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	] and the ], built about 2550 BC during the ] of the ],<ref name="Chronicles">{{cite book \|last=Clayton \|first=Peter A. \|title = Chronicle of the Pharaohs \|publisher= Thames and Hudson \| year= 1994 \|isbn=0-500-05074-0 }}</ref> are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt]]
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	]

			ancient egypt!
	'''Ancient Egypt''' was a ] in ]] ] concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the ], reaching its greatest extent in the ], during the ]. It stretched from the ] in the north as far south as ] at the ] of the Nile, in modern-day ]. Extensions to the geographic range of ancient Egyptian civilization included, at different times, areas of the southern ], the Eastern Desert and the ] coastline, the ], and the ] of the Western desert.<ref name=OxfordHistory>{{cite book \|editor=Shaw, Ian \|title = The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt \|publisher= Oxford University Press \| year= 2003 \|isbn= 0-19-280293-3}}</ref>

	The civilization of ancient Egypt developed over more than three and a half millennia. It began with the political unification of the major Nile Valley cultures under one ruler, the first ], around 3150 BC,<ref>Aidan & Dyan (2004) p.46</ref> and led to a series of golden ages known as Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. After the end of the last golden age, the ], the civilization of ancient Egypt entered a period of slow, steady decline, when Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign adversaries. The power of the pharaohs officially ended in 31 BC, when the early ] conquered ] and made it a province of the Empire.<ref name=Chronicles/>

	The civilization of ancient Egypt was based on balanced control of natural and human resources under the leadership of the pharaoh, religious leaders, and court administrators, characterised by controlled ] of the fertile Nile Valley; the mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions; the early development of an independent ] and ]; the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects; ] with surrounding regions in east and central Africa and the eastern ]; and finally, ] ventures that defeated foreign enemies and asserted Egyptian domination throughout the region. Motivating and organising these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of the quasi-divine pharaoh (becoming divine upon death), who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people by means of an elaborate system of ].<ref name=OxfordHistory /><ref name=Konemann>{{cite book \|editor=Dr. Peter Der Manuelian\| title = Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs \| publisher = Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH \|date=1998\| location = Bonner Straße, Cologne Germany \| isbn = 3-89508-913-3}}</ref>
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	== History ==
	{{Egyptian Dynasty list}}
	{{main\|History of ancient Egypt\|History of Egypt}}

	The Nile has been the lifeline of Egypt since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living in the region during the Pleistocene, some 1.8 million years ago.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> The lifestyles of early humans were highly dependent on climate, and by the late Paleolithic the arid climate of northern Africa had become increasingly hot and dry, forcing the population to concentrate along the Nile valley.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more developed, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.<ref name=OxfordHistory/>



	===Early dynastic period===
	<!--], displaying the hieroglyph for his name within a ], surmounted by ], on display at the ]]]-->
	Although the transition to a fully-unified Egyptian state under the rule of the pharaoh happened gradually, ancient Egyptians writing many centuries later chose to begin their official history with a king named "Meni" (or ] in Greek), who they believed had united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> The long line of pharaohs to follow would be grouped into 30 dynasties by an Egyptian priest named ], writing in the third century BC. This system is still used today. Scholars have suggested the mythical Menes ''is'' the pharaoh Narmer based on an interpretation of the ], a ceremonial cosmetic palette depicting this ruler wearing pharaonic regalia.<ref name=Chronicles/>

	During the early dynastic period, beginning about 3150 BC, the first pharaohs solidified their control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at ]. From this new city, they could control trade routes to the ] and the labor and agricultural produce of the fertile delta region. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period is reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> The strong institution of kingship these pharaohs developed served to legitimize the state control over the land, labor, and resources which allowed the civilization of ancient Egypt to flourish.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/archaicegypt/info.html\|title=Early Dynastic period at Digital Egypt}}</ref>

	===Old Kingdom===
	] statue of the pharaoh ] and his consort Queen Khamerernebty II, originally from his Giza Valley temple, now on display at the ]]]
	The pharaohs of the Old Kingdom made stunning advances in architecture, art, and technology, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity made possible by a well developed central administration.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> Under the direction of the ], state officials coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, collected taxes, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> With the surplus resources made available by a productive and stable economy, the state was able to sponsor the building of colossal monuments and royal workshops producing exceptional works of art. The pyramids built by ], ], and their descendants stand as eternal symbols of the power of the pharaohs.

	With the increasing importance of the central administration, a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples to ensure these institutions would have the necessary resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five centuries of these practices had slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, who could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governers called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh which ultimately undermined the unity of the country. Coupled with ] between 2200 and 2150 BC,<ref> by Fekri Hassan</ref> the country entered a 140 year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Clayton \|first=Peter A. \|title = Chronicle of the Pharaohs \|publisher= Thames and Hudson \| year= 1994 \|page=69 \|isbn=0-500-05074-0 }}</ref>

	===First Intermediate Period===
	<!--].]]-->
	After Egypt's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders owing no tribute to the pharaoh used their newfound independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer; a fact demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs which had been a strict royal monopoly during the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles which express the optimism and originality of the period.<ref name=OxfordHistory/>

	Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers began competing with each other for
	territorial control and political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Hierakonpolis controlled Lower Egypt while a rival clan based in Thebes, under the name Intef, took control of Upper Egypt. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties was inevitable. Around 2055 BC the Theban forces under ] finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers; reuniting the Two Lands and inaugurating a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.<ref name=Chronicles/>

	===Middle Kingdom===
	] statue of Mentuhotep II, the founder of the Middle Kingdom, on display at the ]]]
	Following Old Kingdom traditions, the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's prosperity and stability which stimulated the resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects.<ref>Callender, Gae. ''The Middle Kingdom Renasissance'' from <cite>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</cite>, Oxford, 2000</ref> Mentuhotep II and his 11th Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but when the vizier ] assumed kingship around 1985 BC, beginning the 12th Dynasty, the new pharaoh shifted the nation's capital to a city in the Faiyum named ].<ref name=Chronicles/> From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the 12th Dynasty undertook a far-sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. The military reconquered territory in Nubia to allow quarrying and gold mining, and laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta called the "]" to defend against foreign attack.<ref name=OxfordHistory/>

	With military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and a so-called democritization of the afterlife, in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death.<ref name=OxfordHistory/> Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style,<ref name=Lichtheim>{{cite book \|last= Lichtheim \|first=Miriam\|title=Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol 1\|publisher=University of California Press\|year=1975\|location=London, England\|isbn=0-520-02899-6}}</ref> and the relief and portrait sculpture of the period captures
	subtle, individual details that reach new heights of technical perfection.<ref name=Robins>
	{{cite book \|last=Robins \|first=Gay \|title=The Art of Ancient Egypt \|publisher=Harvard University Press \|year=2000 \|isbn=0-674-00376-4 }}</ref>

	The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, ], engaged in especially active mining and building campaigns; to supply the necessary labor, he allowed Asiatic settlers into the delta region. These ambitious building and mining activities, combined with poor Nile floods later in his reign, strained the economy. During the later 13th and 14th dynasties Egypt slowly declined into the ], in which some of the Asiatic settlers of Amenemhat III would grasp power over Egypt as the ].<ref name=OxfordHistory/>

	===Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos===
	The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when ] once again fell into disarray between the end of the ], and the start of the ]. This period is best known as the time the ] made their appearance in Egypt, the reigns of its kings comprising the ] and ].

