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| {{otheruses4|the form of society and political movement|information on Communist organizations|Communist party|states ruled by Communist parties|Communist states}} | |||
| :''Distinguish from ].'' | |||
| {{Communism}} | |||
| '''Communism''' is a ] structure that promotes the establishment of a ], ] ] based on ] of the ].{{Fact|date=January 2008}} It is usually considered a branch of the broader ] that draws on the various political and intellectual movements that trace their origins back to the work of ].{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Opponents say that communism is an ideology, whereas promoters say that it is the only political system without ideology, because it is the consequence of ] and the ] of the ].{{Fact|date=January 2008}} | |||
| {{cquote|The Communists... are on the one hand, practically, the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country, that section which pushes forward all others; on the other hand, theoretically, they have over the great mass of the proletariat the advantage of clearly understanding the lines of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement. | |||
| The immediate aim of the Communists is the same as that of all other proletarian parties: formation of the proletariat into a class, overthrow of the bourgeois ], conquest of political power by the proletariat. - Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto, 1848 | |||
| }} | |||
| Although many forms of communism, such as ], ] and ], are based on ] and Karl Marx is sometimes known as the "father of ]", non-Marxist versions of communism (such as ] and ]) also exist. | |||
| ==Background== | |||
| {{Refimprove|date=October 2007}} | |||
| ], ] showing two farmers forming the ], the most famous communist symbol.]] | |||
| Communism as a political goal is a form of future social organization, although ] have described early forms of human social organization as "]". Self-identified communists hold a variety of views, including ], ], ], ], ], ], and various currents of ]. However, the offshoots of the ] interpretations of ] are the most well-known of these and have been a driving force in ] during most of the 20th century. | |||
| ] held that society could not be transformed from the ] ] to the advanced communist mode of production all at once, but required a transitional period which Marx described as the ] ], the first stage of communism. The communist society Marx envisioned emerging from capitalism has never been implemented, and it remains theoretical; Marx, in fact, commented very little on what communist society would actually look like. However, the term "Communism", especially when it is ], is often used to refer to the political and economic ]s under ] that claimed to embody the dictatorship of the ]. | |||
| In the late 19th century, Marxist theories motivated ] across ], although their policies later developed along the lines of "]" capitalism, rather than overthrowing it. One exception was the ] faction of the ] headed by ], succeeded in taking control of the country after the toppling of the ] in the ]. In 1918, this party changed its name to the ], thus establishing the contemporary distinction between Communism and other trends of socialism. | |||
| After the success of the ] in ], many socialist parties in other countries became Communist parties, signaling varying degrees of allegiance to the new Communist Party of the Soviet Union. After ], Communists consolidated power in ], and in 1949, the ] (CPC) led by ] established the ], which would later follow its own ideological path of Communist development. Among the other countries in the ] that adopted a pro-Communist government at some point were ], ], ], ], ], and ]. By the early 1980s almost one-third of the world's population lived in ]s. | |||
| Communists themselves repudiate the usage of the term "communist state", as a communist society by their definition is a state-less society. The terms used by the communist movement to describe these states are either socialist states or 'people's democracies'. | |||
| Since the early 1970s, the term '']'' was used to refer to the policies of reformist Communist parties in western Europe, break with the tradition of uncritical and unconditional support of the Soviet Union. Such parties were politically active and electorally significant in ] (]), ] (]), and ] (]). | |||
| There is a history of ] ], which manifested itself in the ], the subsequent ], and the later period of ]. | |||
| With the decline of the Communist governments in Eastern Europe from the late 1980s and the ] on ], ], Communism's influence has decreased dramatically in Europe. However, around a quarter of the world's population still lives in Communist states, mostly in the ]. There are also communist movements in ] and ] that have significant popular support. However, even single-party Communist states like China and Vietnam have adopted capitalist economic mechanisms in certain limited ways, which some observers say is at odds with the original socialist ideals of communism. | |||
| ==Early communism== | |||
| {{Main|History of communism}} | |||
| Karl Marx saw ] as the original, ] state of humankind from which it arose. For Marx, only after humanity was capable of producing ], did private property develop. | |||
