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Revision as of 16:48, 7 January 2008 view sourceIAF (talk | contribs)1,421 edits Undone. Sramana is a 500 BC tradition. Saiva, Ajivika, Jain PRACTICES could trace back to IVC (munis) or Sumer/Mesopotamia (Akkadians). Don't mistake it for continuity.← Previous edit Revision as of 18:11, 7 January 2008 view source Manish Modi (talk | contribs)466 editsm Sramana religon is far older than 500 BCE. Existed in Indian before the Vedic religion arrived hereNext edit →
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{{for|religious demographics of the Republic of India|Religion in India}} {{for|religious demographics of the Republic of India|Religion in India}}
] in ], ] attracts thousands of devotees.]] ] in ], ] attracts thousands of devotees.]]
'''Indian religions''' as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in ] or the ]. They are ], ], ], and ]. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "]". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences. '''Indian religions''' as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in ] or the ]. They are ], ], ], and ]. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "]". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences.
⚫ "Indian religions" is thus an umbrella term in the classification of the world's ], besides the ] and the ].<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., , ], 2007. Accessed: ], ]</ref>


Ancient India had two co-existent philosophical streams of thought, the ] religions and the (]) ]. <ref>Dr. Vilas Sangave (2001) In : Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture . Popular Prakashan: Mumbai ISBN 8171548393 – “Now it is generally accepted that Jainism is a distinct religion and that it is as old as, if not older than, the Vedic religion of the Hindus.” Page 14” </ref> <ref>Larson, Gerald James (1995) “India’s Agony over religion” SUNY Press, ISBN 079142412X “There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist traditions, possibly going back to the time of the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather tha being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. Page 27” </ref> Both streams have existed side by side in ], mutually influencing each other.<ref>Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120811046 “Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate their ideals of karma, Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. The social origins of these mendicants called Sramana or muni are not clear. They could have been connected with Harappan civilization, which itself is enigmatic. Page 135” </ref> ] and ] are a continuation of Shramana traditions.<ref>Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – “Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins. Page 141” </ref> Classical ] arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of this syncretism or cross-pollination of the two traditions, divided into numerous ], primarily ], ], ], ] besides much smaller groups like ], and more recent ] and ]. About 90% of Hindus reside in the ], accounting for 83% of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref>
⚫ The other major class of religions is the ] or Semitic religions. Other lesser known classes grouped by geographic categories are Middle Eastern religions, Far Eastern religions, African religions, American religions, Oceanic religions and classical religions of ancient Greece and Rome.<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., , ], 2007. Accessed: ], ]</ref>
] has its direct foundation in the ] of India, and thus has no known founder. It has various ]/], primarily ], ], ], ] besides much smaller groups like ], and more recent ] and ]. About 90% of Hindus reside in the ], accounting for 83% of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref>

] and ], both of which originated around the fifth and sixth centuries B.C<ref>''''</ref>, though like those of Saivite ascetics, their typical ] and austere practices like roaming naked, standing motionless etc. are traceable to the early Vedic age and even the Indus Valley civilization. <ref> Thomas McEvilley, ''The Shape of Ancient Thought : Comparitive studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies''</ref>. The term "shramana" is from the root shram, meaning "to exert oneself" or "to practice austerities," and refers to non-Indo-Brahmanical mendicant groups that began to appear in North India some time around the sixth century B.C.E., qualify as ] traditions, while ] is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. The Shramana faiths borrowed ideas from Vedic texts and Upanishads, but went on to emphasize ideas like non-violence, meditation, auesterity, etc. Buddhism was historically founded and ], but suffered a ] in its homeland. It remains more widespread in ].


On the other hand, ] is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and ], but suffered a ] in its homeland. It remains more widespread in ].
==Common traits== ==Common traits==
Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share certain key concepts which are interpreted differently by different concepts. <ref>]. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.</ref><!--- note that only parts of the preceding long sentence are supported by the listed references. user: Andries 16 Sept.2007--><ref>] "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."</ref><ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."</ref>Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of '']'' is of importance in all three traditions. {{Fact|date=January 2008}} In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref>c.f. ], s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref>All three traditions have notions of '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and various '']''. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Hindu, dharma is piety. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind. {{Fact|date=January 2008}}. Whereas, Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body. {{Fact|date=January 2008}} Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share certain key concepts which are interpreted differently by different concepts. <ref>]. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.</ref><!--- note that only parts of the preceding long sentence are supported by the listed references. user: Andries 16 Sept.2007--><ref>] "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."</ref><ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."</ref>Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of '']'' is of importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref>c.f. ], s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref>All three traditions have notions of '']'', '']'', '']'', '']'', and various '']''. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Hindu, dharma is piety. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind. <ref>"yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana </ref>. Whereas, Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.


== History == == History ==


{{seealso|Religious thinkers of India|history of Hinduism|history of Buddhism|Jainism|history of Yoga}} {{seealso|Religious thinkers of India|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism|Jainism|History of Yoga}}


===Prehistory=== ===Prehistory===
] showing a "]" figure in sitting in what is reminiscent of the ] posture (roughly 2000 BC).]] ] showing a "]" figure in sitting in what is reminiscent of the ] posture (roughly 2000 BC).]]
Evidence attesting to ] in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered ] rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. ] pastoralists inhabiting the ] Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.<ref name="Heehs_2002_39">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=39}}.</ref> Other ] sites, such as the ] in central ] and the ] of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Indians made 'rock music' |publisher=] |date=] ] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> The ]n people of the ], which lasted from 3300–1700 BCE and was centered around the ] and ] river valleys, may have worshiped an important ] symbolising fertility.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=90}}.</ref> Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A '']-]'' of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found. Evidence attesting to ] in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered ] rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. ] pastoralists inhabiting the ] Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.<ref name="Heehs_2002_39">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=39}}.</ref> Other ] sites, such as the ] in central ] and the ] of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Indians made 'rock music' |publisher=] |date=] ] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> The ]n people of the ], which lasted from 3300–1700 BCE and was centered around the ] and ] river valleys, may have worshiped an important ] symbolising fertility.<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=90}}.</ref> Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A '']-]'' of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found.