	The Thirteenth Dynasty proved unable to hold onto the long land of Egypt, and a provincial ruling family located in the marshes of the western Delta at ] broke away from the central authority to form the ]. The splintering of the land accelerated after the reign of the Thirteenth Dynasty king ].

	The Hyksos first appear during the reign the ] pharaoh ], and by 1720 BC took control of the town of ]. The outlines of the traditional account of the "invasion" of the land by the Hyksos is preserved in the ''Aegyptiaca'' of ], who records that during this time the Hyksos overran Egypt, led by ], the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty. In the last decades, however, the idea of a simple migration, with little or no violence involved, has gained some support.<ref>Booth, Charlotte. <cite>The Hyksos Period in Egypt</cite>. p.10. Shire Egyptology. 2005. ISBN 0-7478-0638-1</ref> Under this theory, the Egyptian rulers of ] were unable to stop these new migrants from travelling to Egypt from Asia because they were weak kings who were struggling to cope with various domestic problems including possibly famine.

	The Hyksos princes and chieftains ruled in the eastern Delta with their local Egyptian vassals. The Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty rulers established their capital and seat of government at ] and their summer residence at ].

	The Hyksos kingdom was centered in the eastern ] and ] and was limited in size, never extending south into ], which was under control by ]-based rulers. Hyksos relations with the south seem to have been mainly of a commercial nature, although Theban princes appear to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and may possibly have provided them with ] for a period.

	Around the time Memphis fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in ] declared its independence from the vassal dynasty in Itj-tawy and set itself up as the ]. This dynasty was to prove the salvation of Egypt and would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The two last kings of this dynasty were ] and ]. ] completed the conquest and expulsion of the Hyksos from the ], restored Theban rule over the whole of Egypt and successfully reasserted Egyptian power in its formerly subject territories of ] and ].<ref name="Grimal 194">Grimal, Nicolas. ''A History of Ancient Egypt'' p. 194. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988.</ref> His reign marks this beginning of the ] and the ] period.

	===New Kingdom===
	]
	Egypt was reunited again, and as a result of the foreign rule of the ] during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt, and attain its greatest territorial extent. It expanded far south into ] and held wide territories in the ]. Egyptian armies fought ] armies for control of modern-day ].

	This became a time of great wealth and power for Egypt. Some of the most important and best-known Pharaohs ruled at this time. ], unusual because she was a female pharaoh and thereby a rare occurrence in Egyptian history—was an ambitious and competent leader—extending Egyptian trade south into present-day Somalia and north into the Mediterranean. Her architecture achieved the highest development by Egypt and was unparalleled in the entire Mediterranean area for a thousand years. She ruled for twenty years through a combination of deft political skill and the selection of highly-skilled administrators. Her co-regent and eventual successor, ] ("the ] of Egypt"), expanded Egypt's army and wielded it with great success. Late in his reign he ordered her name hacked out from many of her monuments and inserted his own. ] built extensively at the temple complexes of ] and he further userped many accomplishments of Hatshepsut.

	]]]
	One of the best-known eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs is ], who changed his name to ] in honor of the ] and whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as history's first instance of ]. He moved the capital to a new city he built and called it, ''Akhetaten'' (modern ]). Akhenaten's religious fervor is cited as the reason why this ] was subsequently written out of Egyptian history. A political and religious revolutionary, Akhenaten introduced ] by the fourth year of his reign, raising the previously obscure god ] (sometimes spelled Aton) to the position of supreme deity, suppressing the worship of other deities, and attacking the power of the entrenched Amen-Ra priestly establishment.

	]]]
	A new culture of ] was introduced during this time that was more naturalistic and realistic. It was a departure from the stereotypical style that had predominated in Egyptian art for the previous 1700 years. Depictions of Akhenaten show exaggerated physical features. Styles of art that flourished during this short period are markedly different from other Egyptian art, bearing a variety of affectations, from elongated heads to protruding stomachs, exaggerated features, and as a contrast, the beauty of his queen ].

	], on display at the ], Berlin]]
	The period following Akhenaten's death is confused and poorly attested, but worship of the old gods was revived and the reign of ] marks the certain re-emergence of the old traditions. He was a young child when he ascended to the throne, and undoubtedly it was his advisers who made decisions for him. His given name was Tutankh''aten'', but with the resurgence of ], he was re-named Tutankh''amun''.

	Tutankhamun died while he was still a teenager and was succeeded by ], who probably married Tutankhamun's widow to make his claim to the throne. When Ay died a few years later, Tutankhamun's former General ] became ruler, and a new period of positive rule began. He set about securing internal stability and re-establishing the prestige that the country had before the reign of Akhenaten. When Horemheb died without an heir, he named his General Paramessu as his successor. Paramessu took the throne name ], and is considered the founder of the ].

	] at a temple dedicated to him at ]]]
	] only reigned for a couple of years and was succeeded by his son ]. Seti I carried on the work of Horemheb in restoring power, control, and respect to Egypt. He also was responsible for creating the best known part of the temple complex at ], his own mortuary temple.

	Arguably, Ancient Egypt's power as a nation-state peaked during the reign of ] ("the Great") of the nineteenth dynasty. He reigned for 67 years from the age of 18. He carried on his immediate predecessor's work and created many more splendid temples, such as that of ] on the Nubian border. He sought to recover territories in the ] that had been held by eighteenth dynasty Egypt. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the ], where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king ], but was caught in history's first recorded military ambush. Ramesses II was famed for the huge number of children he sired by his numerous wives and ]s. The ] he built for his sons, many of whom he outlived, in the ] has proven to be the largest funerary complex in Egypt.