| In the history of Western thought, certain elements of the idea of a society based on common ownership of property can be traced back to ancient times .<ref>"Communism." ''Encarta Online''. 2006.</ref> Examples include the ] slave revolt in Rome.<ref>http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/spartacus.html</ref> | |||
| At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of ].<ref>"Communism." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> In the ] Christian church, for example, some ] communities and religious orders shared their land and other property. (See ] and ]) These groups often believed that concern with ] was a distraction from religious service to God and neighbor.<ref>"Communism." ''Encarta Online''. 2006.</ref> | |||
| Communist thought has also been traced back to the work of 16th century English writer ]. In his treatise '']'' (1516), More portrayed a society based on ] of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason.<ref>"Communism." ''Encarta Online''. 2006.</ref> In the 17th century, communist thought arguably surfaced again in England. In 17th century England, a ] religious group known as the ] advocated the abolition of private ownership of land.<ref>"Communism." ''Encarta Online''. 2006.</ref> ], in his 1895 ''Cromwell and Communism'' argued that several groupings in the ], especially the ] espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that ]'s attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile.<ref>Eduard Bernstein, (1895). ''Kommunistische und demokratisch-sozialistische Strömungen während der englischen Revolution'', J.H.W. Dietz, Stuttgart. {{OCLC|36367345}} Sources available at </ref> | |||
| Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the ] of the 18th century, through such thinkers as ] in France.<ref>"Communism." ''Encarta Online''. 2006.</ref> Later, following the upheaval of the ], communism emerged as a political doctrine.<ref> "Communism" ''A Dictionary of Sociology''. John Scott and Gordon Marshall. Oxford University Press 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.</ref> ], in particular, espoused the goals of common ownership of land and total economic and political equality among citizens.<ref>"Communism." ''Encarta Online''. 2006.</ref> | |||
| Various ] in the early 19th century founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis.<ref>"Communism." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> Notable among them were ], who founded ] in Indiana (1825), and ], whose followers organized other settlements in the United States such as ] (1841–47).<ref>"Communism." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> Later in the 19th century, Karl Marx described these social reformers as "]" to contrast them with his program of "]" (a term coined by ]). Other writers described by Marx as "utopian socialists" included ] and ]. | |||
| In its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th century Europe. (Encarta) As the ] advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the ] — a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions.<ref>"Communism." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> Foremost among these critics were the German philosopher Karl Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels.<ref>"Communism." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> In 1848 Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet '']''.<ref>"Communism." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> Engels, who lived in ], observed the organization of the ] movement (''see ]''), while Marx departed from his university comrades to meet the proletariat in France and Germany. | |||
| ==Emergence of modern communism== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| {{main|Marxism}} | |||
| ===Marxism=== | |||
| Like other socialists, Marx and Engels sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they perceived to be responsible for the exploitation of workers. But whereas earlier socialists often favored longer-term social reform, Marx and Engels believed that popular revolution was all but inevitable, and the only path to socialism. | |||
| According to the Marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is ]; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom.<ref>Stephen Whitefield. "Communism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> Marx here follows ] in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of restraints but as action with content. (McLean and McMillan, 2003) They believed that communism allowed people to do what they want, but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to exploit, or have any need to. Whereas for Hegel the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for Marx, communism emerged from material forces, particularly the development of the ]. (McLean and McMillan, 2003) | |||
| Marxism holds that a process of ] and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the ] and the establishment of a ] in which private ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. Marx himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society. It is clear that it entails abundance in which there is little limit to the projects that humans may undertake. In the popular slogan that was adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which each gave according to their abilities, and received according to their needs.' '']'' (1845) was one of Marx's few writings to elaborate on the communist future: <br> <br> | |||
