstract concept, easier to experience than to explain.

Interpersonal love

Interpersonal love refers to the love between human beings. It is a more potent sentiment than a simple liking for another. Unrequited love refers to those feelings of love which are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with interpersonal relationships. Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania.

Some elements that are often present in interpersonal love:

Sexual energy can be the most important element in determining the shape of a relationship. While sexual attraction often establishes a new bond, sexual intention is considered undesirable or inappropriate in certain love bonds. In many religions and systems of ethics it is considered wrong to act on sexual desire for immediate family, for children, or outside of a committed relationship. However, there are many ways to express passionate love without sex. Affection, emotional intimacy and shared interests are common in friendships and kinships of all human beings.

Impersonal love

A person can be said to love a country, principle, or goal if they value it greatly and are deeply committed to it. Similarly, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers 'love' of their cause may be borne not of interpersonal love, but impersonal love coupled with altruism and strong political convictions. People can also 'love' material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding their identity with that item. In these cases, if sexual passion is actually felt, it is typically considered abnormal or unhealthy, and called paraphilia.

Religious love

Whether religious love can be expressed in similar terms to interpersonal love is a matter for philosophical debate. Religious 'love' might be considered a euphemistic term, more closely describing feelings of deference or acquiescence. Most religions use the term love to express the devotion the follower has to their deity, who may be a living guru or religious teacher. This love can be expressed by prayer, service, good deeds, and personal sacrifice. Reciprocally, the followers may believe that the deity loves the followers and all of creation. Some traditions encourage the development of passionate love in the believer for the deity. Refer to Religious Views below.

Scientific models

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Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, just like hunger or thirst. Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. There are probably elements of truth in both views — certainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin) and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love.

Attraction and attachment

The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love — sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother.

Companionate vs. passionate

The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate). Companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

It has been suggested that triangular theory of love be merged into this article. (Discuss)

In the triangular theory of love, love is characterized by three elements: intimacy, passion and commitment. Each of these elements can be present in a relationship, producing the following combinations:

Combinations of intimacy, passion, and commitment
Liking or friendship intimacy    
Infatuation or limerence   passion  
Empty love     commitment
Romantic love intimacy passion  
Companionate love intimacy   commitment
Fatuous love   passion commitment
Consummate love intimacy passion commitment
  1. Liking includes only one of the love components - intimacy. In this case, liking is not used in a trivial sense. Sternberg says that this intimate liking characterizes true friendships, in which a person feels a bondedness, a warmth, and a closeness with another but not intense passion or long-term commitment.
  2. Infatuated love consists solely of passion and is often what is felt as "love at first sight." But without the intimacy and the commitment components of love, infatuated love may disappear suddenly.
  3. Empty love consists of the commitment component without intimacy or passion. Sometimes, a stronger love deteriorates into empty love, in which the commitment remains, but the intimacy and passion have died. In cultures in which arranged marriages are common, relationships often begin as empty love.
  4. Romantic love is a combination of intimacy and passion. Romantic lovers are bonded emotionally (as in liking) and physically through passionate arousal.
  5. Companionate love consists of intimacy and commitment. This type of love is often found in marriages in which the passion has gone out of the relationship, but a deep affection and commitment remain.
  6. Fatuous love has the passion and the commitment components but not the intimacy component. This type of love can be exemplified by a whirlwind courtship and marriage in which a commitment is motivated largely by passion, without the stabilizing influence of intimacy.
  7. Consummate love is the only type of love that includes all three components--intimacy, passion and commitment. Consummate love is the most complete form of love, and it represents the ideal love relationship for which many people strive but which apparently few achieve. Sternberg cautions that maintaining a consummate love may be even harder than achieving it. He stresses the importance of translating the components of love into action. "Without expression," he warns, "even the greatest of loves can die" (1987, p.341).

Love styles

Susan Hendrick and Clyde Hendrick developed a Loves Attitude Scale based on John Alan Lee's theory called Love styles. Lee identified six basic theories that people use in their interpersonal relationships:

  • Eros — a passionate physical love based on physical appearance
  • Ludus — love is played as a game; love is playful
  • Storge — an affectionate love that slowly develops, based on similarity
  • Pragma — pragmatic love
  • Mania — highly emotional love; unstable; the stereotype of romantic love
  • Agape — selfless altruistic love; spiritual

Hendrick and Hendrick found men tend to be more ludic and manic, whereas women tend to be storgic and pragmatic. Relationships based on similar love styles were found to last longer.