	His immediate successors continued the military campaigns, although an increasingly troubled court complicated matters. Ramesses II was succeeded by his son, ], and then by Merenptah's son, ]. Seti II's throne seems to have been disputed by his half-brother, ], who temporarily may have ruled from Thebes. The power of dynasty slowly receded and failed, leading to the reign of the last "great" pharaoh from the New Kingdom, ], the son of Setnakhte who reigned three decades after the time of ]. In Year 8 of his reign, the ], invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two great land and sea battles. He claimed that he incorporated them as subject peoples and settled them in Southern Canaan, although there is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan. Their presence in Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this region, such as Philistia, after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire. He was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his Year 6 and Year 11 respectively.<ref>Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell Books, 1992. p.271</ref>

	The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt's treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian empire in Asia. The severity of these difficulties is stressed by the fact that the first known labor strike in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III's reign, when the food rations for the Egypt's favoured and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village of ] could not be provisioned.<ref>William F. Edgerton, The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year, JNES 10, No. 3 (July 1951), pp. 137-145</ref>

	Following Ramesses III's death there was endless bickering among his heirs. Three of his sons would go on to assume power as ], ], and ] respectively. However, at this time Egypt also was increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal flooding levels of the ], famine, civil unrest, and official corruption. The power of the last pharaoh of this dynasty, ], grew so weak that in the south the ] became the effective defacto rulers of ], while ] controlled ] even before Ramesses XI's death, this was a period of turmoil known as ]. Smendes eventually would found the ] at ].

	===Third Intermediate Period===
	]]]
	After the death of ], his successor ] ruled from the city of ] in the north, while the ] had effective rule of the south of the country, whilst still nominally recognizing Smendes as king.<ref>Cerny, p.645</ref> In fact, this division was less significant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came from the same family. ], assumed control of Upper Egypt, ruling from ], with the northern limit of his control ending at ]. They were replaced without any apparent struggle by the Libyan kings of the ].

	], the first king of the new dynasty, briefly re-unified the country, putting control of the Amun ] under that of his own son. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggests that it was an unsettled time, leading eventually to a separate group of pharaohs who established their control over ] (comprising the ]) which ran concurrently with the latter part of the twenty-second dynasty.

	Under king ], the Nubian founder of ], the Nubians pushed north in an effort to crush his Libyan opponents ruling in the Delta. He managed to attain power as far as ]. His opponent ] ultimately submitted to him, but he was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and founded the short-lived ] at ]. Piye was succeeded first by his brother, ], and then by his two sons ] and ].

	The international prestige of Egypt declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen under the ]n sphere of influence and, from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would be war between the two states. ]'s reign and that of his successor, ], were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians against whom there were numerous victories. Ultimately Thebes was occupied and ] sacked.

	===Late Period===
	From 664 BC Egypt was ruled by client kings established by the Assyrians, establishing the ]. ] was the first to be recognized as the king of the whole of Egypt, and he brought increased stability to the country during a 54-year reign from the new capital of ]. Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt successfully and peacefully from 610-526 BC. By the end of this period a new power was growing in the Near East: ]. The pharaoh ] had to face the might of Persia at ]; he was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, but ultimately was captured and then executed at Susa, capital of the Persian king ], who assumed the formal title of Pharaoh, starting a period of ].

	Memphis and the Delta region became the target of many attacks from the ]ns, until ] managed to reunite Middle and Lower Egypt under his rule forming the ].

	The last ] of the ], ], was defeated by ] in the battle of ] in the eastern ] delta in 525 BC, ] was then joined with ] and ] in the sixth ]y of the ]. Thus began the first period of Persian rule over Egypt (also known as the Twenty-Seventh dynasty of Egypt), which ended around 402 BC.

	The ] was established in 380 BC and lasted until 343 BC. This was the last native house to rule Egypt. The brief restoration of Persian rule is sometimes known as the ], which lasted for a brief period (343–332 BC). In 332 BC Mazaces handed over the country to ] without a fight. The Achaemenid empire had ended, and for a while Egypt was a satrapy in Alexander's empire. Later the ] and then the ] successively ruled the Nile valley.

	===Ptolemaic dynasty===
	] adopted the ancient traditions and language of Egypt]]
	In 332 BC Alexander III of Macedon conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians. He was welcomed by the ] as a deliverer. He visited ], and went on pilgrimage to the oracle of ] at the ]. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun. He conciliated the Egyptians by the respect which he showed for their religion, but he appointed Greeks to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city, ], to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's conquest of the rest of the ]. Early in 331 BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia. He left ] as the ruling ] to control Egypt in his absence. Alexander never returned to Egypt.

	Following Alexander's death in ] in 323 BC, a ] erupted among his generals. Initially, ] ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus, who became ], and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexander's infant son ], who had not been born at the time of his father's death. Perdiccas appointed ], one of Alexander's closest companions, to be ] of Egypt.

	Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV. However, as Alexander the Great's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consolidated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the ] (322 BC-301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of King. As ] ("Saviour"), he founded the ] that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years.

	The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.<ref>Bowman (1996) pp25-26</ref><ref>Stanwick (2003)</ref>

	Hellenistic culture thrived in Egypt well after the ]. The Ptolemies had to fight native rebellions and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.

	===Roman domination===
	<!-- Roman Empire -->
	After the defeat of ] and ] Queen ] in the ] in 30 BC by ] (the future ] ]), Egypt became a ] of the ], encompassing most of modern-day ] except for the ], bordered by the provinces of ] to the west and ], Egypt would come to serve as a major producer of ] for the empire.
	<!-- Byzantine Empire -->
	The reign of Constantine also saw the founding of ] as a new capital for the Roman Empire, and in the course of the ] the Empire was divided in two, with Egypt finding itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. This meant that within a few years ], never well established in Egypt, disappeared, and Greek reasserted itself as the language of government. During the ] and ] the Eastern Roman Empire gradually became the ], a Christian, Greek-speaking state that had little in common with the old empire of Rome, which disappeared in the face of the Islamic invasions in the fifteenth century. Another consequence of the triumph of Christianity was the final oppression and demise of the pagan culture: with the disappearance of the Egyptian priests and priestesses who officiated at the temples, no-one could read the ] of Pharaonic Egypt, and its temples were converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.

	The Eastern Empire became increasingly "oriental" in style as its links with the old Græco-Roman world faded. The Greek system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared. Offices, with new Byzantine names, were almost hereditary in the wealthy land-owning families. Alexandria, the second city of the empire, continued to be a centre of religious controversy and violence. ], the ], convinced the city's governor to expel the Jews from the city in ] with the aid of the mob, in response to the Jews' nighttime massacre of many Christians. The murder of the philosopher ] marked the final end of classical Hellenic culture in Egypt. Another schism in the Church produced a prolonged civil war and alienated Egypt from the Empire.