| <blockquote>"In communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic."<ref>Karl Marx, (1845). '']'', Marx-Engels Institute, Moscow. ISBN 978-1-57392-258-6. Sources available at </ref> | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| Marx's lasting vision was to add this vision to a theory of how society was moving in a law-governed way toward communism, and, with some tension, a political theory that explained why revolutionary activity was required to bring it about. (McLean and McMillan, 2003) | |||
| In the late 19th century the terms "socialism" and "communism" were often used interchangeably. (Encarta) However, Marx and Engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through a "first phase" in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences remaining. The "first phase" would eventually give way to a "higher phase" in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Lenin frequently used the term "socialism" to refer to Marx and Engels' supposed "first phase" of communism and used the term "communism" interchangeably with Marx and Engels' "higher phase" of communism.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} | |||
| These later aspects, particularly as developed by Lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing features of 20th century Communist parties. Later writers such as ] and ] modified Marx's vision by allotting a central place to the state in the development of such societies, by arguing for a prolonged transition period of socialism prior to the attainment of full communism. | |||
| ===Other currents=== | |||
| Some of Marx's contemporaries espoused similar ideas, but differed in their views of how to reach to a classless society. Following the split between those associated with Marx and ] at the ], the anarchists formed the ].<ref>Marshall, Peter. "Demanding the Impossible - A History of Anarchism" p. 9. Fontana Press, London, 1993 ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1</ref> Anarchists argued that capitalism and the state were inseparable and that one could not be abolished without the other. ] such as ] theorized an immediate transition to one society with no classes. ] became one of the dominant forms of anarchist organization, arguing that labor unions, as opposed to Communist parties, are the organizations that can change society. Consequently, many anarchists have been in opposition to Marxist communism to this day. | |||
| ==Growth of modern communism== | |||
| {{main|Leninism}} | |||
| ] following his return to ]]] | |||
| In the late 19th century Russian Marxism developed a distinct character. The first major figure of Russian Marxism was ]. Underlying the work of Plekhanov was the assumption that Russia, less urbanized and industrialized than Western Europe, had many years to go before society would be ready for proletarian revolution could occur, and a transitional period of a bourgeois democratic regime would be required to replace ]ism with a socialist and later communist society. (EB) | |||
| In Russia, the 1917 October Revolution was the first time any party with an avowedly Marxist orientation, in this case the ], seized state power. The assumption of state power by the Bolsheviks generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate ] and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois capitalism. <ref>Marc Edelman, "Late Marx and the Russian road: Marx and the 'Peripheries of Capitalism'" - book reviews. ''Monthly Review'', Dec., 1984. </ref> Other socialists also believed that a Russian revolution could be the precursor of workers' revolutions in the West. | |||
| The moderate ]s opposed Lenin's Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Bolsheviks' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans "peace, bread, and land" and "All power to the Soviets", slogans which tapped the massive public desire for an end to Russian involvement in the ], the peasants' demand for ], and popular support for the ]. | |||
| The usage of the terms "communism" and "socialism" shifted after 1917, when the Bolsheviks changed their name to the Communist Party and installed a ] regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under ]. The ] had dissolved in 1916 over national divisions, as the separate national parties that composed it did not maintain a unified front against the ], instead generally supporting their respective nation's role. Lenin thus created the ] (Comintern) in 1919 and sent the ], which included ], to all European socialist parties willing to adhere. In France, for example, the majority of the ] socialist party split in 1921 to form the ] (French Section of the Communist International). Henceforth, the term "Communism" was applied to the objective of the parties founded under the umbrella of the Comintern. Their program called for the uniting of workers of the world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment of a ] as well as the development of a socialist economy. Ultimately, if their program held, there would develop a harmonious classless society, with the ]. | |||
