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| '''Broadcasting''' is a method of transmitting ], ] or ] ]s (programs) to a number of recipients ("listeners" or "viewers") that belong to a large group. This group may be the public in general or a relatively large audience within the public in general. Thus an internet channel may distribute text or music world-wide, while a public address system in (say) a workplace may broadcast very limited ''ad hoc'' soundbites to a small population within its range. | |||
| Television and radio programs are distributed through ] broadcasting or ], often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having decoding equipment in the homes, the latter also enables subscription based channels and pay-per-view services. | |||
| A broadcasting organisation may broadcast several programs at the same time, through several channels (frequencies), for example ] 1 and 2. On the other hand, two or more organisations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day. | |||
| Broadcasting forms a segment of the ]. | |||
| == Business Models of Broadcasting == | |||
| There are several dominant ] models of broadcasting. Each differs in the method by which stations are funded: | |||
| * By individually donated time and energy | |||
| * By direct government payments | |||
| * By indirect government payments, such as radio and television licenses | |||
| * By grants from foundations or business entities | |||
| * By selling advertising or sponsorship | |||
| * By public subscription | |||
| Broadcasters may rely on a combination of these ]s. For example, ], a non-commercial network within the ], receives grants from the ], which in turn receives funding from the U.S. government; by public subscription; and by selling "extended credits" to corporations. | |||
| == History of Broadcasting == | |||
| === Beginning to the Second World War === | |||
| ==== United States ==== | |||
| In the ], the first broadcast station, KDKA in ], ], began in ]. The technology became very popular, and many cities, churches, schools, and businesses started their own broadcast stations. | |||
| The ] began regular broadcasting in ], with telephone links between ] and other Eastern cities. NBC became the dominant radio network, splitting into Red and Blue networks. | |||
| The ] began in ] under the guidance of ]. | |||
| Several independent stations formed the ] to exchange syndicated programming, including ] and ]. | |||
| ==== Britain ==== | |||
| The first experimental broadcasts, from ] factory in ], began in ]. | |||
| Two years later, a consortium of radio manufacturers formed the ] (BBC). This broadcast until its licence expired at the end of ]. The company then became the British Broadcasting Corporation, a non-commercial organisation. Its governors are appointed by the government but do not answer to it. | |||
| Lord ] took a formative role in developing the BBC, especially in radio. Working as its first manager and Director-General, he promoted the philosophy of '']'', firmly grounded in the moral benefits of ] and of uplifting ], eschewing ] influence and maintaining a maximum of independence from political control. | |||
| Commercial stations such as ] and ] broadcast into | |||
| the UK from other European countries. This provided a very popular alternative to the rather austere BBC. These stations were closed during the War, and only Radio Luxembourg returned afterward. | |||
| BBC television broadcasts in Britain began in ], and continued until ] conditions closed the ] in ]. | |||
| ==== Germany ==== | |||
| Before the ] assumption of power in ], ] radio broadcasting was supervised by the Post Office. A listening fee of 2 ] per receiver paid most subsidies. | |||
| Immediately following ] assumption of power, ] became head of the Ministry for ] and Public Englightenment. Non-Nazis were removed from broadcasting and editorial positions. ] were fired from all positions. | |||
| The ] programming began to decline in popularity as the theme of <i>Kampfzeit</i> was continually played. Germany was easily served by a number of European mediumwave stations, including the BBC and domestic stations in France, the Low Countries, Denmark and Sweden, and Poland. It became illegal for Germans to listen to foreign broadcasts. (Foreign correspondents and key officials were exempt from this rule). | |||
| During the war, German stations broadcast not only war propaganda and entertainment for German forces dispersed through Europe and the ], but provided air raid alerts. | |||
| Germany experimented with television broadcasting before the Second World War, using a ] beginning before ]. German propaganda claimed the system was superior to the Britsh ], but this was subject to debate by persons who saw the broadcasts. | |||
| A Federal antitrust decision in ] required ] to divest itself of its ]. This network became the ] (ABC). | |||
| === The 1950s and 1960s === | |||
| ==== United States ==== | |||
| ] began to replace ] as the chief source of revenue for broadcasting networks. Although many radio programs continued through this decade, including ] and ], by 1960 networks had ceased producing entertainment programs. | |||
| As radio stopped producing formal fifteen-minute to hourly programs, a new format developed. "]" was based on a continuous rotation of short pop songs presented by a "disc jockey." Famous ]s in the era included ], ], ] and ]. Top 40 playlists were theoretically based on record sales; however, record companies began to bribe disc jockeys to play selected artists, in what was called ]. | |||
| In the 1960s, American television networks introduced broadcasts in color. | |||
| ==== Britain ==== | |||
| Radio Luxembourg remained popular during the ] but saw its audience decline as commercial television and pirate radio, combined with a switch to a less clear frequency, began to erode its influence. | |||