	===Muslim conquest===
	Egypt had been occupied just a decade before the conquest by the ] under ] (] to ] ]). An army of 4,000 ] led by ] was sent by the ] ], successor to ], to spread Islamic rule to the west. These Arabs crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December ], and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The Imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more (although the Arabs were victorious at the ] in July 640.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Butler\|first=Alfred\|title=The Arab Conquest of Egypt and the Last Thirty years of Roman Dominion}}</ref> But the Arabs sent for reinforcements, In April ] they captured Alexandria. The ] seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition. Most of the Egyptian Christians welcomed their new rulers: the accession of a new regime meant for them the end of the persecutions by the Byzantine state church. The Byzantines assembled a fleet with the aim of recapturing Egypt, and won back ] in ], but the Muslims retook the city in 646, completing the ]

	==Government and economy==
	===Administration and taxation===
	]
	For administrative purposes, ancient Egypt was divided into districts, referred to by Egyptologists by the Greek term, ]; they were called ''sepat'' in ancient Egyptian. The division into nomes can be traced back to the Predynastic Period (before 3100 BC), when the nomes originally existed as autonomous city-states. The nomes remained in place for more than three millennia, with the area of the individual nomes and their order of numbering remaining remarkably stable. Under the system that prevailed for most of pharaonic Egypt's history, the country was divided into forty-two nomes: twenty comprising ], whilst Upper Egypt was divided into twenty-two. Each nome was governed by a ] (Greek for "ruler of the nome",) a provincial governor who held regional authority. The position of the nomarch was at times ], at times appointed by the pharaoh.

	The ancient Egyptian government imposed a number of different ] upon its people. As there was no known form of ] until the latter half of the first millennium BC, taxes were paid for "in kind" (with produce or work). The ] (ancient Egyptian: ''tjaty'') controlled the taxation system through the departments of state. The departments had to report daily on the amount of stock available and how much was expected in the future. Taxes were paid for depending on a person's craft or duty. Landowners paid their taxes in ] and other produce grown on their ]. ]s paid their taxes with goods they produced. Hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river, marshes, and desert. One person from every household was required to pay a '']'' or labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year, such as digging canals, mining, or serving in the temples. However, the rich could hire poorer people to fulfill their labor taxes.

	===Legal system===
	The head of the legal system in ancient Egypt was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for proclaiming laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as ].<ref name=Konemann/> Though no legal codes from ancient Egypt have survived, the many court documents which have survived show that Egyptian law was based on a common sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolution of conflict rather than strict adherence to a complicated set of statues.<ref name=UCJohnson>{{cite web\|url=http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190170/\|title=Women's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt}}</ref><ref name=FeatureStoryLaw>{{cite web\|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/law.htm\|title=Feature Story Ancient Egyptian Law}}</ref>

	The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, and people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress.<ref name=UCJohnson/> Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end.<ref name=UCJohnson/>

	Local councils of elders, known as ''Kenbet'' by the New Kingdom, were responsible for making rulings in court cases involing small claims and minor disputes, though the kenbet's ability to enforce its rulings was limited.<ref name=Konemann/> Local Kenbets deferred serious or complicated cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery to the ''Great Kenbet'', over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves in legal matters, and were required to swear an oath to an Egyptian deity that they had told the truth.<ref> {{cite book \|last=Bierbrier \|first=Morris \|title=The Tomb Builders of the Pharaohs \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|location=New York, NY \|year=1984 \|isbn=0-684-18229-7}}</ref> In cases of tomb robbery or assassination plots, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.<ref name=FeatureStoryLaw/>

	Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by death, which could be carried out by decapitation, drowning, or by impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family.<ref name=Konemann/>

	From at least the New Kingdom, some legal cases, disputes, and even military or agricultural decisions were resolved by consultation with a divine oracle.<ref name=FeatureStoryOracles>{{cite web\|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/oracle.htm\|title=Feature Story Oracle}}</ref> The oracle, usually a statue in the image of the deity, could be asked a yes or no question to which the oracle could respond by a movement through the hidden actions of a priest.<ref name=FeatureStoryOracles/>

	===Agriculture===
	{{see also\|Ancient Egyptian cuisine}}
	]
	Egypt has a favorable combination of geographical features which contributed to the success of the ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil provided by annual inundations of the Nile river. This resulted in the ability of the ancient Egyptians to grow an abundance of food, which freed up the population to devote more time and resources for cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt, because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.<ref name=Konemann />

	Farming in Egypt was dependent upon the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians distinguished between three seasons in their written records, which they called Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, after which a layer of mineral-rich silt was deposited on the banks, being perfect for growing crops.

	The growing season occurred between October and February, after the flood waters had receded. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with dikes and canals. Egypt receives little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.

	The harvesting season followed in March, April, and May. Farmers would harvest the crops by cutting them down with sickles. The crops would then be ] by beating them with a flail, in order to separate the straw from the grain. Then the crops would be winnowed to remove the chaff. The grain was then ground on a stone to make flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

	The ancient Egyptians cultivated ], ], ], and several other cereal grains, which they used to make their two main food staples, ] and ]. ] plants were grown, uprooted before they started flowering, and the fibres of their stems extracted. These fibres were split along their length, spun into thread which was used to weave sheets of ] to make into clothing. ] growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots close to their habitations on higher ground and had to be watered by hand.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/agriculture.htm\|title=Agriculture and horticulture in ancient Egypt}}</ref>

	===Natural resources===
	Egypt is a land rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones, which the ancient Egyptians used to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. They left no stone unturned in their search for gold, as no deposits of gold have since been found in Egypt that they overlooked.<ref>{{citation\|last1=Greaves \|first1=R.H. \|last2=Little \|first2= O.H. \|title=Gold Resources of Egypt, Report of the XV International Geol. Congress, South Africa \|year=1929 \|pages=123-127}}</ref> Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Lucas \|first=Alfred \|title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Ed. \|location=London \|year=1962 \|publisher=Edward Arnold Publishers}}</ref>

	The ore bearing rock formations in Egypt are found in distant, inhospitable Wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai and required large state controlled expeditions to obtain the gold, copper ores, and decorative stones found there. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Whenever possible, prisoners and slaves were forced into mining service, but Egyptian peasants might also be conscripted for this unpleasant labor.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/mining.htm\|title=Egyptian Mining Topics}}</ref>

	Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest evidence of habitation in the Nile vally. Nodules of the material were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose.<ref name=Nicholson>{{cite book \|last=Nicholson \|first=Paul T. ''et al.'' \|title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|location=Cambridge, UK \|year=2000}}</ref> The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt, and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Scheel \|first=Bernd \|title=Egyptian Metalworking and Tools \|publisher= Shire Publications Ltd \|location=Haverfordwest, Great Britain \|year=1989}}</ref> Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediments in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period.<ref name=DavisFeature>{{cite web\|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/minesandquarries1.htm\|title=Mines and Quarries of Ancient Egypt An Introduction}}</ref>