| During the ] (1918-1922), the Bolsheviks ] all productive property and imposed a policy of '']'', which put factories and railroads under strict government control, collected and rationed food, and introduced some bourgeois management of industry. After three years of war and the 1921 ], Lenin declared the ] (NEP) in 1921, which was to give a "limited place for a limited time to capitalism." The NEP lasted until 1928, when ] achieved party leadership, and the introduction of the first Five Year Plan spelled the end of it. Following the Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks formed in 1922 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or ], from the former ]. | |||
| Following Lenin's democratic centralism, the Communist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base; they were made up only of elite ]s approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to ].<ref>]. "Communism" ''The Oxford Companion to World War II''. Ed. I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot. Oxford University Press, 2001.</ref> | |||
| The Soviet Union and other countries ruled by Communist parties are often described as ]s with ] economic bases.<ref>Scott and Marshall, 2005</ref> This usage indicates that they proclaim that they have realized part of the socialist program by abolishing the private control of the means of production and establishing state control over the economy; however, they do not declare themselves truly communist, as they have not established communal ownership of property. | |||
| ===Marxism-Leninism=== | |||
| {{main|Marxism-Leninism}} | |||
| Marxist-Leninism is a version of socialism, with some important modifications, adopted by the Soviet Union under Stalin. It shaped the Soviet Union and influenced Communist Parties worldwide. It was heralded as a possibility of building communism via a massive program of ] and ]. The rapid development of industry, and above all the victory of the Soviet Union in the Second World War, maintained that vision throughout the world, even around a decade following Stalin's death, when the party adopted a program in which it promised the establishment of communism within thirty years. | |||
| However, under Stalin's leadership, some{{Who|date=January 2008}} claimed that evidence emerged that dented faith in the possibility of achieving communism within the framework of the Soviet model. Later, growth declined, and ] and ] by state officials increased. | |||
| Under Stalin, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union adopted the theory of "]" and claimed that, due to the "]", it was possible, even necessary, to build socialism alone in one country, the USSR. | |||
| ====Maoism==== | |||
| {{main|Maoism}} | |||
| Maoism is the Marxist Leninist trend associated with ]. After the death of Stalin in 1953, the Soviet Union's new leader, ], denounced Stalin's crimes and his ]. He called for a return to the principles of Lenin, thus presaging some change in Communist methods. However, Khrushchev's reforms heightened ideological differences between the ] and the Soviet Union, which became increasingly apparent in the 1960s. As the ] in the international Communist movement turned toward open hostility, China portrayed itself as a leader of the underdeveloped world against the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. | |||
| Parties and groups that supported the ] (CPC) in their criticism against the new Soviet leadership proclaimed themselves as 'anti-revisionist' and denounced the CPSU and the parties aligned with it as ] "capitalist-roaders." The Sino-Soviet Split resulted in divisions amongst communist parties around the world. Notably, the ] sided with the People's Republic of China. Effectively, the CPC under Mao's leadership became the rallying forces of a parallel international Communist tendency. The ideology of CPC, Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought (generally referred to as 'Maoism'), was adopted by many of these groups. | |||
| After the death of Mao and the takeover of ], the international Maoist movement diverged. One sector accepted the new leadership in China, a second renounced the new leadership and reaffirmed their commitment to Mao's legacy, and a third renounced Maoism altogether and aligned with the ]. | |||
| ====Pro-Albanian Marxism-Leninism==== | |||
| Another variant of Marxism Leninism appeared after the ideological row between the Communist Party of China and the Party of Labour of Albania in 1978. The Albanians rallied a new separate international tendency. This tendency would demarcate itself by a strict defense of the legacy of Joseph Stalin and fierce criticism of virtually all other Communist groupings. The Albanians were able to win over a large share of the Maoists in ], most notably the ]. This tendency has occasionally been labeled as 'Hoxhaism' after the Albanian Communist leader ]. | |||
| After the fall of the Communist government in Albania, the pro-Albanian parties are grouped around an ] and the publication 'Unity and Struggle'. Another important institution for them is the biannual ], which was initiated in 1970s. | |||
| ===Trotskyism=== | |||
| {{main|Trotskyism}} | |||
| ] reading '']''.]] | |||