Phases

Helen Fisher suggests three main phases of love: lust, attraction, and attachment. Generally love will start off in the lust phase, strong in passion but weak in the other elements. The primary motivator at this stage is the basic sexual instinct. Appearance, smells, and other similar factors play a decisive role in screening potential mates. However, as time passes, the other elements may grow and passion may shrink — this depends upon the individual. So what starts as infatuation or empty love may well develop into one of the fuller types of love. At the attraction stage the person concentrates their affection on a single mate and fidelity becomes important.

Likewise, when a person has known a loved one for a long time, they develop a deeper attachment to their partner. According to current scientific understanding of love, this transition from the attraction to the attachment phase usually happens in about 30 months. After that time, the passion fades, changing love from consummate to companionate, or from romantic love to liking.

Love vs. Insanity?

Studies have shown that mental scans of those in love show a striking resemblance to those with a mental illness. Love creates activity in the same area of the brain that hunger, thirst, and drug cravings create activity in. New love, therefore, could possibly be more physical than emotional (though drawing a clear line between physical and emotional is difficult when discussing the brain).

Over time, this reaction to love mellows, & different areas of the brain are activated, primarily ones involving long-term commitments.

Dr. Andrew Newberg, a neuroscientist, suggests that this reaction to love is so similar to that of drugs because without love, humanity would die out.

'Sacred Love versus Profane Love' by Giovanni Baglione

Cultural views

Chinese

In contemporary Template:Ll language and culture, several terms or root words are used for the concept of "love":

  • Ai (愛) is used as a verb (e.g. Wo ai ni, "I love you") or as a noun, especially in aiqing (愛情), "love" or "romance." In mainland China since 1949, airen (愛人, originally "lover," or more literally, "love person") is the dominant word for "spouse" (with separate terms for "wife" and "husband" originally being de-emphasized); the word once had a negative connotation, which it retains among many on Taiwan.
  • Lian (戀) is not generally used alone, but instead as part of such terms as "being in love" (談戀愛, tan lian'ai—also containing ai), "lover" (戀人, lianren) or "homosexuality" (同性戀, tongxinglian).
  • Qing (情), commonly meaning "feeling" or "emotion," often indicates "love" in several terms. It is contained in the word aiqing (愛情); qingren (情人) is a term for "lover".

In Confucianism, lian is a virtuous benevolent love. Lian should be pursued by all human beings, and reflects a moral life. The Chinese philosopher Mozi developed the concept of ai (愛) in reaction to Confucian lian. Ai, in Mohism, is universal love towards all beings, not just towards friends or family, without regard to reciprocation. Extravagance and offensive war are inimical to ai. Although Mozi's thought was influential, the Confucian lian is how most Chinese conceive of love.

Gănqíng (感情), the feeling of a relationship. A person will express love by building good gănqíng, accomplished through helping or working for another. Emotional attachment toward another person or anything.

Yuanfen (緣份) is a connection of bound destinies. A meaningful relationship is often conceived of as dependent strong yuanfen. It is very similar to serendipity. A similar conceptualization in English is, "They were made for each other," "fate," or "destiny".

Zaolian (Simplified: 早恋, Traditional: 早戀, pinyin: zǎoliàn), literally, "early love," is a contemporary term in frequent use for romantic feelings or attachments among children or adolescents. Zaolian describes both relationships among a teenaged boyfriend and girlfriend, as well as the "crushes" of early adolescence or childhood. The concept essentially indicates a prevalent belief in contemporary Chinese culture that due to the demands of their studies (especially true in the highly competitive educational system of China), youth should not form romantic attachments lest their jeopardize their chances for success in the future. Reports have appeared in Chinese newspapers and other media detailing the prevalence of the phenomenon and its perceived dangers to students and the fears of parents.

Japanese

In Japanese Buddhism, ai (愛) is passionate caring love, and a fundamental desire. It can develop towards either selfishness or selflessness and enlightenment.

Amae (甘え), a Japanese word meaning "indulgent dependence", is part of the child-rearing culture of Japan. Japanese mothers are expected to hug and indulge their children, and children are expected to reward their mothers by clinging and serving. Some sociologists have suggested that Japanese social interactions in later life are modeled on the mother-child amae.

Ancient Greek

Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word love is used. For example, ancient Greek has the words philia, eros, agape, storge and xenia. However, with Greek as with many other languages, it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time the ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo being used with the same meaning as phileo.

Agape (Template:Polytonic agápē) means love in modern day Greek. The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a "pure", ideal type of love rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as "love of the soul".

Eros (Template:Polytonic érōs) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty, and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body".

Philia (Template:Polytonic philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept developed by Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. Can also mean "love of the mind".

Storge (Template:Polytonic storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.

Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and their guest, who could previously be strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was only expected to repay with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology, in particular Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

Ancient Roman (Latin)

The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word 'love'.