	High quality building stones are abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile vally, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dot the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el-Hudi.<ref name=DavisFeature/>

	==Language==
	<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
	{{main\|Egyptian language}}

	{{Expand\|date=October 2007}}

	] constitutes an independent part of the ] language ]. Its closest relatives are the ], ], and ] groups of languages. Written records of the Egyptian language have been dated from about ], making it one of the oldest, and longest documented languages. Scholars group the Egyptian language into six major chronological divisions:<ref name=JPAllenMiddleEgyptian>{{cite book\|last=Allen\|first=James P.\|title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|location=Cambridge, UK\|year=2000\|isbn=0-521-77483-7}}</ref>
	;Archaic Egyptian (before 3000 BC)
	Consists of inscriptions from the late ] and ] periods. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian ] writing appears on ] II pottery vessels.
	;] (3000–2000 BC)
	The language of the ] and ]. The ] are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. Tomb walls of elite Egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing Old Egyptian. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ]s, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from the next stage.
	;] (2000–1300 BC)
	Often dubbed '''Classical Egyptian''', this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in ] and ] scripts dated from about the ]. It includes funerary texts inscribed on ] such as the ]; wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient Egyptian philosophical worldview (see the ]); tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual, for example the ]; medical and scientific texts such as the ] and the ]; and poetic texts praising a deity or a ], such as the Hymn to the Nile. The Egyptian ] had already begun to change from the written language as evidenced by some Middle Kingdom hieratic texts, but classical Middle Egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the Late Dynastic period (sometimes referred to as Late Middle Egyptian).<ref name=JPAllenMiddleEgyptian/>
	;] (1300–700 BC)
	Records of this stage appear in the second part of the ]. It contains a rich body of religious and secular literature, comprising such famous examples as the ] and the Instructions of Ani. It was also the language of ] administration. Late Egyptian is not totally distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many "classicisms" appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than that between Middle and Old Egyptian. It is also a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond. Hieroglyphic ] saw an enormous expansion of its ] inventory between the Late Dynastic and ] periods.
	;] (700 BC–300 AD)
	;] (300–1700 AD)

	===Writing===
	<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
	{{see also\|Egyptian hieroglyphs}}
	] is a multilingual text written in hieroglyphs, demotic, and Greek, and enabled linguists to begin the process of hieroglyph decipherment.<ref name=JPAllenMiddleEgyptian/>]]
	For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the ], found during excavations at ] (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to c.3150 BC. However, recent ] findings reveal that symbols on ] pottery, ''c.'' 3250 BC, resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms. Also in 1998 a German archaeological team under ] excavating at ] (modern ]) uncovered tomb ], which belonged to a ] ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto-hieroglyphs dating to the ] period, circa 3300 BC.

	Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as ''']s''', today standing as the world's earliest known ], with the mesopotamian cuneiform as a close second. The hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic, partly ]. ''']''' is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty. The term ''']''', in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, ''i.e.'' from the ] until its marginalization by Greek ] in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of ] in the 700s AD, the ] survived as a spoken language into the ]. Today, it continues to be the liturgical language of a ] minority.<ref name=JPAllenMiddleEgyptian/>

	Beginning from around 2700 BC, Egyptians used ]s to represent ] — ignoring ]s and representing only ] vocalizations (see ]). By 2000 BC, 26 ]s were being used mainly to represent twenty-four (known) ], but hundreds of other signs also were being employed.<ref name=JPAllenMiddleEgyptian/> The world's ] (c. 1800 BC) is only an ] system and was derived from these ] as well as other ]s.

	The hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the ] AD. Attempts to decipher it in the ] began after the ], though earlier attempts by ] scholars are attested (see '']'').

	===Literature===
	<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
	{{see also\|Ancient Egyptian literature}}
	], a document that describes anatomical observations and the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of traumatic injuries.]]
	Writing first appears associated with kingship, labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. This developed by the ] into the tomb ], such as those of ] and ]. The genre known as '']'' evolved to provide teachings and guidance from famous nobles, the ], a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is an extreme example of an instruction, although from an uncertain date. During the ] and the ], the prose style of literature evolved, with the ] perhaps being the classic of Egyptian Literature.<ref>{{cite book \|last= Lichtheim \|first=Miriam\|title=Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol 1\|publisher=University of California Press\|year=1975\|location=London, England\|isbn=0-520-02899-6\|pages=11}}</ref> Also written at this time (although the surviving copies date from the end of the ]), the ] is a set of stories told to ] by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests.<ref>{{cite book\|pages=p.13\|author=William Kelly Simpson (ed.)\|title=The Literature of Ancient Egypt\|edition=3rd edition\|year=2003\|location=New Haven\|publisher=Yale University Press}}</ref> Towards the end of the ], the ] tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon, and his struggle to return to Egypt, and shows the end of the united Egypt, and the start of the ], a period of turmoil known as '']''.
	<!-- Are these literature? -->
	<!--
	*] - A medical papyrus listing diagnoses, treatments, and magic spells
	*] - A list of temple endowments and a history of the reign of pharaoh Ramesses III
	-->

	==Culture==
	===Architecture===
	<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
	{{see also\|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
	]
	The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world, such as the ], ], and the ]. All major building projects were organized and funded by the state, whose purpose was not only to provide functional religious, military, and funerary structures but to reinforce the power and reputation of the pharaoh and ensure his legacy for all time.<ref name="KBard"/> The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders with expert knowledge of basic surveying and construction techniques. Using simple but effective measuring ropes, plum bobs, and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision.

	Most buildings in ancient Egypt, even the pharaoh's palace, were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood, and do not survive. Important structures such as temples and tombs were intended to last forever and were instead constructed of stone. The first large scale stone building in the world, the mortuary complex of ], was built in the ] as a stone imitation of the mud-brick and wooden structures used in daily life.<ref name=Clarke&Engelbach>{{citation\|title= Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture \|last=Clarke \|first=Somers \|last2=Engelbach \|first2=R. \|publisher=Dover Publications\|year=1990 \|isbn=0-486-26485-8}}</ref>

	The architectural elements used in Djoser's mortuary complex, including post and lintel construction with huge stone roof blocks supported by external walls and closely spaced columns, would be copied many times in Egyptian history. Decorative styles introduced in the ], such as the lotus and papyrus motifs, are a recurring theme in ancient Egyptian architecture.<ref name="KBard"/>

	The earliest tomb architecture in ancient Egypt was the ], a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The mastaba was the most popular tomb among the nobility in the Old Kingdom, and the first pyramid, the step pyramid of Djoser, is actually a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. The step pyramid was itself the inspiration for the first true pyramids. Pharaohs built pyramids in the Old Kingdom and later in the Middle Kingdom, but later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.<ref name=DodsonRockCutTombs>{{cite book \|title=Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs \|last=Dodson \|first=Aidan \|publisher=Shire Publications Ltd \|year=1991 \|location=Buckinghamshire, UK \|isbn=0-7478-0128-2}}</ref> New Kingdom pharaohs built their rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings. By the Third Intermediate Period, the pharaohs had completely abandoned building grand tomb architecture.

