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| Note: this is an intended to be a summary article on Cannabis, if you believe more detail is necessary, it is likely more appropriate to the various subarticles this article links to. Thanks. | |||
| ---->'''Cannabis''', also known as '''marijuana'''<ref> </ref> or '''ganja''',<ref>The ]: Any of various preparations of different parts of the hemp-plant which are smoked, chewed, sniffed or drunk for their intoxicating or hallucinogenic properties and were formerly used medicinally; bhang (marijuana), ganja, and charas (hashish) are different forms of these preparations." It is also notes that "cannabis" was elliptical reference (i.e. slang) for Cannabis sativa.</ref> is a ] product of the plant '']'' L. subsp. ''indica'' (= ''C. indica'' Lam.) and ''Cannabis sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa''. The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature ]s and subtending leaves of pistillate ("female") plants. The resinous form, known as ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idmu.co.uk/can.htm|title=Types of Cannabis Available in the UK|author=Matthew J. Atha - Independent Drug Monitoring Unit |accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> consists primarily of glandular ] collected from the same plant material.] The major biologically active ] in cannabis is Δ<sup>9</sup>-] (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly referred to as THC. | |||
| Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory,<ref name=rudgley1999>{{cite book|author=Rudgley, Richard|year=1999|title=The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age| editor=Touchstone|id=ISBN 0-6848-5580-1}}</ref> although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for ], ] or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that about four percent of the world's adult population use cannabis annually and 0.6 percent daily.<ref name="WDR2006chap2">{{citation|author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|year=2006|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf|title=Cannabis: Why we should care|journal=World Drug Report|volume=1|id=ISBN 9-2114-8214-3|accessdate=2006-10-10}} p.14</ref> The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became ] in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis ] while others have reduced the priority of enforcement. | |||
| ==History== | |||
| Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the ] age, as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual ] at an ancient burial site in present day ].<ref name=rudgley1999/> The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient ]s of India and Nepal, and the ]s (hashish eaters) of present day Syria. The herb was called ''ganjika'' in ] (''ganja'' in modern Indian and Nepali languages).<ref name=leary1990>{{cite book|author=Leary, Thimothy|year=1990|title=Flashbacks|editor=Tarcher/Putnam|id=ISBN 0-8747-7870-0}}</ref><ref name="ganjikaEB">{{Citation|year=1911|url=http://57.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HEMP.htm|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=11th|accessdate=2006-06-15}}</ref> The ancient drug ], mentioned in the ]s as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.<ref name=rudgley1998>{{cite book|author=Rudgley, Richard|year=1998|url=http://www.huxley.net/soma/index.html|title=The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances|editor=Little, Brown and Company|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis was also known to the ], who discovered its psychoactive properties through the ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Franck, Mel | title=Marijuana Grower's Guide| publisher=Red Eye Press | year=1997| id=ISBN 0-9293-4903-2}} p.3</ref> Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it ''qunubu'' (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word.<ref>{{cite book | author=Rubin, Vera D.| title=Cannabis and Culture| publisher=Campus Verlag | year=1976| id=ISBN 3-5933-7442-0}} p.305</ref> Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the ]ns and ]/]ns, whose ] (the ''kapnobatai''—“those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance.<ref>{{cite book | author=Cunliffe, Barry W.| title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe| publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001| id=ISBN 0-1928-5441-0}} p.405</ref> Members of the cult of ], believed to have originated in ], are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old ] ] in the northwestern ] Uygur Autonomous Region of ].<ref name=peoplesdaily>{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/23/eng20061223_335258.html|title=Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman|publisher=People's Daily Online|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref><ref name=jiang2006a>{{cite journal|author=Hong-En Jiang ''et al.''|year=2006|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8D-4K7WC0F-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F06%2F2006&_rdoc=17&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235084%232006%23998919996%23636769%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5084&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=23&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3e6ac8940b4b86b94935cd7a7d7bc19d|title=A new insight into ''Cannabis sativa'' (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=108|issue=3|pages=414-422|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref> | |||