| Trotsky and his supporters organized into the '']'', and their platform became known as '']''. Stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the Soviet regime, and their attempts to remove Stalin from power resulted in Trotsky's exile from the Soviet Union in 1929. During Trotsky's exile, world communism fractured into two distinct branches: ] and ].{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Trotsky later founded the ], a Trotskyist rival to the Comintern, in 1938. | |||
| Trotskyist ideas have continually found a modest echo among political movements in some countries in ] and ], especially in ], ], ] and ]. Many Trotskyist organizations are also active in more stable, developed countries in ] and ]. Today, Trotskyists are organized in various international organizations and tendencies. | |||
| However, as a whole, Trotsky's theories and attitudes were never accepted in worldwide mainstream Communist circles after Trotsky's expulsion, either within or outside of the ]. This remained the case even after the ] and subsequent events critics claim exposed the fallibility of ]. Today there are areas of the world where Trotskyist movements are rather large. However, Trotskyist movements have never coalesced in a mass movement that has seized state power. | |||
| Some criticize Trotskyism as incapable of using concrete analysis on its theories, rather resorting to phrases and abstract notions. <ref>http://www.marx2mao.com/Other/OT73NB.html</ref><ref>http://home.flash.net/~comvoice/32cTrotskyism.html</ref><ref>http://www.etext.org/Politics/MIM/wim/wyl/</ref> | |||
| ==Cold War years== | |||
| ], a classic example of Cold War ].]] | |||
| By virtue of the Soviet Union's victory in the ] in 1945, the ] had occupied nations in both ] and ]; as a result, communism as a movement spread to many new countries. This expansion of communism both in Europe and Asia gave rise to a few different branches of its own, such as ]. | |||
| Communism had been vastly strengthened by the winning of many new nations into the sphere of Soviet influence and strength in Eastern Europe. Governments modeled on Soviet Communism took power with Soviet assistance in ], ], ], ], ] and ]. A Communist government was also created under ] in ], but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of ] from the ], which had replaced the ]. ], a new branch in the world communist movement, was labeled '']''. ] also became an independent Communist nation after World War II. | |||
| By 1950 the ] held all of ], thus controlling the most populous nation in the world. Other areas where rising Communist strength provoked dissension and in some cases led to actual fighting include the ], ], many nations of the ] and ], and, especially, ] (''see'' ]). With varying degrees of success, Communists attempted to unite with ] and ] forces against what they saw as ] ] in these poor countries. | |||
| ==After the collapse of the Soviet Union== | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1985, ] became leader of the Soviet Union and relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of ] (openness) and ] (restructuring). The Soviet Union did not intervene as ], ], ], ], ], and ] all abandoned Communist rule by 1990. In 1991, the Soviet Union itself dissolved. | |||
| By the beginning of the 21st century, states controlled by Communist parties under a single-party system include the ], ], ], ], and ]. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in many countries. President ] of ] is a member of the ], but the country is not run under single-party rule. In ], the ] is a partner in the ]-led government. In ], ], the national government relies on outside support from the communist parties and communists lead the governments of three ], with a combined population of more than 115 million. In ], communists hold a majority in the ]. | |||
| The People's Republic of China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy; and the People's Republic of China, Laos, Vietnam, and, to a far lesser degree, Cuba have reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. The People's Republic of China runs ]s dedicated to market-oriented enterprise, free from central government control. Several other communist states have also attempted to implement market-based reforms, including Vietnam. Officially, the leadership of the People's Republic of China refers to its policies as "]." | |||
| Theories within Marxism as to why communism in Eastern Europe was not achieved after socialist revolutions pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the transition press in its own interests. (Scott and Marshall, 2005) Marxist critics of the Soviet Union, most notably Trotsky, referred to the Soviet system, along with other Communist states, as "]" or "]s," arguing that the Soviet system fell far short of Marx's communist ideal and he claimed ] was politically dispossessed. The ruling stratum of the Soviet Union was held to be a bureaucratic ], but not a new ruling class, despite their political control. They called for a ] in the USSR and defended the country against ] restoration. Others, like ], advocated the theory of ], which asserts that the bureaucratic elite acted as a surrogate capitalist class in the heavily centralized and repressive political apparatus. | |||