	The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, from the Old Kingdom, consist of single enclosed halls with columns supporting the roof slabs. The mortuary temples connected to the pyramids at Giza are examples of this early type. During the Fifth Dynasty, pharaohs developed the sun temple, the focus of which is a squat pyramid-shaped obelisk known as a ben-ben stone. The ben-ben stone and other temple structures are surrounded with an outer wall and connected to the Nile by a causeway terminating in a valley temple. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary. Because the common people were not allowed past the entry pylon, the deity residing in the inner sanctuary was distanced from the outside world. This type of cult temple was the standard used until the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/temple/typestime.html\|title=Temples at Digital Egypt}}</ref>

	===Art===
	<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
	{{see also\|Art of Ancient Egypt}}
	] exemplifies the artistic style used by the ancient Egyptians for more than 3500 years, which was already highly developed before the start of the Old Kingdom<ref name=Robins>{{cite book \|last=Robins \|first=Gay \|title=The Art of Ancient Egypt \|publisher=Harvard University Press \|year=2000 \|isbn=0-674-00376-4 }}</ref>]]

	The ancient Egyptians produced art that was made for functional purposes rather than as a form of pure creative expression. Artists adhered to artistic forms that were developed during the Old Kingdom for more than 3500 years, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change.<ref name=Robins/> Their artistic canon, characterized by the flat projection of figures with no effort to indicate spatial depth, combined with simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color, created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.<ref name=Konemann />

	Pharaohs used reliefs carved on stelae, temple walls, and obelisks to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. These art forms glorify the pharaoh, record that ruler's version of historical events, and establish the relationship between the Egyptians and their deities. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife.

	The ancient Egyptians made little distinction between images and text, which were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. This mentality is evident even in the earliest examples of Egyptian art, such as the Narmer Palette, where the characters themselves may be read as hieroglyphs.<ref name=Robins />

	===Religious beliefs===
	<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
	{{see also\|Ancient Egyptian religion}}

	The Egyptian religion, embodied in ], is a succession of beliefs and a changing ] reflecting the beliefs held by the people of Egypt, as early as ] times and all the way until the coming of ] and ] in the ] and ] eras. These were conducted by Egyptian ]esses, priests, or ], but the use of ] and ] is questioned. The oldest ] of record was in Egypt at ], and has been suggested as having been the source of the oracular tradition that spread into other early religious traditions, such as Crete and Greece.<ref>Herodotus ii. 55 and vii. 134</ref>

	], flanked by the symbols of both Upper and Lower Egypt ], the cobra, and ], the white vulture]]
	Every animal portrayed and worshiped in ancient Egyptian art, writing, and religion is ] to ], all the way from the ] until the Graeco-Roman eras, over 3000 years.

	Displayed to the right is an image that exemplifies the totemic aspects of the religion of ancient Egypt from its earliest times to the sunset of the culture. An ancient deity represented as a lioness is seated on a throne that is flanked by the two other oldest among the earliest triad of deities, the Egyptian cobra and the white vulture. These three animals were consistently represented as the protectors and the patrons of both Upper and Lower Egypt. The supplicant, ''Hariesis'', represents ], the son of ], the similarly ancient cow deity who is considered another aspect of their primal Earth mother as sun goddess.

	The inner reaches of the temples were sacred places where only priestesses and priests were allowed. On special occasions ordinary people were allowed into the temple courtyards.

	The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the ]. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict deities and pharaohs, who were also considered divine after death. ] in general is characterized by the idea of order.

	===Burial customs===
	<!-- this section is intended as a brief overview, more details under 'see also' -->
	{{see also\|Egyptian burial rituals and protocol}}
	]
	The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure their immortality after death. These customs involved preservation of the body by mummification, performance of burial ceremonies, and interment with grave goods for the deceased to use in the afterlife.<ref name=OxfordHistory />

	Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. This was the best scenario available for the poor throughout the history of ancient Egypt, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. When the Egyptians started to bury their dead in stone tombs, natural mummification from the desert did not occur. This necessitated artificial mummification which, for the wealthy in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, meant removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, coating with plaster or resin, and sometimes painting or sculpting facial details. The body was buried in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. From the Fourth Dynasty, the ]s, ]s, ] and ] were preserved separately and stored in ]; symbolically protected by likenesses of the ].<ref> {{cite web\|url= http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/mummy/ok.html\|title=Old Kingdom Mummy at Digital Egypt}}</ref>

	By the New Kingdom, the art of mummification was perfected; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called ]. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers, and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. By the Late Period, mummies were placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. In the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, preservation technique declined and emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, decorated with elaborate rhomboidal patterns formed by the wrapping bandages.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/mummy/late.html\|title=Late Period Mummy at Digital Egypt}}</ref>

	All burials regardless of social status included grave goods such as food and personal items such as jewelry. Wealthy members of society expected larger quantities of luxury items and furniture. From the New Kingdom, ] were popular items of funerary literature which contained spells and instructions for protection in the afterlife. New Kingdom Egyptians also expected to be buried with shabti statues, which they believed would perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/burialcustoms/shabtis.html\|title=Shabtis at Digital Egypt}}</ref>

	Whether they were buried in mastabas, pyramids, or rock-cut tombs, every Egyptian burial would have been accompanied by rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated. This procedure involved touching the mouth and eyes of the deceased with ceremonial instruments to restore the power of speech, movement, and sight. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.

	===Leisure and games===
	]
	The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. The game of ], a kind of board game with pieces moving according to random chance, was particularly popular from the very earliest times. Another similar game was ], which had a circular gaming board. Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan.<ref name=Konemann /> The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well.

	Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them in ancient Egypt. Early instruments included probably flutes or harps.. Later, instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes became popular. In the New Kingdom, lutes and lyres were traded in from Asia. and bells, cymbals, tambourines, and drums also were played by Egyptians.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/furniture/music.html\|title=Digital Egypt, Music Article}}</ref> The ], a musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies, was a rattle, and there were several other devices used as rattles.
	<br clear="all">

	==Foreign relations==
	===Trade===
	The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their ] to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the predynastic, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian type oil jugs found in burials of the ] pharaohs.<ref name=OxfordHistory />

	By the ] the ancient Egyptians had established trade with ], a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. In the ], trade was established with the ], which provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons.