| BBC television resumed in 1946, and commercial television began in 1955. Both used the pre-war 405-line standard. | |||
| BBC2 came on the air in 1964, using the 625-line standard, and began colour transmissions in 1967. The two older networks transmitted in 625-line colour from 1969. | |||
| During the 1960s there was still no UK-based commercial radio. A number of 'pirate' radio ships, located in international waters just outside the jurisdiction of English law, came on the air between 1964 and 1967. The most famous of these was ], which was the only station to continue broadcasting after the offshore pirates were effectively outlawed in August 1967. It was finally forced off air due to a dispute over tendering payments, but returned in 1972 and continued on and off until 1989. The station still broadcasts, nowadays using satellite carriers and internet. | |||
| ==== Germany ==== | |||
| When the ] was organized in ], its Enabling Act established strong state government powers. Broadcasting was organized on a state, rather than a national, basis. Nine regional radio networks were established. A technical coordinating organization, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft der offentlich-rechlicten Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD), came into being in ] to lessen technical conflicts. | |||
| The Allied forces in Europe developed their own radio networks, including the U.S. Armed Forces Network. Inside Berlin, Radio in the American Sector (RIAS) became a key source of news in the German Democratic Republic. | |||
| Germany began developing a network of VHF FM broadcast stations in ] because of the excessive crowding of the mediumwave and shortwave broadcast bands. | |||
| === The 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s === | |||
| ==== United States ==== | |||
| The introduction of ] changed the listening habits of younger Americans. Many stations such as WNEW in New York City began to play whole sides of record albums, as opposed to the "Top 40" model of two decades earlier. | |||
| In the 1980s, the ], under Reagan Administration and Congressional pressure, changed the rules limiting the number of radio and television stations a business entity could own in one metropolitan area. This ] led to several groups, such as ] and ] to buy many stations in major cities. The cost of these stations' purchases led to a conservative approach to broadcasting, including limited playlists and avoiding controversial subjects to not offend listeners, and increased commercials to increase revenue. | |||
| ==== Britain ==== | |||
| A new Pirate station, Swiss-owned Radio Nordsee International, broadcast to Britain and the Netherlands from 1970 until outlawed by Dutch legislation in 1974 (which meant it could no longer be supplied from the European mainland). The English service was heavily jammed by both Labour and Conservative Governments in 1970 amid suggestions that the ship was actually being used for espionage. Radio Caroline returned in 1972 and continued until its ship sank in 1980 (the crew were rescued). A Belgian station, Radio Atlantis, operated an English service for a few months before the Dutch act came into force in 1974. | |||
| Land-based commercial radio finally came on air in 1973 with London's ] and ]. | |||
| ] television started in 1982. Britain's UHF system was originally designed to carry only four networks. | |||
| Pirate radio enjoyed another brief resurgence with a literal re-launch of Radio Caroline in 1983, and the arrival of American-owned Laser 558 in 1985. Both stations were harassed by the British authorities; Laser closed in 1987 and Caroline in 1989, since when it has pursued legal methods of broadcasting, such as temporary FM licences and satellite. | |||
| Two rival satellite television systems came on the air at the end of the 1980s: ] and ]. Huge losses forced a rapid merger, although in many respects it was a takeover of BSB (Britain's official, Government-sanctioned satellite company) by Sky. | |||
| Radio Luxembourg launched a 24-hour English channel on satellite, but closed its AM service in 1989 and its satellite service in 1991. | |||
| ] went on air in 1997, using "spare" frequencies between the existing channels. | |||
| ==== Europe ==== | |||
| In ], stations in the ] began offering ], which provides written text information about programs that were being broadcast, as well as traffic alerts, accurate time, and other teletext services. | |||
| === The 2000s === | |||
| The 2000s saw the introduction of ] and direct broadcasting by satellite (DBS) in the USA. | |||
| Digital radio services, except in the United States, were allocated a new frequency band in the range of 1,400 MHz. In the United States, this band was deemed to be vital to national defense, so an alternate band in the range of 2,300 MHz was introduced for satellite broadcasting. Two American companies, ] and ], introduced DBS systems, which are funded by direct subscription, as in ]. The XM and Sirius systems provide approximately 100 channels each. | |||
| In addition, a consortium of companies received FCC approval for In-Band On-Channel digital broadcasts in the United States, which use the existing mediumwave and FM bands to provide CD-quality sound. | |||
| In ], the ] plans to move all Canadian broadcasting to the digital band and close all mediumwave and FM stations. | |||
| European and Australian stations have begun digital broadcasting (]). Digital radios began to be sold in the United Kingdom in 1998. | |||
| ==Broadcasting organizations== | |||
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| *]: RTL 4 and 5 | |||
| *]: SBS 6 | |||
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| *] Rood and Blauw (pay channels) | |||
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| ==External links== | |||
| * , a West-European TV guide | |||