| ] has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in ]s around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at ] suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the ] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by ].<ref>{{cite book | author=Walton, Robert P. | title=Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem| publisher=J. B. Lippincott | year=1938| id=}} p.6</ref> Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient ] and early ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2633187.stm|title=Cannabis linked to Biblical healing|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> It was also used by ] in various ] orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.<ref>{{cite book|title=Le haschich et l'extase|author=]|id=ISBN 2-8416-1174-4}}</ref> In ] and ], it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual ]s for centuries, and in modern times the ] has embraced it as a sacrament.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dread, The Rastafarians of Jamaica|author=]|id=ISBN 0-4359-8650-3}}</ref> Elders of the modern religious movement known as the ] consider cannabis to be the ], claiming it as an oral tradition from ] dating back to the time of ], even though the movement was founded in the ] in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/potbible.htm|title=Marijuana and the Bible|publisher=Schaffer Library of Drug Policy|author=The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> Like the Rastafari, some modern ] Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rastafari.tribe.net/thread/0838144c-cce9-45ac-982b-5f0e5fccd07d|title=Zion Light Ministry|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Chris Bennett, Lynn & Osburn, Judy Osburn| title=Green Gold: the Tree of LifeMarijuana in Magic & Religion| publisher=Access Unlimited|pages=418 | year=1938| id=ISBN 0-9629-8722-0}}</ref> Other organized ] founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thc-ministry.org/|title=The Hawai'i Cannabis Ministry|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> the ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebeneezer.net/ritual/vegetable/offsite/Cantheist.html|title=Cantheism|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> the ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cannabisassembly.org/|title=Cannabis Assembly|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> and the ]. | |||
| ] was introduced to the ] in the mid-19th century by Indian laborers under the ] implemented by the ] after the end of ] in the ]. In the ], cannabis is still known as ''ganja'' (the ] word for marijuana), ]n or ] weed. The plant eventually spread into ], ], ] and the rest of the Americas.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} | |||
| The production of cannabis for drug use remains illegal throughout most of the world through the 1961 ], the 1971 ], and the 1988 ], while simple possession of small quantities is either legal, or treated as an addiction rather than a criminal offense in a few countries. | |||
| === Medical use === | |||
| {{main|Medical cannabis}} | |||
| A synthetic form of one chemical in marijuana, Delta-9 Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is a controversial treatment for medical use. The American ], a pro-cannabis organization, contends that cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and ] patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to ] and other aggressive treatments. A recent study by scientists in Italy has also shown that ] (CBD), a chemical found in marijuana, inhibits growth of cancer cells in animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=6917|title=Cannabidiol Dramatically Inhibits Breast Cancer Cell Growth, Study Says|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> | |||
| ] and comparable authorities in Western Europe including the ], have not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease. A common view is that if there is any future of marijuana as a medicine, it lies in its isolated components, the cannabinoids and their synthetic derivatives. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html|title=Testimony before the | |||
| Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Committee on Government Reform|author=Meyer, Robert J.|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref> | |||
| A synthetic extract of cannabis has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia in elderly Alzheimer's patients.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3169901.stm|title=Cannabis lifts Alzheimer appetite|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref> | |||
| Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exist, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke marijuana,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Merritt JC, Crawford WJ, Alexander PC, et al.|title=Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucoma|journal=Ophthalmol|year=1980|issue=87|pages=222-8|id=ISSN 0007-1161}}</ref> but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.<ref>{{cite journal|author=|Goldberg J, Flowerdew G, Smith E, et al.|title=Factors associated with age-related macular degeneration|journal=Am J Epidemiol|year=1988|issue=128|pages=700-10}}</ref> Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Porcella A, Maxia C, Gessa GL, Pani L.|title=The synthetic cannabinoid WIN55212-2 decreases the intraocular pressure in human glaucoma resistant to conventional therapies|journal=Eur J Neurosci|year=2001|issue=13|pages=409-12}}</ref> | |||
| Medical marijuana is used for ], or pain relief. “Marijuana is used for analgesia only in the context of a handful of illnesses (e.g., headache, dysentery, menstrual cramps, and depression) that are often cited by marijuana advocates as medical reasons to justify the drug being available as a prescription medication.”<ref>{{citation|author=Blanchard Randall|publisher=Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service|title=Medical Use of Marijuana: Policy and Regulatory Issues|year=1992}}</ref> It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medboardwatch.com/wb/pages/therapeutic-effects.php|title=Review of Therapeutic Effects|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve ]s in people with OCD and/or ]. Patients treated with ], the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|year=1999|volume=156|issue=3|url=http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-02">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Randomized Crossover Trial |journal=Pharmacopsychiatry|year=2002|volume=35|issue=2|url=http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/pharmaco/doi/10.1055/s-2002-25028|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-88">{{cite journal|author=R. Sandyk, G. Awerbuch|title=Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology|year=1988|volume=8|issue=6|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/mjtouret.htm|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref> Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|year=1999|volume=156|issue=3|url=http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html}}</ref> A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.