	Egypt relied on trade with ] for supplies of tin, a component of ] which was not mined by the ancient Egyptians, and supplementary supplies of copper. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone ], which had to be imported from far-away ]. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included ] and ], which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil.<ref name=Chronicles /> ] is known to have imported live trees for transplantation into her gardens.

	In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported gold and papyrus, in addition to some finished goods including glass objects. The first glass beads are thought to have been manufactured in Egypt.

	===Military===
	{{main\|Military history of Ancient Egypt}}
	]
	The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for maintaining Egypt's domination in the ancient near-east. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai in the ] and fought civil wars during the ] and ]s. The military was responsible for maintaining forts along important trade routes, for example at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the ], a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer ] and territory in the ].<ref name=OxfordHistory />

	Typical military equipment included round-topped shields made of animal skin stretched over a wooden frame, bows and arrows, and spears. In the ], the military began using ]s which were introduced by Hyksos invaders in the Second Intermediate Period. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze. Shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and a type of scimitar made of bronze, the ], was adopted from Asian soldiers.<ref name=Konemann />

	The Egyptian pharaoh usually is depicted in art and literature leading at the head of the Army, and there is certain evidence that at least a few pharaohs are known to have, such as ] and his sons.<ref name=OxfordHistory /> Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during and especially after the ], mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt under the command of their own officers.<ref name=Konemann />

	==Achievements and unsolved problems==<!-- This section is linked from ] -->
	{{see also\|Ancient Egyptian technology\|Egyptian mathematics}}
	The achievements of ancient Egypt are well known, and the civilization achieved a very high standard of productivity and sophistication. ] was first invented by the Egyptians.

	The earliest evidence (circa 1600 BC) of traditional ] is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the ] and ]. The roots of the ] may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians created their own alphabet (however, it is debated as to whether they were the first to do this because of the margin of error on carbon dated tests), the ].<ref>{{cite web \| title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics \| url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html\|accessmonthday=December 5 \|accessyear=2005 }}</ref>

	Glass making was highly developed in ancient Egypt, as is evident from the glass beads, jars, figures, and ornaments discovered in the tombs.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.realscience.breckschool.org/upper/fruen/files/Enrichmentarticles/files/AncientGlass/AncientGlass.html\|\|title=Ancient Glass\|last=Fruen\|first=Lois\|year=2002\|accessmonthday=June 1 \|accessyear=2006}}</ref> Recent archeology has uncovered the remains of an ancient Egyptian glass factory.<ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000DEA36-606E-12B3-A06E83414B7F0000\|title=Ancient Egyptian Glass Factory Found\|last=Graham\|first=Sarah\|date=\|accessmonthday=June 1 \|accessyear=2006\|publisher=Scientific American}}</ref>

	===Medicine===
	Ancient Egyptian physicians were well renowned in the ancient near-East for their healing skills, and medical papyri show that they relied on thorough patient examinations and treatments based on a combination of natural product derived remedies, prayers, and protective amulets. Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, honey was used to prevent infection, and opium was used to relieve pain. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but recognized that some injuries were so serious that the only advice they could offer was to "Moor at his mooring stakes, until the period of his injury passes by..." in other words, until the patient died.

	===Mathematics===
	Texts such as the ] show that the ancient Egyptians could perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and calculation of the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, circles and even spheres. Although the ancient Egyptians were not familiar with the concept of pi, they were able to approximate the areas of circles by subtracting 1/9th of the circle's diameter and squaring the remainder. They could also calculate the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and were comfortable using fractions.

	The ] seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the ],<ref name=phi>{{cite web\|url=http://mtcs.truman.edu/~thammond/history/EgyptianPyramids.html\|title=The Egyptian Pyramids - Mathematics and the Liberal Arts\|publisher=Truman State University\|year=\|accessmonthday=May 30 \|accessyear=2006}}</ref> however, some scholars assert that this may be the consequence of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Kemp\|first=Barry J.\|year=1989\|title=Ancient Egypt\|publisher=Routledge\|id=ISBN \|pages=p. 138}}</ref>
	----
	===Open problems and scientific inquiry===
	Ancient Egypt is a fertile field for scientific inquiry, scholarly study, religious inspiration, and open speculation. Speculation and inquiry include the degree of sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and several ]s exist concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not correspond with conventional technological development systems.

	It is not known why there seems to be no neat progression to an Egyptian ] as in other developing cultures nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians possibly taking a long time to begin using ].<ref>http://www.aldokkan.com/science/metallurgy.htm</ref> A study of the rest of Africa could point to the reasons: Sub-Saharan Africa confined their use of the metal to agricultural purposes for many centuries. The ancient Egyptians had a much easier form of agriculture with the annual Nile floods and fertile sediment delivery and strong metal tools to till soil were unnecessary. It should be stressed that while steel is derived from iron, it is by no means an intuitive leap. Small percentages of impurities can ruin a batch of molten ], preventing it from becoming ]. ] ] are much more robust metallurgically and naturally plentiful in their environment. Several naturally occurring proportions of ], ], ], ] will combine with copper and ''improve'' the properties of ]. Bronze is stronger than ], and does not ], so to prefer bronze in this context is entirely rational. Given iron's greater abundance, it is likely that the Iron Age began when demand for 'any metal' outstripped supply of the 'quality metal' - bronze.

	The exact date the Egyptians started producing ] is debated. There is some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance ] in their ]s and when they became knowledgeable sailors.

	] is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several ] writers — ], ], ], and ]. It is unknown whether Egyptian ] developed independently or as an import from ].

	The ], ] first in ], was introduced into Egypt during the 500s B.C., shortly before the ] of ] began and although often thought as associated with Egypt by modern readers, ]s evolved in the ].{{Fact\|date=October 2007}} <!-- The article on dromedaries indicates that they are native to North Africa & Western Asia. Indicating they arose in the Western Hemisphere indicates a small portion of the westernmost reaches of Africa. It should be defined which it is; or further clarified if both are involved. -->

	==See also==
	{{commonscat\|Ancient Egypt}}{{portal}}
	*]
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	==Notes and References==
	===References===
	<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;">
	<references/>
	</div>

	===Bibliography===
	===History===
	Ancient Egypt has inspired a vast number of English-language publications, ranging from scholarly works to generalised accounts (in addition to a large number of speculative, supernatural, or pseudo-scientific explorations). A selection of generally reliable survey treatments, published within the last two decades, includes:

