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Turks
Türkler

Total population
c. 63.5 million
Regions with significant populations
Turkey	c. 57,000,000 (80% of total population)
Germany	2,600,000
Bulgaria	750,000
France	400,000
Netherlands	360,000
United Kingdom	300,000
TRNC	250,000
Austria	240,000
Uzbekistan	200,000
United States	200,000-500,000-
Belgium	230,000
Saudi Arabia	80,000-120,000
Australia	103,000 ± 33,000
Russia	92,415
Republic of Macedonia	77,959
Greece	74,000
Switzerland	60,000
Azerbaijan	50,000
Denmark	35,000-50,000
Sweden	40,000
Canada	38,000 ± 13,000
Romania	32,596
Serbia (Kosovo)	30,000 ± 20,000
Italy	11,077
Cyprus (South)	2.200
Liechtenstein	884
Languages
Turkish
Religion
Predominantly Muslim. Minorities of Christianity and Judaism, as well as Atheism. See Religion in Turkey.

The Turks (Turkish: Türkler), or the Turkish people (Türk Halkı), are a nation (Millet) defined mainly by a sense of sharing a common Turkish culture and having a Turkish first language, but also the overwhelming majority are citizens of Turkey, or children of citizens of Turkey.

In the Republic of Turkey, an early history text provided the definition of being a Turk as "any individual within the Republic of Turkey, whatever his faith, who speaks Turkish, grows up with Turkish culture and adopts the Turkish ideal, is a Turk." This ideal came from the beliefs of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In a historic context the word Turk or Turkish has also a wider meaning, because there are Turks in Balkans, Europe, Eurasia and Central Asia as well as America. Today, the word is primarily used for the inhabitants of Turkey, but may also refer to the members of sizeable Turkish-speaking populations in the Republic of Macedonia, Greece (in particular in Thrace), Kosovo (Serbia), Romania, Bulgaria, Cyprus and other lands of the former Ottoman Empire. Large Turkish communities have also been established in Western Europe (particularly in Germany), North America and Australia.

History

The name "Turk" first appeared in history in the 6th century in Central Asia. The Göktürks chose Ötüken, as a base and established khanates. The new state called the Göktürk Empire was founded at the foot of the Altai Mountains. Later they spread out and became an empire.

Throughout history, the Turks have established numerous states in various geographical regions on the continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. Turks brought their culture to the places to which they had migrated or invaded and were also affected by the existing cultures of these regions.

Anatolia, the landmass that is now Turkey, had been a cradle to a wide variety of civilizations and kingdoms in antiquity. Major civilizations that have settled in or invaded Anatolia include the Arabs, Assyrians, Celts, Cimmerians, Etruscans, Galatians, Goths,Hattians, Hittites, Greeks, Ionians, Lydians, Mongols, Pelasgians, Persians, Phrygians, Romans, Scythians, Trojans, Urartians, Byzantines, Seljuk Turks and Ottoman Turks

The Oğuz were the main Turkic people who moved into Anatolia after 1071. A lot of Turks began their migration following the victory of the Seljuks, led by Alp Arslan, against the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert and this paved the way for Turkish dominance in Anatolia. This also marked the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine empire. In the centuries after Manzikert, the relatively large number of Turkic immigrants began to replace minor local populations as their numbers grew.

Over time, as word spread regarding the victory of the Turks in Anatolia, more Turkic ghazis arrived from the Caucasus, Persia and Central Asia. These groups in turn merged with the local inhabitants as a slow process of conversion to Islam took place, thanks in large measure to the efforts of the sufis, that helped to bolster the Turkish-speaking population. Many Sufi orders sprang up and quickly became very popular by means of the numerous Sufi lodges throughout the region. Many people were attracted to this form of Islam (which incorporated local customs and rites) and as a result many people converted to the faith. Adoption of the Turkish language, culture and customs often followed conversion to Islam.