<ref name="ADBlock">{{cite journal|author=Ramíirez, B. G., C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, and M. L. de Ceballos|year=2005|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/8/1904|title=Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=25|issue=8^|pages=1904-1913|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.<ref name=steffens2005>{{cite journal|author=Steffens, S.,Veillard, N.R., ''et al.''|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v434/n7034/abs/nature03389.html|title=Low dose oral cannabinoid therapy reduces progression of atherosclerosis in mice|journal=Nature|volume=474|issue=7034|pages=782-786|acecssdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> | |||
| Another use for medical marijuana is movement disorders. Marijuana is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasticity associated with ], this has been acknowledged by the ], but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures.<ref>{{cite book | author=Randall, Blanchard| title=Medical use of marijuana policy and regulatory issues| publisher=Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress| year=1992| id=OCLC 29975643}}</ref> The marijuana will numb the nervous system slightly so the body won’t go into shock. A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. | |||
| <ref name="SativexC">{{cite web|author=Koch, W.|date=23 Jun 2005|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-pot-spray_x.htm|title=Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Dr. William Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study “had everything to do with politics”.<ref name="Respectable Reefer">{{cite news|last=Greenberg|first=Gary|title=Respectable Reefer|publisher=Mother Jones|date=]|url=http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2005/11/Respectable_Reefer-3.html|accessdate=2007-04-03}}</ref> | |||
| === New breeding and cultivation techniques === | |||
| {{main|Cannabis (drug) cultivation}} | |||
| It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. In fact, the ] of producing high-potency marijuana has been practiced in India for centuries. Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because ] production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as ], ], ], and ] are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years. The average levels of THC in marijuana sold in United States rose from 3.5% in 1988 to 7% in 2003 and 8.5% in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18310976/|publisher=MSNBC|title=Marijuana sold in U.S. stronger than ever|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> | |||
| "Skunk" cannabis is a potent strain of cannabis, grown through selective breeding and usually hydroponics, that is a cross-breed of ''Cannabis sativa'' and ''C. indica''. Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in ]s in the ] is about 18–19%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/world_drug_report.html|title=World Drug Report 2006|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|accessdate=2007-09-21}} Ch. 2.3</ref> | |||
| The average THC content of Skunk #1 is 8.2%; it is a 4-way combination of the cannabis strains Afghani indica, Mexican Gold, Colombian Gold, and Thai: 75% ''sativa'', 25% ''indica''. This was done via extensive breeding by cultivators in California in the 1970s using the traditional outdoor cropping methods used for centuries. | |||
| In proposed revisions to ] in the UK, the government is considering scheduling the more potent cannabis material as a separate, more restricted substance. Many cannabis proponents are vehemently opposed, reasoning that if one can smoke less cannabis to achieve the same effect, then it is safer in the long run than smoking a less potent product. | |||
| A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study of male volunteers with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use aged 18–45 years concluded that smoking of cannabis, with higher THC reflecting the content levels of ''netherweed'' (marijuana with 9–23% THC) as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC concentrations in serum (the internal dose). Smoking of cannabis with higher THC concentrations leads to an increase of the occurrence of effects, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking to the higher THC.<ref>{{citation|author=Tj. T. Mensinga et al.|url=http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf|title=A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study on the pharmacokinetics and effects of cannabis|publisher=]|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> Smoking of cannabis with higher THC concentrations was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). | |||
| What was well observed in the Dutch study was that the effects based from a single dose—the smoking of one piece of a ] for 20–25 minutes—lasted for more than eight hours. The reaction time was still significantly slower about five hours after smoking. At that time, the THC serum concentration was low, but still present. This means that even when individuals have the impression that their state has returned to baseline and that they can smoke another piece of joint, the effect of the first joint may be still present. When subjects smoke on several occasions per day, accumulation of THC may occur. | |||
| Another study showed that 15 mg THC result in no learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task at two hours. In several tasks, delta(9)-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12373420&dopt=AbstractCurranCurran|author=Curran H.V., et al.|title=Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects|year=2002|publisher=]|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> | |||