| Non-Marxists, in contrast, have often applied the term to any society ruled by a Communist Party and to any party aspiring to create a society similar to such existing nation-states. In the social sciences, societies ruled by Communist Parties are distinct for their single party control and their socialist economic bases. While ] applied the concept of "]" to these societies, many social scientists identified possibilities for independent political activity within them, and stressed their continued evolution up to the point of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and its allies in Eastern Europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal|author=H. Gordon Skilling|date=April 1966|title=Interest Groups and Communist Politics|journal=World Politics|volume=18|issue=3|pages=435-451}}�UNIQ3ab34e171166e61b-HTMLCommentStrip7c7dfbc41ccbeb7000000002</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=]|year=1985|title=Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered: 1933-1938|publisher=Cambridge University Press|id=ISBN 978-0-521-33570-6}}</ref> | |||
| Today, Marxist revolutionaries are conducting armed insurgencies in ], ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| ==Criticism of communism== | |||
| {{Main|Criticisms of communism}} | |||
| A diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as: | |||
| * Soviet bloc dissidents ], ] and ]; | |||
| * Social theorists ], ], ], ], and ]; | |||
| * Economists ], ], and ]; | |||
| * Historians and social scientists ], ], ], and ]; | |||
| * ] ], ], ], ], ], and ]; | |||
| * Novelist and Philosopher ]; and | |||
| * Philosophers ] and ]. | |||
| Most{{Fact|date=October 2007}} of this criticism is on the policies adopted by one-party states ruled by Communist parties (known as "]s"). Critics are specially focused on their economic performance and ]. Some writers, such as Courtois, argue that the actions of Communist states were the inevitable (though sometimes unintentional) result of Marxist principles;<ref>], ], ], ], ], ], '']'', ], 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 978-0-674-07608-2</ref> thus, these authors present the events occurring in those countries, particularly under Stalin and Mao, as an argument against Marxism itself. Some critics were former Marxists, such as Wittfogel, who applied Marx's concept of "]" to Communist states such as the ], and Silone, Wright, Koestler (among other writers) who contributed essays to the book '']'' (the title refers not to the Christian God but to Marxism). | |||
| There have also been more direct ], such as criticisms of the ] or ]. Nevertheless, Communist parties outside of the ], such as the Communist parties in Western Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Africa, differed greatly. Thus a criticism that is applicable to one such party is not necessarily applicable to another. | |||
| Economic criticisms of communal property are described under ]. | |||
| ==Comparing ''Communism'' to ''communism''== | |||
| According to the 1996 third edition of '']'', ''communism'' and derived words are written with the ] ''c'' except when they refer to a political party of that name, a member of that party, or a government led by such a party, in which case the word is written "Communist" (with an ] ''C''). Thus, one may be a communist (an advocate of communism) without being a Communist (a member of a Communist Party or another similar organization). | |||
| Other sources{{Who|date=July 2007}} do not back up this claim in the change of the English language as few follow this rule in academic or scholarly sources.{{vague}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ===Schools of communism=== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ===Organizations and people=== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| *Forman, James D., "Communism from Marx's Manifesto to 20th Century Reality", New York, Watts. 1972. ISBN 978-0-531-02571-0 | |||
| *], Furet, Deborah Kan (Translator), "The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century", University of Chicago Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-226-27341-9 | |||
| *Daniels, Robert Vincent, "A Documentary History of Communism and the World: From Revolution to Collapse", University Press of New England, 1994, ISBN 978-0-87451-678-4 | |||
| *], ], "Communist Manifesto", (Mass Market Paperback - REPRINT), Signet Classics, 1998, ISBN 978-0-451-52710-3 | |||
| *Dirlik, Arif, "Origins of Chinese Communism", Oxford University Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0-19-505454-5 | |||
| *Beer, Max, "The General History of Socialism and Social Struggles Volumes 1 & 2", New York, Russel and Russel, Inc. 1957 | |||
| *Adami, Stefano, 'Communism', in Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies, ed. Gaetana Marrone - P.Puppa, Routledge, New York- London, 2006 | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Wikiquote|Communism}} | |||
| {{wiktionarypar|communism}} | |||
| * http://www.broadleft.org/ - Comprehensive list of the leftist parties of the world | |||
| * Includes the works of anarchist communists. | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * , a short etymological essay by ]. | |||
| {{Ideologies}} | |||
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