It is to be noted that the Ottoman Empire was erected by the Oghuz Turk ethicity in the beginning based at Söğüt, west region of Turkey. But there were many non-Turkic speaking Muslims in the Ottoman Empire particularly in Arab peninsula. Following the Balkan Wars and the Russian conquest of the Caucasus and annexation of Crimea, many Turkic speaking Muslims in the North Caucasus, Balkans and Crimea emigrated to the territory of present day Turkey. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire and formation of the Republic of Turkey, these various cultures and languages melded into one supra identity and culture. Therefore modern Turks constitute a melting pot of all Turks immigrated in different times of the history.

By the late 19th century, Turks were relatively evenly spread throughout Europe and the Balkans. But territorial losses in the Balkans sparked a large scale exodus from that region. This was finalized by a population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923.

Seljuk Turks

In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks established an enlightened, tolerant government in Central Anatolia that fostered a great culture. The Seljuks (Selçuklular) were a Turkish tribe from Central Asia. They poured into Persia (1037) and established their first powerful state, called by historians the Empire of the Great Seljuks. In 1071 this Seljuk force engaged the armies of the Byzantine emperor at Manzikert (Malazgirt) north of Lake Van, defeated them decisively, and captured Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes. With no Byzantine force to stop them, the Seljuk Turks flooded into Anatolia, taking control of most of Eastern and Central Anatolia. They established their capital at Konya around 1150 and ruled what would be known as the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum . Alanya, Erzurum and Sivas were other important Seljuk cities.

Ottoman era

Starting as a small warrior band raiding the Byzantine frontier, the Ottoman Turks built an empire from Morocco to Iran, from the deserts of Iraq and Arabia to the gates of Vienna. As the power of the Seljuk Turkish Sultanate of Rum weakened in the late 1200s, warrior chieftains claimed the lands of northwestern Anatolia bordering on the Byzantine Empire. Ertugrul Gazi (EHR-too-rool gah-zee) ruled the lands around Sögüt, a town between Bursa and Eskisehir. Upon his death in 1281 his son Osman, from whom the empire took its name, expanded the territory to 16,000 square kilometers.

Osman's son Orhan conquered Iznik (Nicaea) and took his armies across the Dardanelles and into Thrace and Europe by 1362. By 1452 the Ottomans controlled almost all of the former Byzantine lands except the great "Second Rome" of Constantinople. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror took the city and made it his capital, extinguishing the 1100-year-old Byzantine Empire forever.

The reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566) was the Ottoman golden age. The brilliance of the sultan's court and the might of his armies outshone those of England's Henry VIII, France's François I, and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. But after Süleyman, it was all downhill as a succession of more or less incompetent sultans depended upon their Grand Vezirs to run the empire.

The Ottoman sultanate lasted for over 600 years, but its last three centuries were marked by stagnation and decline. By the 1800s the Ottomans had fallen far behind the rest of Europe in science, technology, industry, education, commerce and military might. Reformist sultans such as Selim III (1789-1807) and Mahmut II (1808-1839) succeeded in pushing Ottoman bureaucracy, society and culture ahead, but not in curing all the empire's ills.

Ottoman culture has given us a splendid legacy of art, architecture and domestic refinement, as a visit to Istanbul's Topkapi Palace readily shows.

The Turkish Republic

The Turkish Republic was born from the disastrous World War I defeat of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman war hero Mustafa Kemal Pasha (later called Atatürk) fled Istanbul to Anatolia in 1919, he organized the remnants of the Ottoman army into an effective fighting force, and rallied the people to the nationalist cause. By 1923 the nationalist government had driven out the invading armies, abolished the Ottoman Empire, promulgated a republican constitution, and established Turkey's new capital in Ankara.

The new government carried out drastic reforms in order to bring medieval Ottoman society into the 20th century. Polygamy was abolished, women were granted equal status with men before the law (which included the right to vote), government and religion were separated, the Arabic alphabet was replaced with the Latin alphabet for written Turkish. The Fez and veil were outlawed, and European dress put in their place.