| There are two recognized types of herbal cannabis, ''sativa'' and ''indica''. So-called ''sativa'' strains are reputed to induce a noticeably more "cerebral" high, while ''indica'' strains induce more of a body high. These two drug types are often hybridized or crossed with early-maturing (but low in THC) ''ruderalis'' strains to increase the range in desirable characteristics. | |||
| ==Criminalization and legalization== | |||
| ] possession (small amount). Data is from multiple sources detailed on the ]. This map is a work in progress. Please give corrections and additions ].]] | |||
| ] used in the late 1930s and 1940s.]] | |||
| {{main|Legality of cannabis}} | |||
| {{See also|Drug prohibition|Drug liberalization}} | |||
| Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted ] against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by ] or a ], rather than ], focusing more on those who ] the drug on the black market. There are also changes in a more restrictive direction such as the closing of '']'' in the ] and the closing of the open drug market in ], ]. Some jurisdictions use mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users with freedom from narcotic drugs as goal. Simple possession can carry long ] terms in some countries, particularly in ], where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of ] or even ]. | |||
| ==Effects== | |||
| {{main|Health issues and the effects of cannabis}} | |||
| Cannabis has ] and ] effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight<ref> http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt </ref> (which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency). A related compound, Δ<sup>9</sup>-], also known as ], is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This ] has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas. | |||
| ===Health issues=== | |||
| {{main|Health issues and the effects of cannabis}} | |||
| Cannabis use has been alleged to be associated with several illnesses. Due to its illegal status in many countries, it has been difficult to research these claims. Cannabis is ''rumoured'' to cause lung cancer, yet studies and tests have proven inconclusive. When mixed with tobacco however, there is a risk.<ref name="Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=] |title=Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer}}</ref> | |||
| Cannabis use has been linked to ] by several ] studies. A 1987 Swedish study claiming a link between cannabis use and schizophrenia was criticized for not differentiating between cannabis use and the use of other narcotics, and its results have not been verified by other studies. More recently, the ] published research showing an increased risk of psychosis for cannabis users with a certain genetic predisposition, held by 25% of the population.<ref name="Dunedin study">{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10122930|title=Cannabis study finds gene linked to psychosis}}</ref> In 2007, a study published in '']'' and a poll of mental health experts showed that a growing number of medical health practitioners are convinced that cannabis use increases susceptibility to mental illness, accounting for 14% of ] psychosis cases; however, the risk to an individual smoking cannabis is only increased by 2%.<ref name="The Great Cannabis Debate">{{cite news|url=http://news.independent.co.uk/health/article2814755.ece|title=Independent: Poll of Mental Health Practitioners}}</ref> | |||
| ===Relationship with other drugs=== | |||
| Since its origin in the 1950s, the "]" hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of cannabis drug policy in the United States. The argument is that people, upon trying cannabis for the first time and not finding it dangerous, are then tempted to try other, harder drugs. This model of cause and effect has been debated.<ref name=Rand>{{cite web|date=2002-12-02 |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press.02/gateway.html|title=RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin|publisher=RAND Corporation|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Some argue that the purported relationship between marijuana and more illicit drugs, as proposed by the "gateway theory," is methodologically flawed--it is a ] association. A common argument is that a beginning user of cannabis, not finding it dangerous, will see the often stark difference between public information regarding the drug (much of which is misleading or fabricated, e.g. ]), and come to distrust the sources of that information in general, and specifically regarding information on other drugs. Some studies support the "gateway drug" model.<ref name=journalwatch>{{cite web|author=Saitz, Richard|date=2003-02-18|url=http://general-medicine.jwatch.org/cgi/content/full/2003/218/1|title=Is marijuana a gateway drug?|publisher=Journal Watch|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> An example from 2007: A stratified, random sample of 1943 adolescents was recruited from secondary schools across ], ], at age 14–15 years. This cohort was interviewed on eight occasions until the age of 24–25 years. At age 24 years, 12% of the sample had used amphetamines in the past year, with 1–2% using at least weekly. Young adult amphetamine use was predicted strongly by adolescent drug use and was associated robustly with other drug use and dependence in young adulthood. Associations were stronger for more frequent users. Among young adults who had not been using amphetamines at age 20 years, the strongest predictor of use at age 24 years was the use of other drugs, particularly cannabis, at 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01906.x|author=Degenhardt, Louisa et al|title=Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians|year=2007|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> Those who were smoking cannabis at the age of 15 were as much as 15 times more likely to be using amphetamines in their early 20s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/07/18/1981329.htm|publisher=ABC News Australia|title=Cannabis linked to use of amphetamines|date=2007-07-18|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> | |||