The Indus-Valley deity of Pashupatinath is very similar to the Hindu god, Shiva also known as the destroyer, which may also indicate the stretching of the Vedic origin to the IVC.


===Vedic religion=== ===Vedic religion===

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For religious demographics of the Republic of India, see Religion in India.
Statue of Jain deity Bahubali in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka attracts thousands of devotees.

Indian religions as the name suggests, are a category of religions that originated in India or the Indian subcontinent. They are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". These religions share similarities in core beliefs, mode of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences. "Indian religions" is thus an umbrella term in the classification of the world's major religious groups, besides the Abrahamic religions and the Far Eastern religions.

Ancient India had two co-existent philosophical streams of thought, the Shramana religions and the (Brahmanical) Vedic religion. Both streams have existed side by side in Iron Age India, mutually influencing each other. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of Shramana traditions. Classical Hinduism arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of this syncretism or cross-pollination of the two traditions, divided into numerous denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartha besides much smaller groups like Shrauta, and more recent Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.

On the other hand, Sikhism is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and spread from India, but suffered a decline in its homeland. It remains more widespread in East Asia.

Common traits

Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share certain key concepts which are interpreted differently by different concepts. Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.All three traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha, and various yogas. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Hindu, dharma is piety. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind. . Whereas, Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.

History

See also: Religious thinkers of India, History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, Jainism, and History of Yoga

Prehistory

File:Pashupati.gif
A Harappan seal excavated at Mohenjo Daro showing a "Pashupati" figure in sitting in what is reminiscent of the padma asana posture (roughly 2000 BC).

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which lasted from 3300–1700 BCE and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility. Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A linga-yoni of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found.

Vedic religion

Main article: historical Vedic religion

The root of Hinduism, and which lay the foundation of the belief systems of the Dharmic religions, the religious practices of Vedic times are followed nearly verbatim today by Hindus. However, the period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas and some Upanishads (essentially commentaries on the Vedas), which today are the canonical texts of Hinduism and are the source for much of the belief matrix of the Dharmic religions.

The Vedas reflect the liturgy of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age (Vedic period) Indo-Aryan ritualism in India. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rituals/rites and sacrifices. The Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) are also considered Vedic. Elements of Vedic religion reach back into Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC. Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:

Shramana

Main article: Shramana

Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition. 24th Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya(non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). The historical Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal.

Vedanta

Main article: Vedanta

Rise and spread of Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhism in India, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism, and Greco-Buddhism Further information: Mauryan period and Gupta period

Buddhism in India peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia. Indian Buddhism declined following the loss of royal patronage offered by the Kushan Empire and such kingdoms as Magadha and Kosala.

Rise of classical Hinduism

Main articles: decline of Buddhism in India, Hindu philosophy, and Pala Empire Further information: Puranas

After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition. Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.

Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued. Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.

Modern India

Main articles: Religion in India, Hindu reform movements, Hindutva, and Communalism (South Asia)

Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history. Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (punyabhumi), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.

Vedic ritualism and Vedanta

Main articles: Vedic Brahmanism, Shrauta, and Vedanta

Astika and Nastika philosophy

Further information: Astika, Hindu philosophy, and Buddhism and Hinduism
It has been suggested that Hinduism and Buddhism be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2007.

Astika and nastika are used to categorise religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central doer in this world, are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and doer in this world, are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view, the Vedic religion (aka Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are nastika religions.

Yet another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika, according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools; while Charvaka is classified as a nastika schools. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

All three religions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism agree that Buddhism and Jainism do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Despite a general doctrinal tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or Samanars in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.

Shramana traditions

Main articles: Shramana and Buddhism and Jainism

Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism Further information: Sikhism and Jainism and Sikhism and Hinduism
It has been suggested that Sikhism and Jainism be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2007.
It has been suggested that Sikhism and Hinduism be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2007.

Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive human gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world.

Notes

  1. Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5, 2007
  2. Dr. Vilas Sangave (2001) In : Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture . Popular Prakashan: Mumbai ISBN 8171548393 – “Now it is generally accepted that Jainism is a distinct religion and that it is as old as, if not older than, the Vedic religion of the Hindus.” Page 14”
  3. Larson, Gerald James (1995) “India’s Agony over religion” SUNY Press, ISBN 079142412X “There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist traditions, possibly going back to the time of the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather tha being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. Page 27”
  4. Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120811046 “Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate their ideals of karma, Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. The social origins of these mendicants called Sramana or muni are not clear. They could have been connected with Harappan civilization, which itself is enigmatic. Page 135”
  5. Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – “Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins. Page 141”
  6. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
  7. Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.
  8. Encarta encyclopedia "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."
  9. Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."
  10. c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
  11. "yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana
  12. Heehs 2002, p. 39 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
  13. "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 2007-08-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. Fowler 1997, p. 90 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFowler1997 (help).
  15. These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, instead, were concurrent streams of thought in ancient India. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
  16. Heehs 2002, p. 106 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
  17. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
  18. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. 227–249 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
  19. Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 55 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChatterjeeDatta1984 (help).
  20. "The rise of Buddhism and Jainism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. Symonds 1950, p. 74 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSymonds1950 (help).
  22. Ludden 1996, p. 253 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLudden1996 (help).

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