	====Pharaonic Egypt====
	*{{cite book\|author=Adkins, L. and Adkins, R\|year=2001\|title=The Little Book of Egyptian Hieroglyphics\|location=London\|publisher=Hodder and Stoughton}}
	*{{cite book\|author=] and ]\|year=2000\|title=The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt\|edition=revised edition\|publisher=Facts on File\|year=2000}}
	*{{cite book \| last = Bard \| first = KA \| title = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt \| publisher = Routledge \| location = NY, NY \| year = 1999\|isbn=0-415-18589-0}}
	*{{cite book \|last=Bierbrier \|first=Morris \|title=The Tomb Builders of the Pharaohs \|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons \|location=New York, NY \|year=1984 \|isbn=0-684-18229-7}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Booth\|first=Charlotte\|title=The Hyksos Period in Egypt\|publisher=Shire Egyptology\|year=2005\|isbn=0-7478-0638-1}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Callender\|first=Gae\|title=The Middle Kingdom Renasissance\|publisher=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt\|location=Oxford\|year=2000}}
	*{{cite book\|first =J\|last=Cerny\|title=Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380-1000 BC\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|isbn=0-521-08691-4}}
	*{{cite book\|title= Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture \|last=Clarke \|first=Somers \|couthors=R. Engelbach \|publisher=Dover Publications\|year=1990 \|isbn=0-486-26485-8}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Clayton \|first=Peter A. \|title = Chronicle of the Pharaohs \|publisher= Thames and Hudson \| year= 1994 \|isbn=0-500-05074-0 }}
	*{{cite book\|author=Dodson, Aidan\|coauthor=Hilton, Dyan\|title=The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt\|publisher=Thames & Hudson \|year=2004}}
	*{{cite journal\|first=William F.\|last=Edgerton\|title=The Strikes in Ramses III's Twenty-Ninth Year\|journal=JNES 10\|edition=No. 3\|month=July\|year=1951}}
	*{{cite book\|first=Richard J.\|last=Gillings\|title=Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs\|year=1972\|publiser=Dover\|location=New York}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Greaves \|first=R.H. \|coauthors=O.H. Little\|title=Gold Resources of Egypt, Report of the XV International Geol. Congress, South Africa \|year=1929}}
	*{{cite book\|first=Nicolas\|last=Grimal\|title=A History of Ancient Egypt\|publisher=Blackwell Books\|year=1992}}
	*Herodotus ii. 55 and vii. 134
	*{{cite book\|author=]\|year=1991\|title=Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization\|publisher=Routledge\|year=1991}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Kitchen\|first=Kenneth Anderson\|year=1996\|title=The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC)\|edition=3rd ed.\|location=Warminster\|publisher=Aris & Phillips Limited}}
	*{{cite book\|author=]\|year=1997\|title=The Complete Pyramids\|location=London\|publisher=Thames & Hudson\|year=1997}}
	*{{cite book \|last=Lucas \|first=Alfred \|title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Ed. \|location=London \|year=1962 \|publisher=Edward Arnold Publishers}}
	*{{cite book\|year=1998\|author=Dr. Peter Der Manuelian\|title=Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs\|location=Bonner Straße, Cologne Germany\|publisher=Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH\|isbn=3-89508-913-3}}
	*{{cite book \|last=Myśliwiec\|first=Karol\|year=2000\|title=The Twighlight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E.(trans. by David Lorton)\|location=Ithaca and London\|publisher=Cornell University Press}}
	*{{cite book \|last=Nicholson \|first=Paul T. ''et al.'' \|title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|location=Cambridge, UK \|year=2000}}
	*{{cite book \|last=Robins \|first=Gay \|title=The Art of Ancient Egypt \|publisher=Harvard University Press \|year=2000 \|isbn=0-674-00376-4 }}
	*{{cite book \|author=]\|title=The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period \|year=1997 \|month=January \|publisher=Museum Tusculanum \|isbn=8772894210}}
	*{{cite book \|last=Scheel \|first=Bernd \|title=Egyptian Metalworking and Tools \|publisher= Shire Publications Ltd \|location=Haverfordwest, Great Britain \|year=1989}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Shaw\|first=Ian\|year=2003\|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=2003\|isbn=0-500-05074-0 }}
	*{{cite book\|last=Wilkinson\|first=R. H.\|year=2000\|title=The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt\|location=London\|publisher=Thames and Hudson}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Wilkinson\|first=R.H.\|year=2003\|title=The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt\|location=London\|publisher=Thames and Hudson\|year=2003}}
	*{{cite journal\|first=Frank J.\|last=Yurco\|title=End of the Late Bronze Age and Other Crisis Periods: A Volcanic Cause\|journal=Gold of Praise: Studies on Ancient Egypt in Honor of Edward F. Wente, ed: Emily Teeter & John Larson\|journal=SAOC 58\|year=1999}}

	====Ptolemaic Egypt====
	*{{cite book \| last=Bowman \| first = Alan K \| title= Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 \| publisher=University of California Press \| location=Berkeley \| year=1996 \| edition=2nd ed. \| pages=25-26 \| isbn=0520205316}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Lloyd\|first=Alan Brian\|year=2000\|title=The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC) In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw\|location=Oxford and New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
	*{{cite book \| last=Stanwick \| first = Paul Edmond \| title= Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs \| publisher=University of Texas Press \| location=Austin \| year=2003 \| isbn=0292777728}}

	====Roman Egypt====
	*{{cite book\|author=Günther Hölbl(trans. Tina Saavedra)\|year=2001\|title=A History of the Ptolemaic Empire\|location=London\|publisher=Routledge}}
	*{{cite book\|last=Peacock\|first=David\|year=2000\|title=The Roman Period (30 BC–AD 311). In The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw\|location=Oxford and New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press}}

	===Literature===
	*{{cite book\|last=Gardiner\|first=Alan\|title=Egypt of the Pharaohs\|location=Oxford\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1964}}
	*{{cite book \|last= Lichtheim \|first=Miriam\|title=Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol 1\|publisher=University of California Press\|year=1975\|location=London, England\|isbn=0-520-02899-6}}
	*{{cite book\|title=The Literature of Ancient Egypt\|author=Simpson\|others=Ritner, Tobin & Wente\|editor=Simpson, William Kelly\|publisher=Yale University Press\|year=2003\|location=New Haven & London}}

	===External links===
	* — maintained by the ], this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents
	* — provides a reliable general overview and further links
	*Ancient records of Egypt; historical documents from the earliest times to the Persian conquest. , , , , , by James Henry Breasted (1906) — A reference work on Egyptology.
	*
	*
	* Outstanding scholarly treatment with broad coverage and excellent cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.
	* A site that shows the history of egyptian ]
	{{Ancient Egypt}}

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	{{Link FA\|pt}}

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Revision as of 22:41, 20 November 2007

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ancient egypt!