| Analysts have hypothesized that the illegal status of cannabis is a possible cause of a gateway drug effect, reasoning that cannabis users are likely to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs in order to acquire cannabis. But it is said to be that Marijuana is not as harmful or addicting as any other drug.<ref name=morral2002>{{cite journal |author=Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM |title=Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect |journal=Addiction |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=1493-504 |year=2002 |pmid=12472629 |doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpp.org/site/c.glKZLeMQIsG/b.1146183/k.AE54/FAQ.htm|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ|accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref> Some contend that by this argument, alcohol and tobacco may also be regarded as gateway drugs. Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.<ref name=Torabi1993>{{cite journal |author=Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M |title=Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the "gateway drug effect" |journal=The Journal of school health |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=302-6 |year=1993 |pmid=8246462 |doi=}}</ref>]'']] | |||
| A current doctoral thesis from Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, on the neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure, gives support for the cannabis gateway hypothesis in relation to adult opiate abuse. THC exposed rats showed increased motivation for opiate drug use under conditions of stress. However, the cannabis exposure did not correlate to amphetamine use. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://diss.kib.ki.se/2007/978-91-7357-064-0/|author=Ellgren, Maria|title=Neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure in relation to the gateway hypothesis|year=2007|publisher=]|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> | |||
| A study<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C |title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse |journal=Lancet |volume=369 |issue=9566 |pages=1047-53 |year=2007 |pmid=17382831 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref> published in The Lancet on 24 March 2007 was twenty drugs were assigned a risk from zero to three. Dr. David Nutt et al. asked medical, scientific and legal experts to rate 20 different drugs on nine parameters: | |||
| * Physical harm (Acute, Chronic, and Intravenous harm) | |||
| * Dependence (Intensity of pleasure, Psychological dependence, Physical dependence) | |||
| * Social harms (Intoxication, Other social harms, Health-care costs) | |||
| Cannabis was ranked seventeenth of twenty for mean physical harm score and eleventh for mean dependence score. Not shown is the mean social harm score, which rated ninth, in a tie with Amphetamine. | |||
| ===Classification=== | |||
| While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either Stimulant, Depressant, Hallucinogen, or Antipsychotic, cannabis, containing both ] and ], exhibits a mix of all sections, leaning towards the Hallucinogen section due to THC being the primary constituent. <ref name="mckim">{{cite book | author=McKim, William A | title=Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition)| publisher=Prentice Hall| year=2002| pages=400| id=ISBN 0-13-048118-1 }}</ref><ref name="nida">{{cite web | title=Information on Drugs of Abuse | work=Commonly Abused Drug Chart | url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html | accessdate=July 15| accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="Stafford">{{cite book | author=Stafford, Peter | title=Psychedelics Encyclopedia| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0914171518 }}</ref> | |||
| ==Methods of consumption == | |||
| ] | |||
| Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms: | |||
| * ''Marijuana'' or ''ganja'': the flowering tops of female plants, from less than 1% ] to 22% THC; the wide range is probably one of the reasons for the conflicting results from different studies. | |||
| * '']'' or '']'': a concentrated resin composed of heated glandular trichomes that have been physically extracted, usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice. | |||
| * '']'': (1) the chopped flowering tops of female cannabis plants, often mixed with tobacco; (2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains<ref name=kif>{{cite web|author=Zijlma, Anouk|url=http://goafrica.about.com/od/morocco/a/moroccokif.htm|title=Smoking hashish in Morocco|publisher=About.com|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref>; (3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen"); (4) the crystal (trichomes) left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana, then smoked. | |||
| * '']'': a beverage prepared by grinding cannabis leaves in milk and boiling with spices and other ingredients. | |||
| ] | |||
| These forms are not exclusive, and mixtures of two or more different forms of cannabis are frequently consumed. Between the many different strains of cannabis and the various ways that it is prepared, there are innumerable variations similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic beverages that are consumed. | |||
| ===Smoking=== | |||
| ]{{main|Cannabis smoking}} | |||
| === Vaporization === | |||
| A '']'' heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C), which turns the active ingredients into ] without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 200°C at 0.02 mm Hg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure).<ref name=volcano>{{cite web|url=http://www.storz-bickel.com/pics/down/Lufttemperaturtabelle%20-%20Air%20temperatur%20table.pdf|title=Air Temperature Table|accessdate=2007-09-22}}. Volcano<sup>tm</sup> Operating Manual. Storz & Bickel, Tuttlingen, Germany.</ref><ref name=merck1989>1989. ''The Merck Index'', 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey</ref> Toxic chemicals are released at much lower levels than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A ]-] study using a ] reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.<ref name="norml1">{{cite journal | |||