Geographic distribution

Turks primarily live in Turkey. Significant minorities of Turks live in neighboring Bulgaria (see Turks in Bulgaria), Cyprus (see Turkish Cypriots), the Western Thrace region of Greece, Republic of Macedonia, the Dobruja region of Romania and Kosovo (especially in Prizren).

Immigration in the 20th century has resulted in large Turkish communities in Germany, America and Australia. Sizable populations are (note that these are figures for Turkish nationals) also found in France (400,000), the Netherlands (350,000), the United Kingdom (300,000), Austria (250,000), Belgium (120,000)Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page)., Switzerland (80,000)Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page)., Sweden (40,000) Italy (11.077) and Liechtenstein (884).

In the United States, the largest Turkish communities are found in Paterson, New York City, Chicago, Miami, and Los Angeles.

Germany hosts 2/5 of the Turkish immigrants. It is followed by importance by the Benelux countries, France and Austria. Between 1961-1973 there was a big influx of Turkish men alone in Germany, which was followed by the arrival of their families up until 1981. Five years later, the same phenomenon took also place in the rest of the countries. 35% of the Turkish living in Germany live in North Rhineland-Westphalia. Berlin, with 136.400 Turkish hosts, by its own 5% of the Turkish immigrants in Europe.

The Turkish immigration to Europe rose from 1.988 million in 1985 to 3.034 in 1996. This increase is explained by the continuation of migration through marriages and by the high birth rate of Turkish population. This high rate has as a consequence that Turkish migrant population is very young (1/3 is under 18 years old). More than 80% of these young people have been born and schooled in Europe.

Culture

The culture of Turkey is a diverse one, derived from various elements of the Ottoman Empire, European, and the Islamic traditions.

Because of the different historical factors playing an important role in defining a Turkish identity, the culture of Turkey is an interesting combination of clear efforts to be "modern" and Western, alongside a desire to maintain traditional religious and historical values.

=== Language ===

The Turkish language is a member of the ancient Oghuz subdivision of Turkic languages, which in turn is a branch of the proposed Altaic language family. Turkish is for the most part, mutually intelligible with other Oghuz languages like Azeri, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, Turkmen and Urum, and to a lesser extent with other Turkic languages.

Modern Turkish differs greatly from the Ottoman Turkish language, the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire, which was influenced by Arabic and Persian. During the Ottoman period, the language was essentially a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic, differing considerably from the everyday language spoken by the empire's Turkish subjects, to the point that they had to hire arzıhâlcis (request-writers) to communicate with the state. After the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in early 20th century, many of the foreign borrowings in the language were replaced with Turkic equivalents in a language reform by the newly founded Turkish Language Association. Almost all government documents and literature from the Ottoman period and the early years of the Republic are thus unintelligible to today's Turkish-speaker without translation.

Historically, there were many dialects of Turkish that were spoken throughout Anatolia and the Balkans that differed significantly from each other. After the proclamation of the Republic, the Istanbul dialect was adopted as the standard. There is no official effort to protect regional dialects, and some are currently under threat of disappearing as they face the standard language used in the media and educational system.

Music

Turkey is a country in western Asia and Southeast Europe and on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, and is a crossroads of cultures from across Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus and South and Central Asia. The music of Turkey includes elements of Central Asian folk music, Arabic, Persian classical music, ancient Greco-Roman music and modern European and American popular music. Turkey, rich in musical heritage, has developed this art in two areas, Turkish classical music (similar to Greco- Roman) and Turkish folk music (Similar to Central Asian). The biggest Turkish pop star of the 20th century was probably Sezen Aksu, known for overseeing the Turkish contribution to the Eurovision Song Contest and was known for her light pop music.

European classical composers in the 18th century were fascinated by Turkish music, particularly the strong role given to the brass and percussion instruments in Ottoman Janissary bands called Mehter who were the fist marching military band in History. Joseph Haydn wrote his Military Symphony to include Turkish instruments, as well as some of his operas. Turkish instruments were also included in Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony Number 9. Mozart wrote the "Ronda alla turca" in his Sonata in A major and also used Turkish themes in his operas. Although this Turkish influence was a fad, it introduced the cymbals, bass drum, and bells into the symphony orchestra, where they remain. For details, see Turkish music (style).