Amare is the basic word for to love, as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense, as well as in a Romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come amans, a lover, amator, 'professional lover', often with the accessory notion of lechery, and amica, 'girlfriend' in the English sense, often as well being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is amor, which is also used in the plural form to indicate 'love affairs' or 'sexual adventures'. This same root also produces amicus, 'friend', and amicitia, 'friendship' (often based on mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to 'indebtedness' or 'influence'). Cicero wrote a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia) which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Lovers), which addresses in depth everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents.

Complicating the picture somewhat, Latin sometimes uses amare where English would simply say to like; this notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by placere or delectare, which are used more colloquially, and the latter of which is used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus.

Diligere often has the notion 'to be affectionate for', 'to esteem', and rarely if ever is used of romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning 'diligence' 'carefulness' and has little semantic overlap with the verb.

Observare is a synonym for 'diligere'; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun 'observantia' often denote 'esteem' or 'affection'.

Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean 'charitable love'. This meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.

Religious views

Christian

There are several Greek words for Love that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.

  • Agape - In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love seen as creating goodness in the world, it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
  • Phileo - Also used in the New Testament, Phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love".
  • Two other words for love in the Greek language -- Eros (sexual love) and storge (needy child-to parent love) were never used in the New Testament.

C.S. Lewis , influential Christians theologian wrote a book called The Four Loves.

Christians believe that to love of God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of God, according to Jesus). See The Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28-34). Saint Augustine summarised this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt". Saint Paul glorified agape love as the most important virtue of all in 1 Corinthians, chapter 13. Attempting to define it he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." (NIV 13:4-7)

Christians also believe that God felt so much agape love for man that he sacrificed his son for them. John the Apostle wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but the save the world through him." (NIV John 3:16-18)

Many Christians theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their relationships.

Buddhist

In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish.

Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom, and is necessary for enlightenment.

Adveṣa and maitrī are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from the ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex, which rarely occur without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare.

The Bodhisattva ideal in Tibetan Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish love for others.

Hindu

In Hinduism kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kama. For many Hindu schools it is the third end in life (artha).

In contrast to kāma, prema or prem refers to elevated love.

Karuna is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others.

Bhakti is a Sanskrit term from Hinduism meaning 'loving devotion to the supreme God'. A person who practices bhakti is called bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of devotion that they call bhakti, for example in the Bhagavatha-Purana and according to Tulsidas. The booklet Narada bhakti sutra written by an unknown author distinguishes eleven forms of love.

Islamic

In a sense, love does encompass the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood which applies to all who hold the faith. There are no direct references stating that God is love, but amongst the 99 names of God (Allah), there is the name Al-Wadud or 'the Loving One', which is found in Surah 11:90 as well as Surah 85:14. It refers to God as being "full of loving kindness". In Islam, love is more often than not used as an incentive for sinners to aspire to be as worthy of God's love as they may. One still has God's love, but how the person evaluates his own worth is to his own and God's own counsel. All who hold the faith have God's love, but to what degree or effort he has pleased God depends on the individual itself.

Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism. Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is oftentimes referred to as the religion of Love. God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through Love humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their Love of God hence the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.

Jewish

In Hebrew Ahava is the most commonly-used term for both interpersonal love and love of God. Other related but dissimilar terms are Chen (grace) and Hesed, which basically combines the meaning of "affection" and "compassion" and is sometimes rendered in English as "loving-kindness".

Judaism employs a wide definition of love, both between people and between man and the Deity. As for the former, the Torah states: "Love your neighbor like yourself" (Leviticus 19:18). As for the latter, one is commanded to love God "with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" (Deuteronomy 6:5), taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all one's possessions and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic literature differs how this love can be developed, e.g. by contemplating Divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature.

As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" (Ecclesiastes 9:9). The Biblical book Song of Songs is a considered a romantically-phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading reads like a love song.

The 20th century Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point-of-view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, vol. 1). Romantic love per se has few echoes in Jewish literature, although the Medieval Rabbi Judah Halevi wrote romantic poetry in Arabic in his younger years (he appears to have regretted this later).

Mythological

Different cultures have deified love, typically in both male and female form. Here is a list of the gods and goddesses of love in different mythologies.

See also

Human love

Other types of love (philias)

References

  • R. J. Sternberg. A triangular theory of love. 1986. Psychological Review, 93, 119–135
  • R. J. Sternberg. Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories. 1987. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 331–345
  • Dorothy Tennov. Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love. New York: Stein and Day, 1979. ISBN 0812861345
  • Helen Fisher. Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love
  • Wood, Wood and Boyd. The World of Psychology. 5th edition. 2005. Pearson Education, 402–403

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