| | quotes = | |||
| | last = Gieringer | |||
| | first = Dale H. | |||
| | authorlink = | |||
| | coauthors = Joseph St. Laurent, Scott Goodrich | |||
| | date = | |||
| | year = 2004 | |||
| | month = | |||
| | title = Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds | |||
| | journal = Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics | |||
| | volume = 4 | |||
| | issue = 1 | |||
| | pages = 7-27 | |||
| | doi = 10.1300/J175v04n01_02 | |||
| | id = | |||
| | url = http://www.maps.org/mmj/Gieringer-vaporizer.pdf | |||
| | language = | |||
| | format = pdf | |||
| | accessdate = 2006-04-21 | |||
| }}</ref> However, an older study using less sophisticated vaporizers found more toxins.<ref name="norml2">{{cite web|url=http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n3/06359mj1.html|title=Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study|last=Gieringer|first=Dale|accessdate=2006-04-21}}</ref> The effects from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC. | |||
| === Eating === | |||
| As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. Although ] is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in ], or combined with butter or other ]s. The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal cannabis are almost immediate. | |||
| Smoking cannabis results in a significant loss of THC and other cannabinoids in the exhaled smoke, by decomposition on burning, and in smoke that is not inhaled. In contrast, all of the active constituents enter the body when cannabis is ingested. It has been shown that the primary active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive ] by the liver.<ref name="11-hydroxy">{{cite journal| author=Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimarães; Sabrina Bicalho Borini| year=2004| month=May| title= ''Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage''| journal=Sao Paulo Medical Journal| volume=122| issue=3| doi=10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007| url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-31802004000300007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en| accessdate=2006-05-02}}</ref> ] to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation. | |||
| ===Other methods=== | |||
| Cannabis material can be ] in high-proof spirits (often ]) to create “]”. This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves. | |||
| Cannabis can also be consumed as a ]. Although THC is ] and only slightly ] ] (with a solubility of 2.8 grams per liter<ref name="water solubility">{{cite web|url=http://lib1.bmcc.cuny.edu/studres/projectsakinde.html|title=The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids|author=Akinde Omotayo|publisher=]|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref>), enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb. | |||
| In 2006, hollowed-out gumballs filled with cannabis material and labeled as “Greenades” were distributed by high school students in the U.S.<ref name="Greenades">{{cite news|url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2006/7/prweb414446.htm|title=Greenades, Marijuana Gumballs, Identified by Maryland Police, Used by High School Students|publisher=]|date=]|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2;"> | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
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| *] ("The Hasheesh Eater") | |||
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| </div> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist|2}} | |||
| == Bibliography == | |||
| * {{cite news|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E1FFB35580C748EDDA90994DA404482|author=Howard Markel|title=For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away|publisher=New York Times|date=]}} | |||
| * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 – 1213}} | |||
| * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf|Author=|title=Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction|author=Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig|year=2005|journal=Biol Psychiatry|volume=25|pages=1117 – 1127}} | |||
| * {{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html|title=One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis|first=Mark|last=Henderson|publisher=The Times|date=]}} | |||
| * Bruce Mirken and Neel Makwana (Aston Birmingham): {{cite news|url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/|date=]|title=Psychosis, Hype And Baloney|publisher=AlterNet}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc |title=Antitumor Effects of THC |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=10 |month=October |year=2000 |pages=Correspondence |author=James Huff and Po Chan |pmid=11097557}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Cannabis: A History |year=2005 |first=Martin |last=Booth |isbn=0-312-32220-8}} | |||
| * Long term impact of Cannabis use of 16 year olds {{cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-113852471.html?refid=hbw_sw|date=]|title=Long-term impact of the Gatehouse Project on Cannabis use of 16-year-olds in Australia. (Research Papers)|publisher=journal of school health}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
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| {{wiktionarypar|marijuana}} | |||
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| {{Cannabis resources}} | |||
| {{Cannabinoids}} | |||
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| == History == | |||
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| Cannabis was known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound in some early societies, and has been used continuously in many parts of the world. Other societies have developed a social ] surrounding the drug. <!-- repression in various Islamic centuries (11th, 13th, and others), early modern (ex-Ottoman) Greece, Egypt under Mehemet Ali (19th century), need sections --> | |||
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Revision as of 18:03, 5 November 2007
SMOKE IT UP!!!