Jazz musician Dave Brubeck wrote his "Blue Rondo á la Turk" as a tribute to Mozart and Turkish music.

Turkish pop music boasts numerous mainstream artists with large followings since the 1960s like Ajda Pekkan and Sezen Aksu, and younger pop stars like Sertab Erener, Tarkan, Serdar Ortac and Mustafa Sandal. Underground music and the genres of electronica, hip-hop, rap and dance music saw an increased demand and activity following the 1990s.

Turkish rock music, sometimes referred to as Anatolian rock, initiated during the 1960s by individuals like Cem Karaca, Barış Manço, and Erkin Koray, has seen wide-range success and has grown a considerable fan base. A few of the more mainstream Turkish rock bands include Mor ve Ötesi, Duman, and maNga. Individual rock performers like Şebnem Ferah, Özlem Tekin, Teoman and Emre Aydın have substantial fan-bases. Turkey also boasts numerous large-scale rock festivals and events. Annually held rock festivals include Barışarock, Rock'n Coke, during many of which internationally renowned bands / artists frequently take the stage together with Turkish artists.

In 2003, a Turkish singer Sertab Erener won the Eurovision Song Contest with her song Everyway That I Can.

Literature

The history of Turkish literature is traced back to Orkhon inscriptions. Most of the Turkish literature before the adaptation of Islam was verbal literature. With the adaptation of Islam, Turks were influenced with Persian culture and they developed literature using the Persian structures, such as mesnevi, gazel etc. With the 19th century and tanzimat period, artists began to use western structures. The republican period is dominated with western forms of literature.

The Ottoman Shadow Play

The Turkish tradition of shadow play called Karagöz and Hacivat was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by a classical Ottoman music ensemble. Some believe that the first Karagöz-Hacivat play was performed for sultan Selim I in Egypt after his conquest of the Memluks, but 17th century writer Evliya Çelebi stated that it had been performed in the Ottoman palace as early as the reign of Bayezid I. The traditon of Shadow plays are still famous today, mainly in Turkey, however is also used in celebrations throughout the Turkish diaspora

Poetry

Prose

The backgrounds of current novelists can be traced back to "Young Pens" (Genç Kalemler) journal in Ottoman period. Young Pens was published in Selanik under the Ömer Seyfettin, Ziya Gökalp ve Ali Canip Yontem. They covered the social and political concepts of their time with the nationalistic perspective. They became the core of a movement which will be called national literature.

With the declaration of republic, Turkish literature becomes interested in folkloric styles. This was also the first time the literature was escaping from the western influence and begin to mix western forms with others. During the 1930s Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu and Vedat Nedim Tor begin to publish KADRO. KADRO was revolutionary in its look at the life.

Orhan Pamuk is a Turkish novelist of post-modern literature. He is hugely popular in his homeland, but also with a growing readership around the globe. As one of Europe's most prominent novelists, his work has been translated into more than twenty languages. He is the recipient of major Turkish and international literary awards. His most recent novel is "Snow". Pamuk won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2006, with his melancholic point of view to various cultures in Istanbul. However, a big debate is going on in Turkey about Pamuk winning; many Turks think that he won the prize because of his political ideas.

Religion

The vast majority of Turks are, at least in a nominal sense, Muslim. The most popular sect is Hanafite school of the Sunni Islam, which was the type that was officially espoused by the Ottoman Empire. There are also however, a significant number who adhere to Alevi sect of Shia Islam (estimated at 15-20%, though some reports indicate 10%). Historically Sufism has been a significant influence on Turkish culture (notably the Mevlevi and Nakshbandi orders) and played a large role in the conversion of Turks to Islam. Secularization and other political influences mean that religious identity may be based more on cultural tradition and heritage more than actual belief in religious dogma. Nevertheless, many Turks today increasingly acknowledge Islam's tremendous role in shaping Turkish history and society.

There are also small groups adhering to Christianity- although they are primarily Eastern Orthodox, there are Roman Catholics and Protestants as well.

Symbols

The most widely used symbol by Turkish people is the crescent moon and a star, the crescent and star, while generally regarded as Islamic symbols today, have long been used in Asia Minor and by the ancient Turks, earlier than the advent of Islam. According to archaeological excavations, Göktürks used the crescent and star figure on their coins. The 1500-year-old coin includes three crescent moon figures and a star near a person. The Turkish flag is also widely used by the Turkish Cypriot community in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Turkish phenotypes and diversity

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Template:Rewrite-section Template:Totallydisputed-section The Turks of Turkey can be broken down into a variety of segments and the majority of self-identifying Turks include four main groupings: Balkan Turks who are mostly of Hunnic/Avar origin, Anatolian Turks who compose the Turks found in Anatolia, traces of many ancient civilizations including Celts, (see history section) Central Asian Turks (Oghuz Turks) who remain a sizable segment of the population that has been migrating to Turkey for the last millennium and Eurasian Turks (Kipchak Turks) that has been migrating to Turkey for the last two millenniums from Russia and the Caucasus such as the Kipchak Turks, Tatar Turks and Azerbaijani Turks who have more recent ties with Caucasian Turkic peoples. All These Turks share the same cultures and languages, although with slightly different dialects.

Possible genetic links

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The question to what extent a gene flow from Central Asia to Anatolia has contributed to the current gene pool of the Turkish people, and what the role is in this of the 11th century invasion by Oghuz Turks, has been the subject of several studies. A factor that makes it difficult to give reliable estimates, is the problem of distinguishing between the effects of different migratory episodes, some of which may already have taken place in prehistoric times, and some of which may be of later dates.

Per Chinese records, Kirghiz Turks were the last Turks left ancient Mongolia due to massive Mongol settlement from east 600 A.D. Kirghiz Turks possessed lighter hair color(including reddish), lighter eye colors and they were taller in height and strong people.. According to a 10 years long worldwide research, performed by National Geographic's Genographic Project, with thousands of samples; this worldwide research(data used by University of Illinois) revealed that as much as 75%(subgroups of Central Asian haplogroup K) of Turks in Turkey have varying degrees of Central Asian ancestry. The rest 25%(subgroups of middle Eastern haplogroup J)of Turks in Turkey have middle-eastern ancestry. Like most of the Europeans, Asians including Indians and native Americans, most Turks in Turkey share the same Central Asian ancestry. . Today a great number of Turks share the M9 haplogroup which was originated in Central Asia. Genetic studies performed in across modern Turkey have demonstrated the majority of Central Asian origins. From the latest genetical findings of Dr. Spencer Wells, ancient or proto Turks(haplogroup K) are considered to be the origins of European and Asian race, which gives a very good reason of why Turks carry racial features of both races. According to an article by N. Al-Zahery et al., the potentially paraphyletic haplogroup K*-M9(xK2, O, P) occurs at a fairly high frequency among the modern population of Turkey and Turkestan(Central Asia). The results of genetic researches done on Turkey's population show that over 77% of today's Turkish people in Turkey belong to M9(K) haplogroup which originated in Central Asia over 35000 years ago. Per Genographic Project, a worldwide genetic research performed by Dr. Spencer Wells as the head of group of scientists at National Geographic, a Turk named Niyazov(Niyazoglu), living in Kazakhstan by Kirghizistan and Uzbekistan, was discovered to be the only person carrying the ancient people's exactly the same gene lived 40000 years ago who was the father to nearly 90% of the world population including Central Asians, Europeans, Euroasians, Eastern Asians(Chinese, etc.), South Asians (Indians, etc.) and Native Americans. Recent genetics research dated 2003 confirms the studies indicating that the Turkic peoples, originated from Central Asia and therefore are possibly related with Xiongnu. According to the study, Turkish Anatolian tribes may have some ancestors who originated in an area north of Mongolia at the end of the Xiongnu period (3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE), since modern Anatolian Turks appear to have some common genetic markers with the remains found at the Xiongnu period graves in Mongolia:

The researchers found that interbreeding between Europeans and Asians occurred much earlier than previously thought. They also found DNA sequences similar to those in present-day Turks, supporting the idea that most of the Turks originated in Central Asia. Interestingly, this paternal lineage has been, at least in part (6 of 7 STRs), found in a present-day Turkish individual (Henke et al. 2001). Moreover, the mtDNA (female linkeage) sequence shared by four of these paternal relatives (from graves 46, 52, 54, and 57) were also found in a Turkish individuals (Comas et al. 1996), suggesting a possible Turkish origin of these ancient specimens. Two other individuals buried in the B sector (graves 61 and 90) were characterized by mtDNA sequences found in Turkish people (Calafell 1996; Richards et al. 2000).

Part of a series of articles on
Turkish people
People List of Turkish people
PopulationTraditional Areas of Turkish Settlement Turkish majorities: Turkey Northern Cyprus Turkish minorities in the Balkans: Bosnia Bulgaria Croatia Greece Kosovo Montenegro North Macedonia Romania Serbia Turkish minorities in the Caucasus: Azerbaijan Georgia (Abkhazia and Meskhetia) Turkish minorities in the Levant: Iraq Israel Jordan Lebanon Syria Turkish minorities in North Africa: Algeria Egypt Libya Tunisia Other Turkish minorities: Hungary Saudi Arabia Yemen Modern Turkish diasporas Turkish diasporas in Europe: Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Ireland Italy Liechtenstein Netherlands Norway Poland Russia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Turkish diasporas in the Americas: Canada Mexico United States Turkish diasporas in Central Asia: Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Turkish diasporas in Oceania: Australia New Zealand Other Turkish diasporas: Japan Kuwait Pakistan Qatar South Africa United Arab Emirates
History Prehistory of Anatolia Prehistory of Eastern Thrace Classical Anatolia Byzantine Anatolia The Seljuqs Anatolian beyliks Ottoman Empire Republic of Turkey
Culture Architecture Art Carpets Cinema Cuisine Culture of the Ottoman Empire Dance Festivals Folklore Literature Miniature Music Nazar boncuğu Public holidays Shadow plays Sports Theatre
Languages Turkish Cypriot Turkish Ottoman Turkish Karamanli Turkish Old Anatolian Turkish Oghuz Turkic & Altaic
Religion Atatürk's Reforms Secularism Freedom of religion Presidency of Religious Affairs Islam (Mosques) Christianity Judaism Bahá'í Faith
v t e

See also

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References and notes

1. "Country Overview of Turkey". Women's Learning Partnership. 2007. Retrieved November 16, 2007.
2. DeutscheWelle - New rules for Muslims in German state
3. ^ Citation needed.
4. 2005 (see Demographics of the Netherlands)
5. ATCA news:National census held on 01/05/06 records a population of 264,172
7. Ethnologue report for Uzbekistan
8. 2000 US Census - Ancestry report
9. Turkish Forum - Turkish Americans
10. A brief history of the Turks in United States
11. Gerald Robbins. Fostering an Islamic Reformation. American Outlook, Spring 2002 issue.
12. 2001 Australian census - Ancestry report
13. Australian Turks wait anxiously for earthquake news
14. 2002 Russian census - Nationality report
15. 2002 Macedonian census
16. Athens Panteion University announcement (2002) - latest (2001) census, Greek citizens of Turkish origin; the Muslim minority of Thrace, consists of 114.000 people (including Rom and Pomaks)
17. Statistik Schweiz - Wohnbevölkerung nach Nationalität (2000)
18. 1999 Azerbaijani census
19. Danmarks Statistik
20. interbib.se
21. 2001 Canadian census - Ancestry report
22. Federation of Canadian Turkish Associations - representing 50,000 Turkish Canadians
23. Beginner's guide to the Balkans
24. Minority Within a Minority-- For Ethnic Turks, Serbian War is Another Chapter in a 600 Year Old Story
25. Statistiche demografiche ISTAT
26. Liechtenstein - Turkey
27. Turkey - The Factbook
28. van Schendel, Willem (2001). Identity Politics in Central Asia and the Muslim World. I.B. Tauris. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
29. Note: the Serbian province of Kosovo is under UN administration since the 1999 Kosovo War.
    See also: United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK).
30. Encyclopædia Britannica Central Asia (The Middle Ages), History of the Turks Article
31. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05. Turks.
32. Lindsay, James E. (2005). Daily Life In The Medieval Islamic World. Greenwood Press. p. 59.
33. Encyclopædia Britannica, Oguz Article
34. Encyclopædia Britannica, Seljuq Article
35. Medieval Sourcebook, Anna Comnena, The Alexiad: Complete Text
36. Encyclopædia Britannica, Seljuq Article
37. Encyclopædia Britannica Battle of Manzikert Article
38. French Turks Cling To Homeland Traditions, Turks. US Daily News. October 25 2004
39. EU debate on Turkey talks continues. Turks. US Daily News. November 11 2004.
40. Sedat LAÇİNER. Armenian Diaspora in Britain and the Armenian Question. The Journal of Turkish Weekly. 26 May 2005.
41. Turkey begins membership talks with European Union. Pravda, 5 October 2005.
42. Demographics of Denmark.
43. Danmarks Statistik
44. interbib.se
45. Demographics of Sweden.
46. Statistiche demograpfiche ISTAT
47. Liechtenstein – Turkey: A comparison
48. Georg, S., Michalove, P.A., Manaster Ramer, A., Sidwell, P.J.: "Telling general linguists about Altaic", Journal of Linguistics 35 (1999): 65-98 Online abstract and link to free pdf
49. Altaic Family Tree
50. Linguistic Lineage for Turkish
51. Shankland, David (2003). The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-7007-1606-8.
52. Henri J. Barkey, Graham E. Fuller. Turkey's Kurdish Question pg.67
53. Keyser-Tracqui C., Crubezy E., Ludes B. Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analysis of a 2,000-year-old necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia American Journal of Human Genetics 2003 August; 73(2): 247–260.
54. The Gök Türk Empire All Empires
55. Nancy Touchette Ancient DNA Tells Tales from the Grave "Skeletons from the most recent graves also contained DNA sequences similar to those in people from present-day Turkey. This supports other studies indicating that Turkic tribes originated at least in part in Mongolia at the end of the Xiongnu period."
56. Christine Keyser-Tracqui, Eric Crubézy, and Bertrand Ludes. Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of a 2,000-Year-Old Necropolis in the Egyin Gol Valley of Mongolia American Journal of Human Genetics 73:247–260, 2003.
57. Nancy Touchette. Ancient DNA Tells Tales from the Grave, Genome News Network.

External links

• 55 milyon kişi 'etnik olarak' Türk
• Bosworth, Clifford E. The History of the Seljuq Turks: From the Jami al-Tawarikh.
• Findley, Carter Vaughn. The Turks in World History.
• Petkova, Lilia. The Ethnic Turks in Bulgaria: Social Integration and Impact on Bulgaria-Turkish Relations, 1947-2000.
• Shaw, George Stanford. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.
• Ethnologue report for the Turkish language
• DNA Diversity in Turkey
• Germany's Second Doubts Abouts its Turkish population
• Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in the Anatolian Peninsula (Turkey)
• Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia
• The NGM Study "Who were the Phoenicians" and the Return of the Phoenicians (includes links of modern Turks and some ties to the Ancient Phoenicians)
• Turkey: Country Studies from the US Library of Congress
• BBC News Country Profile for Turkey
• Cultural Exchange Programs in Turkey
• Council of Europe's Turkey Page

Template:Turkey-related topics

• Turkish people
• Turkic peoples
• Oghuz Turks
• Ethnic groups in Asia
• Ethnic groups in Europe
• Ethnic groups in Turkey
• Muslim communities